Psych 130 midterm

kwashikor

caused by an unbalanced diet very low in protein; disease usually strikes after weaning, between 1 and 3 years of age

meiosis

cell division process which halves the number of chromosomes normally present in body cells; creates gametes; diploid (2n) into haploid (1n)

conservation

certain physical characteristics of objects remain the same, even when their outward appearance changes

personal fable

certain that others are observing and thinking about them, teenagers develop an inflated opinion of their own importance - a feeling that they are special and unique

secular trends in physical growth

changes in body size from one generation to next

plasticity

changes in neural pathways and synapses due to changes in behavior, environment, neural processes, thinking, emotions, as well as changes resulting from bodily injury

dynamic systems perspective

child's mind, body, and physical and social worlds form an integrated system that guides mastery of new skills; system is dynamic, constantly in motion

make-believe play

children act out everyday and imaginary activities

cognitive-developmental theory

children actively construct knowledge as they manipulate and explore their world (Piaget)

how do children shape their own environment?

children contribute to their own development form early in life, and their contributions increase as they grow older ex. sociality older children and adolescents choose many environments, friends, and activities for themselves; their choices can exert a large impact on their future

private speech

children internalize new information through private speech

sociocultural theory

children learn through interaction with others best known theorist; vygotsky

psychoanalytic perspective

children move through a seies of stages in which they confront conflicts between biological drives and social expectations --

psychoanalytic theories

children move through a series of stages in which they confront conflicts between biological drives and social expectations

psychoanalytic perspective

children move through a series of stages in which they confront conflicts between biological drives and social expectations; how these conflicts are resolved determines the person's ability to learn, to get along with others, and to cope with anxiety

early childhood early childhood

from 2 years to 6 years body - longer leaner, motor skills are refined and children become more self-controlled and self-sufficient - make believe play blossoms

structured observations

investigator sets up laboratory situation that evokes the behavior of interest so that every participant has an equal opportunity to display the response

primary sexual characteristics

involve reproductive organs directly

temporal lobe

involved in memory, visual recognition, and the processing of emotion and auditory information

adaptation

involves building schemes through direct interaction with the environment

plasticity

is the ability of parts of the brain to take over functions they ordinarily would not serve decreases with age

amnion

membrane that encloses developing zygote in amniotic fluid, which helps keep the temperature of the prenatal world constant and provides a cushion against any jolts caused by the woman's movement

operations

mental representations of actions that obey logical rules

cognitive maps

mental representations of familiar large-scale spaces, such as neighborhood or school

expulsive

messy - personality related to parents weren't demanding enough

circles of bronfenbrenner's ecological model

microsystem (child) mesosystem (family, neighborhood, school, organized activities exosystem (workplace, media, extended family) macrosystem (government, culture)

proximodistal

midline to outward

early maturers (girls)

more anxious and depressed, less outgoing and popular

late maturers (boys)

more anxious, eager, attention seeking, feel more socially inadequate, have lower academic aspirations

sensitive period

more forgiving version of a critical period

motor development theory: dynamic systems (thelan)

motor skills are active reorganization (construction) of previously mastered capabilities that are undertaken to find more effective ways of exploring the environment or satisfying other objectives

eye tracking in infants

movement and edges are most salient to infants

what are the five stage for psychosexual development

oral - age 0-2 anal - age 2 - 3 phallic - age 3-7 latency - age 7 to 11 gential - age 11 to adult

hierarchical classification

organization of objects into classes and subclasses on the basis of similarities and differences

schemes

organized ways of making sense of experience

frontal lobe

organizes behavior and is responsible for planning

gene-environment correlation

our genes influence the environments to which we are exposed

incomplete dominance

pattern of inheritance in which both alleles are expressed in the phenotype, resulting in a combined trait, or one that is intermediate between the two

intermodal perception

perceiving running streams of light, sound, tactile, odor, and taste information as integrated wholes

shape constancy

perception of an object's shape as stable, despite changes in the shape projected on the retina

size constancy

perception of an object's size as the same, despite changes in the size of its retinal image

embryo

period from implantation through eighth week of pregnancy; six weeks of most rapid prenatal changes; groundwork is laid for all body structures and internal organs

fetus

period from ninth week to end of pregnancy; longest prenatal period; "growth and finishing" phase

what is the purpose of synaptogenesis?

period of overproduction followed by pruning. increases plasticity

placenta

permits food and oxygen to reach embryo and waste products to be carried away by bringing the mother's and the embryo's blood close together

velocity curve

plots the average amount of growth at each yearly interval, revealing the exact timing of growth spurts

distance curve

plots the average size of a sample of children at each age, indicating typical yearly progress toward maturity

what region of the brain is associated with impulse control?

prefrontal cortex continues to develop until late adolescence; immature impulse control "an engine without a skilled driver"

piaget stage 2

preoperational period (2-7): developmental of symbolic thought marked by irreversibility, decentration, and egocentrism.

albert bandura

social - learning behaviors are learned through observation and imitation - don't necessarily need punishments or rewards

what are the four levels of human development?

social learning cognitive ecological socio-cultural

what 2 forces converged to create the research-based approach?

social reform movements and charles darwins theory of evolution

neutral stimulus

something that is unrelated to the unconditioned response - -

developmental science

all changes we experience throughout the lifespan

bronfenbrenner's Ecological theory

all the surroundings and different systems can and DO impact how the children develop. Child is at the center the systems interact in complex ways.

genomic imprinting

alleles are imprinted, or chemically marked, so that one pair member (either the mother's or the father's) is activated, regardless of its makeup

child development

an area of study devoted to understanding constancy and change from conception through adolescense

teratogen

any environmental agent that causes damage during the prenatal period

Teratogens

any environmental agent that causes damage during the prenatal period Drugs Alcohol Tobacco Radiation Pollution Disease

teratogen

anything that can harm the fetus (virus, chemicals, drugs, radiation)

analogical problem solving

applying a solution strategy from one problem to other relevant problems

child development

area of study devoted to understanding constancy and change from conception through adolescence

plasticity

as open to change in response to influential experiences

carolyn rovee collier testing infant memory

assess baseline kicking. then tie mobile to 2-3 month old's ankle; takes a while for infant to realize that kicking does something. test to see if infant remembers kicking consequences

example of habituation in a fetus

at 32 weeks gestation, the fetus decreases responses to repeated stimulation

statistical learning capacity

by analyzing the speech stream for patterns - repeatedly occurring sequences of sounds - they acquire a stock of speech structures for which they will later learn meanings, long before babies start to talk around 12 months old

reflexes

inborn, automatic responses to a particular form of stimulation

developmental science

includes all changes we experience throughout the lifespan

william greenough's rats: enriched vs control environments

increased: learning on future tasks, synapse formation, dendritic spines (surface area), and neural growth

reinforced

increases behavior

violation of expectency

infant addition 1+1= 2 experiment - two dolls going behind the wall and when the wall moves only one is there -- or when you can see it moving the whole time and then it was gone. -- surpised by the impossible event new experiment - that instead of there just being a normal sized doll it was a doll that was as big as the two dolls combined they were not surprised "surprised" at continuous amount changes not discrete number

prereaching

infant reflex; newborn's coordinated swipes toward an object in front of them (~7 weeks of age)

smell

infant sense of smell draws them to their mothers infants are sensitive to the smell of breast milk

operant conditioning

infants act, or operate, on the environment, and stimuli that follow their behavior change the probability that the behavior will occur again

differentiation theory

infants actively search for invariant features of the environment (those that remain stable) in a constantly changing perceptual world

core knowledge perspective

infants begin life with innate, special-purpose knowledge systems referred to as core domains of thought; each of these "prewired" understandings permits a ready grasp of new, related information and therefore supports early, rapid development of certain aspects of cognition

pincer grasp

infants use thumb and index finger; well-coordinated (~1 year old)

amodal sensory properties

information that is not specific to a single modality but that overlaps two or more sensory systems

charles darwin's theory of evolution

inspired research in child development in order to gain insights into the nature of the human species

id

instinct driven; at birth

visual cliff: depth perception

interacts with reading social cues from parent ("social referencing") happy: 12 mo more likely to cross fear/anger: 12 mo less likely to cross the cliff

mental representation

internal depictions of information that the mind can manipulate

organization

internal process, apart from direct contact with the environment; once children form new schemes, they rearrange them, linking them with other schemes to create a strongly interconnected cognitive system

superego

internalized moral standards; emerges 3-6 yrs. old

piaget's stages are ____ and ______

invariant and universal

risks of prematurity

small, immature organs, immature CNS, less physical contact

cephalocaudal trend

"head to tail" embryonic development

oral stage

(0-1) needs are gratified orally (by sucking), fostering attachment to the mother

subitizing

A quick and effortless perceptual process that people can apply to small numbers Infants can do it with numbers 1-3 Even adults cannot subitize large numbers

proliferation

(1) overproduction of neurons

anal stage

(1-3) toddlers are told to control bladder and bowels, creating a conflict between biological urges and sociocultural demands

genital

(12 years and older) a period of sexual maturation in which psychosexual needs are directed toward heterosexual relationships

migration

(2) following chemical paths to its final destination

aggregation

(3) adhering to similar cells

phallic

(3-6) psychosexual energy form the genitals prompts desires for the opposite sex parent. fear of retaliation from the same sex parent causes children to identify with that parent and vicariously satisfy attraction to the opposite sex parent

differentiation

(4) specialization

synapse formation

(5) synaptogenesis; development of axons and dendrites - over produciton

apoptosis

(6) selective cell death and synapse elimination (pruning)

latency

(6-12) a "quiet time" in which psychosexual energy is channeled into socially acceptable activities such as schoolwork and play with same-sex parent

melination

(7) myelin covers neurons (speed)

operant conditioning

(skinner) avoid unfavorable outcomes and promote favorable ones

classical conditioning

(watson) no inborn tendencies, all paired associations - little albert

Neuron connections created by Synaptogenesis dying after 9 months old making your brain more efficient

Prunning

steps of the scientific method

1. formulate a research question 2. develop a hypothesis 3. test the hypothesis; make a prediction, design study, collect data, analyze data 4. draw conclusions 5. disseminate findings

three dimensions of developmental theories

1. nature vs nurture 2. actiity vs passivity 3. continuity vs discontinuity (quantitative vs qualitative)

what are the 5 key issues in human development

1. physical development 2. perceptual development 3. cognitive development 4. emotional development 5. social development

sensorimotor stage

0-2 years old; infants and toddlers "think" with their eyes, ears, hands, and other sensorimotor equipment, but cannot yet carry out many activities mentally (Piaget)

adolescence

11 TO 18 YEARS initiates the transition to adulthood - thought becomes abstract and idealistic

emerging adulthood

18 to 25 contemporary youths in industrialized nation and transition to adult roles have been incredibly prolonged exploration of options in love, career, personal values before making enduring commitments

William James

1842-1910 The baby, assailed by eyes, ears, nose, skin, and entrails at once, feels it all as one great blooming, buzzing confusion"

sigmund freud

1856 - 1939 the mind consists of three basic components: id- primitive instincts, completely unconscious ego - ration thought superego - ethics, morals , conscience constant state of conflict between the three components

schneider's experiment on prenatal stress

6 pregnant rhesus monkeys exposed to unpredictable noise 5X a week. Infants whose mothers were stressed and had high levels of cortisol, were more anxious, antisocial, low birth weight, etc.

middle childhood

6 to 11 years old lean about wider world and master new responsibilities -- improved athletic abilites - organized games with rules -- understanding the self, morality and friendship

concrete operational stage

7 to 11 years old; marks a major turning point in cognitive development; thought becomes far more logical, flexible, and organized

Erik Erikson

8 distinct stages of development each stage was defined by a conflict between a pair of opposing impulses or behaviors. The resolution - or not -- affects our personalities and identities

Piaget's Legacy

His findings still hold up today, but... Children often show competency earlier than he believed Other theories can help inform his findings E.g., Dynamic Systems Theory & A-not-B Error

embryo

Implantation - 8 weeks Most rapid period of growth Groundwork laid for all body structures and internal organs

Correlational designs

Measuring the relationship between two variables -- Variable X and Variable Y ex- number of books at home and the children's reading scores

cognitive change

Adaptation Assimilation Accomodation Equilibration / Disequilibration

Scaffolding

Adjusting the support offered during a teaching session to fit the child's current level of performance

Children with Anxiety

Anxious children have atypical responses to fearful faces Anxious Children have enlarged amygdala volume What is the relationship between anxiety, amygdala development and early life stress

A scale to measure the baby's health condition. stands for

Appearance Pulse Grimace Activity Respiration

Self-locomotion

At 8 months or so, infants begin to move themselves around in the environment. By 13-14 months they are walking.

Lev Vygotsky

Sociocultural Theory Perceived children as social beings intertwined with other people who were eager to help them learn and gain skills Emphasizes role of language and culture

Larger Developmental Patterns in the Brain

Brain development continues throughout childhood Development of larger brain areas correlates with corresponding advances in behavior and thought

fetus at 12 weeks

By 12 weeks, sex can be discerned and the baby practices many bodily functions ---- kicking, moving arms, forming fists, turning head, opening mouth, sucking thumb, stretching, yawning, changing positions Minor body structures in place - nails, tooth buds, eyelids

Sociocultural Principles of Cognitive Development

Children are social beings shaped by (and also shaping) their cultural contexts Children are both learners and teachers A uniquely human quality Enables us to pass on culture

Formal Operational (12 & up)

Can make mental manipulations without reliance upon present objects Abstract thought Stage not necessarily universal

Considerations of Experimental Designs

Careful operational definition of variables Avoid confounding variables Random assignment Ethical considerations

Jean Piaget

Children are motivated to explore their environments, which leads to cognitive change (learning). Believed in 4 primary stages of cognitive development Stage (NOT Age) drives development

results of monkey experiment

During baseline, prenatally stressed monkeys displayed greater non-social stress related anxious behaviors. both groups increased social contact during stress. during stress, prenatally stressed monkeys displayed greater social related anxious behaviors (prenatally stressed group displayed age inappropriate behavior)

genetic code

DNA duplicates itself through mitosis (chromosomes copy themselves) Genes: The segments on a DNA molecule that act as hereditary blueprints for the organism's development

Concrete Operational Thinking & Conservation

Decentered - consider multiple aspects of the problem Dynamic transformations - kids consider the action that changed objects Reversibility - realize that the process would be reversed and they would appear the same again

Principles of Teratogens

Dose- amount of exposure Heredity- genes influence reaction Other negative influences- effects can be cumulative Age -- more harmful during sensitive periods

The Brain & the Environment

Early exposure to a stressful environment resulted in long-lasting changes in brain structure & function The environment has a major impact on brain development

fetus - second trimester

During the second trimester, many organs and most brain cells are developed Lanugo (fine hair) covers skin, which is covered in vernix (white, protective substance) Fetus uses its senses to begin experiencing the world from inside the womb

fetus third trimester

During the third trimester, the fetus becomes viable (22-26 weeks at earliest) Important developments in brain and lungs that make life outside the womb possible Increasingly responsive to external stimuli

Fraternal twins are also known as

Dyzygotic

what are the observation design samplings and what are the two ones?

Event sampling - record all instances of a particular behavior during a specified time period Timesampling - record whether certain behaviors occur during a sample of short intervals

Cognitive

Focus on the development of thinking Children's active role in constructing their own thinking through interaction with the environment Best known theorist: Piaget

non-rapid-eye-movement (NREM) sleep

body almost motionless, and heart rate, breathing, and brain-wave activity are slow and even

Ethical Standards

Freedom from harm Exposure to experiences significantly different from their daily lives? Will there be lasting psychological effects? Informed consent Confidentiality Institutional Review Board (IRB)

Segment of DNA molecule that acts as the hereditary blueprints for development

Gene

Genetic code a person inherits

Genotype

Genotype v. Phenotype

Genotype -- The genetic code a person inherits Phenotype--- The observable trait a person shows, resulting in part from his or her inherited genotype

The reflex of closing your hand when something touches it

Grasping

American teens have

Higher rates of unprotected sex & sexually transmitted infections than American adults Higher teen pregnancy rate compared to their other countries

Hearing Preferences

Human voice over other sounds "Motherese"(Infant-Directed-Speech) Familiar voices (mom, dad) Own language

what are the time restrictions to be considered premature

born before 36 weeks gestation

intermodal perception

Infants are able to combine information from two or more senses. Very young infants link oral and visual experiences. Infants at about 4 months can integrate speaking sounds with a picture of lips moving.

hearing

Infants only minutes old will startle with a loud noise They will also turn their heads toward the source of a noise (audio localization)

rapid-eye-movement (REM) sleep

brain-wave activity, measured with EEG, remarkably similar to that of the waking state; eyes dart beneath lids, heart rate, blood pressure, and breathing uneven, and slight body movements occur

Experimental designs

Manipulation of an independent variable (IV) Measurement of a dependent variable (DV) ex: does the number of books at home impact children's reading?

Considerations of Correlational Designs

Measurements must be on a continuous, numerical scale Often relies on self-report Correlation does not equal causation Third variable problem Directionality problem

Process in which DNA duplicates itself

Mitosis

Idential twins are also known as

Monozygotic

autosomes

NOT sex chromosomes; pairs 1 through 22

Observational Designs - what are the two types and example --

Naturalistic observation Simply observing behavior as it naturally occurs ex: how often do perschoolers look at books? Structured observation A situation is set up to elicit the desired behavior to observe ex: marshmallow test

phylogenetics

the study of evolutionary relationships among biological entities - often species, individuals or genes

What affects pubertal timing?

Nutrition - Obesity can lead to early maturation Genes - Timing influenced by genes Stress - Severe stress can influence timing of maturation

what are the common designs of an experiment

Observational Neurobiological Correlational Experimental

The physical observeable traits from an inherited gene

Phenotype

constructivist approach

Piaget viewed children as discovering, or constructing, virtually all knowledge about their world through their own activity

Intuitive thought

Reasoning based on personal experience or intuitive logic. "Airplanes fly because they move their wings up and down like a bird"

Research Considerations

Reliability - consistency or repeatability of measures Inter-rater reliability Test-retest reliability Validity - accurately measure characteristics intended to measure Internal validity IV DV External validity Results can be generalized

The reflex of turning your face towards the stimulus that touches your cheek

Rooting

Sensorimotor Stage (0-2 years)

Sensory-motor as the basis of knowledge Skills and knowledge advance with advancing motor skills New skills build on reflexes

psychoanaytic

Sigmund freud; intrinsic drives and motives, qualitative stages, psychosexual in nature, irrational and unconscious, resolution of earlier stages affects later self.

The reflex of making stepping movemets when you're dragged along a surface

Stepping

Preoperational Stage (2-7) and congnitive characteristics

Strength in Symbolic Thought: Language Pretend Play More cognitive characteristics: Intuitive Thought Egocentrism Centration

The creation of new synapses on a baby's brain. Very rapid in early years, then stops at around 9 months as neurons start to die in Prunning

Synaptogenesis

Egocentrism and what are some demonstrations of this egocentrism

Tendency to consider the world entirely in terms of one's own point of view Cannot see the world from another person's perspective Figuratively AND literally The three-mountain task and Children's conversations

clinical, or case study, method

brings together a wide range of information on one child, including interviews, observations, test scores, and sometimes neurobiological measures

object permanence

the understanding that objects continue to exist when they are out of sight

Menarche

The first menstrual period for females, usually occurring around 12 to 13 years of age

Cultural Differences Surrounding Birth

The general biology of giving birth is the same for all human beings. The way that the birthing process is approached varies considerably across cultures.

guided participation

broader concept than scaffolding; refers to shared endeavors between more expert and less expert participants, without specifying the precise features of communication

Gene x Environment (GxE) Interaction

The interacting effects of genetics and the environment on the development of traits and characteristics

Zone of Proximal Development

The range between what children can do unsupported and what they can do with optimal social support -- if whatever iit is is too hard they will get lost and stop learning but if it is too easy they won't learn anything new and won't be challenged

Aspects of Development

There may be a disconnect between physical, cognitive and emotional maturity Pubertal timing - relative development (onset and rate) compared to same-age, same-gender peers

nerual tube

U-shaped groove formed from the top layer of differentiated cells in the embryo; eventually becomes the brain and the spinal cord

continuous development

age-related changes occur gradually; quantitative

puberty

Young people attain an adult-sized body and become capable of reproduction Development in both primary and secondary sexual characteristics Primary - involves reproductive organs directly Secondary - visible from the outside of the body and serve as signs of sexual maturity

palmar reflex

a baby grasps an object placed in the palm of its hand; precursor to voluntary grasping

sucking reflex

a baby sicks when an object is placed in its mouth; permits feeding

moro reflex

a baby throws its arms out and then inward in response to loud noise or when its head falls; may help a baby cling to its mother

stepping reflex

a baby who is held upright by an adult and is then moved forward begins to step rhythmically; precursor to voluntary walking

withdrawal reflex

a baby withdraws its foot when the sole is pricked with a pin; protects a baby from unpleasant stimulation

blink reflex

a baby's eyes close in response to bright light or loud noise; protects the eyes

babinski reflex

a baby's toes fan out when the sole of the foot is stroked from heel to toe; perhaps a remnant of evolution

brain plasticity

a highly plastic cerebral cortex, in which many areas are not yet committed to specific functions, has a high capacity for learning; if part of the cortex is damaged, other parts can take over the tasks it would have handled

why is Freud's so lasting?

a model f thinking of personality relationship between early experiences and later personality awareness of conscious v unconsconsciou made its way into out cultural consciousness

recovery

a new stimulus - a change in the environment - causes the habituation response to return to a high level (e.g., increase in interest in a new toy)

discontinuous

a process in which new ways of understanding and responding to the world emerge at specific times

continuous

a process of gradually adding more of the same types of skills that were there to begin with

continuous development

a process of gradually adding more of the same types of skills that were there to begin with --smooth and continuos

zone of proximal development (ZPD)

a range of tasks too difficult for the child to do alone but possible with the help of adults and more skilled peers (Vygotsky)

reticular formation

a structure in the brain stem that maintains alertness and consciousness

reversibility

ability to go through a series of steps in a problem and then mentally reverse direction, returning to the starting point

seriation

ability to order items along a quantitative dimension, such as length or weight

transitive inference

ability to seriate mentally

importance of self-supported sitting to visual development

able to use both hands; see an increase in rotating, fingering, and especially transferring toys

identical twins

accounting for about 1 in 250 births, thesea re created when a single egg is fertilized by on sperm the egg splits into halves. each develops into a fetus with the same genetic composition

validity

accuracy of measured characteristics

Validity

accurately measure characteristics intended to measure Internal validity IV ---> DV -- the iv forces or changes or causes the dv External validity Results can be generalized

cognitive developmental viewpoint (piaget's theory of cognitive development)

active explorers who create schemas. when they encounter disequilibrium, they assimilate or accommodate knowledge. follows an invariant sequence.

microgenetic design

adaptation of longitudinal approach that presents children with a novel task and follows their mastery over a series of closely spaced sessions; within this "microcosm" of development, researchers observe how change occurs

positive reinforcement

adding something to strengthen response

positive punishment

adding something to weaken response

scaffolding

adjusting the support offered during a teaching session to fit the child's current level of performance

propositional thought

adolescents' ability to evaluate the logic of propositions (verbal statements) without referring to real-world circumstances

imaginary audience

adolescents' belief that they are the focus of everyone else's attention and concern

advantages and disadvantages of eye tracking

advantages: requires no explicit response from subject, same dependent variable across different ages and populations disadvantages: difficult to achieve due to motion and calibration

theory theory

after children observe an event, they draw on innate concepts to explain, or theorize about, its cause; they then test their naive theory against experience, revising it when it cannot adequately account for new information

oral

age 0-2 infant seeks oral gratification by sucking, biting and babbing

gential

age 11 to adult with puberty sexual urges reappear, and the adolescent learns about mature relationship

anal

age 2-3 potty training helps toddles balance their needs for anal gratification with society's demand to be clean and neat

phallic

age 3 to 7 in early childhood an unconscious desire for the opposite-sex parent is controlled by identification with the same- sex parent

latency

age 7 to 11 sexual urges are repressed, and the child prefers same-sex companions

discontinuous development

age-related changes include occasional large shifts so that children of different ages seem qualitatively different

c-shaped development

axons and glia; brain develops in a c-shape

Campos/Adolph

baby is part of a dynamic system: motor development driving perceptual development. moving through the world teaches you things about depth

equilibriation

back-and-forth movement between equilibrium and disequilibrium (Piaget)

formal operational stage

begins around 11 years of age; develop the capacity for abstract, systematic, scientific thinking

Watson's learning

behaviorism; environmental determinism, influenced by Pavlov's work on classical conditioning

skeletal age

best estimate of a child's physical maturity; measure of the development of the bones of the body

bobo doll experiment

children watched adult either be mean or nice to the bobo doll - then watched what the kids did later with the doll - if kid saw a mean person then the kid acted mean and if the person was nice then the kid acted nice to it

private speech

children's self-directed speech

medieval times

clear awareness exsited if children as vulnerable beings

ulnar grasp

clumsy motion in which baby's fingers close against the palm (~4 months old)

sequential designs

combination of both longitudinal and cross-sectional

genetic counseling

communication process designed to help couples assess their chances of giving birth to a baby with a hereditary disorder and choose the best course of action in view of risks and family goals

kinship studies

compare the characteristics of family members

ethology

concerned with the adaptive, or survival, value of behavior and its evolutionary history

Behavioral theory

conclusions about human behavior should be based on observable behaviors; 1. classical conditioning (watson) 2. operant conditioning (skinner)

piaget stage 3

concrete operational periods (7-11): mental operations applied to concrete event; mastery of conservation, hierarchical classificaiton

what does it mean to say development is holistic

consider how everything works together to result in new psychological phenomenon: testing of wills social interaction attachment behaviors boldness and agency

reliability

consistency or repeatability of measures Inter-rater reliability Test-retest reliability

reliability

consistency, or repeatability, of measures of behavior

umbilical cord

contains one large vein that delivers blood loaded with nutrients and two arteries that remove waste products

intentional, or goal-directed, behavior

coordinating schemes deliberately to solve problems

evolution of the mammalian brain

cortex control behavior. last to develop phylogenetically and ontogenetically; c shaped development

accommodation

creating new schemes or adjusting old ones after noticing that our current way of thinking does not capture the environment completely

motor development theory: nurture

opportunities to exercise and practice motor skills are critical in developing these skills

nature-nurture controversy

debate over whether genetic or environmental factors are more important in influencing development

habituation

decrease in response to stimuli (boredom), then look for what causes dishabituation

punishment

decreases behavior

internal validity

degree to which conditions internal to the design of the study permit an accurate test of the researcher's hypothesis or question

external validity

degree to which finding generalize to settings and participants outside the original study

inhibitory control

delay of gratification task and go-nogo task + fMRI

selection

describes the more frequent survival and reproduction of organisms that are well adapted to their environment.

ethnography

descriptive, qualitative technique with aim of understanding a culture or distinct social group through participant observation

plasticity

development as open to change in response to influential experiences

epigenesis

development resulting from ongoing, bidirectional exchanges between heredity and all levels of the environment

behaviorism

directly observable events - stimuli and responses - are the appropriate focus of study (Watson)

Infant habituation core knowledge

discriminate 2 vs 3 experiment : two black boxes vs three black boxes -- but if you made the three boxes smaller to cover the same amount of space then they were not surprised discriminate continuous amount not discrete number

reasons fetus may be affected when mother remains unharmed

dose of medicine for a mother compared to a small fetus; mother is not undergoing organogenesis; placenta is not fullproof

visual acuity

drops rapidly in infants

why was freud revolutionary

drove field to recognize that unconscious motives can shape thoughts and behavior; early experiences

results of the experiment to thelan's theory of dynamic systems theory

during rapid weight gain, decreased number of steps. heavier infants stepped less. with artificial weights, stepped less. with weight loss (in water), stepped more. rate of stepping is limited by muscle strength and expression (phenotype) of behavioral capability was limited by external factors

when is a teratogen most effective

during the time of a given structure's rapid growth (sensitive period)

concrete operation (7-12)

enter concrete operational stage upon mastering the concept of conservation ex - water from tall and skinny , wide and short -- then they think the tall one had more -- spread out stuff of quarter was more than the smaller amount

why does genotype not equal phenotype

environment plays a role

social reform movements

established a legacy of research conducted for the benefit of children and provided some of the earliest descriptions of the adverse effects that harsh environments can have on child development.

superego

ethics, morals and conscience

Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale (NBAS)

evaluates baby's reflexes, muscle tone, state changes, responsiveness to physical and social stimuli, and other reactions

cooperative learning

small groups of classmates work toward common goals

what does hierarchical and self organizing change mean?

each change is dependent on the preceding series of changes

structured interview

each individual asked the same set of questions in the same way

early adversity -- orphanage experience

early adversity - lack of stable caregiving --> stress-induced changed in neurobiology (amygdala ) --> hyperactivity of amygdala, poor self-regulation in emotional arousing context (social) , altered social behavior

early maturers (girls) WHY

early developing girls are not as appealing to their underdeveloped male counterparts. tend to attract older boys who may draw them away from schoolwork. may be drawn to activities that they are not cognitively ready to handle

urie bronfenbrenner ecological and systems approach

ecological model; environment influences on child development are series of concentric circles. dynamic transactions between ever-changing individual in an ever-changing environment.

observer influence

effects of observer on the behavior studied

psychosocial theory

ego makes a positive contribution to development, acquiring attitudes and skills that make the individual an active, contributing member of society (Erikson); conflicts: basic trust versus mistrust, autonomy versus shame and doubt, initiative versus guilt, industry versus inferiority, identity versus role confusion, intimacy versus isolation, generativity versus stagnation, and integrity versus dispair

social learning theory

emphasized modeling (imitation/observational learning) as a powerful source of development (Bandura)

psychosexual theory

emphasizes that how parents manage their child's sexual and aggressive drives in the first few years is crucial for healthy personality development (Freud); oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital stages

fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD)

encompasses fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS), characterized by slow physical growth, short eyelid openings, thin upper lip, flattened philtrum, and brain injury; partial fetal alcohol syndrome (pFAS), characterized by brain abnormality and two out of the three facial abnormalities of FAS; and alcohol-related neurodevelopmental disorder (ARND), in which at least three areas of mental functioning are impaired despite typical physical growth and absence of facial abnormalities

modifier genes

enhance or dilute the effects of other genes

case study

in-depth observation of a single subject low validity and cannot generalize it

late maturers (boys) WHY

evolcative processes: bigger (athletics), given more responsibilities, and parents have higher aspirations

experiment to thelan's theory of dynamic systems theory

examined number of steps with body size/weight; no manipulation, or added weight, or removed weight (in water)

neuroimaging

examining phenomena at a different level of analysis

john watson

experiment with 11 month old "little albert" in 1920s

what are the limitation of theories?

explains but leaves out important facts - one theory can't explain everything and each theory has its own focus

egocentrism

failure to distinguish others' symbolic viewpoints from one's own

Myelination

fatty insulation grows around the axons (speeds up messages).

infants first reach with what first?

feet first

what can fetuses do? sensation

fetus experiences tactile stimulation as a result of its own activity, and tastes and smells the amniotic fluid; responds to sounds from at least the 6th month of gestation; prenatal visual experience however is negligible

behavioral genetics

field devoted to uncovering the contributions of nature and nurture to this diversity in human traits and abilities

visual acuity

fineness of discrimination; newborns cannot focus their eyes well

mirror neurons

fire identically when a primate hears or sees an action and when it carries out that action on its own

spermache

first ejaculation

spermarch

first ejaculation for males, usually occurring at around age 13 1/2

age of viability

first point at which baby can survive; 22-26 weeks

states of arousal

five degrees of sleep and wakefulness newborn infants move in and out of throughout day and night

neurobiological methods

fmri and eeg/erp

behavioral theories

focus on observable conditions and behaviors development change is caused by environmental sources famous theorists ; pavlov watson skinner

centration

focus on one aspect of a situation, neglecting other important features; understanding is centered

piaget stage 4

formal operational period (11-onward): mental operations applied to abstract ideas; logical, systematic thinking

reflex

inborn, automatic response to a particular form of stimulation

infancy and toddlerhood

from birth to 2 years dramatic changes in body and brain - motot, perceptual and intellectual capacities - begining of language , infancy - first year toddlerhood - second year - first independent steps

prenatal period

from conception to birth most rapid time of change

how does the brain develop?

from the back to front

Sperm and Egg. Each has 23 chromosomes and together they make 23 pairs

gamete

scientific method

general way to seek evidence to answer question Formulate a research question Develop a hypothesis Test the hypothesis Draw conclusions Make findings available

what are teratogens dependent on?

genetic diathesis: stress model serves to explore how biological or genetic traits (diatheses) interact with environmental influences (stressors) to produce disorders

PKU

genetic disease that causes inability to metabolize phenylalanine and can lead to intellectual disability; environment can alter the fate of these individuals (do not feed these children phenylalanine)

hierarchical aspect of dynamic systems

genetic influences (reflexes) necessary for setting the stage (building blocks). each skill sits on top of previously established skills; environment is necessary to provide motivation and purposes to move

maturation

genetically determined, naturally unfolding course of growth

parietal lobe

governs spatial processing and integrates sensory input with information in memory

habitutation

gradual reduction in the strength of a response due to repetitive stimulation (e.g., loss of interest in a known toy)

proximodistal trend

growht proceeds from "near to far;" from center of body outward

dominant cerebral hemisphere

handedness reflects the greater capacity of one side of the brain to carry out skilled motor action

chemosensation (taste and smell)

have taste preferences (can be influenced by prenatal environment; breast fed babies recognize mother by odor

cephalocaudal

head to toe

what are 2 main characteristics of human development?

hierarchical and self-organizing

estrogens and androgens

hormones present in each sex, but in different amounts (estrogens = female, androgens = male)

sociocultural theory

how culture - the values, beliefs, customs, and skills of a social group - is transmitted to the next generation; social interaction is necessary for children to acquire the ways of thinking and behaving that make up a society's culture (Vygotsky)

normative development

how do people on average change with age (how most people are alike) ex. at what age do most children start to walk?

how do we get theories?

hypothesis testing, data

which two states of mind are always at battle?

id and superego

A-not-B search error

if babies reach several times for an object at one hiding place (A), then see it moved to another (B), they still search for it in the first hiding place (A)

extinction

if the CS is presented alone enough times, without being paired with the UCS, the CR will no longer occur

evidence from fMRI for poor inhibitory control

immature frontal lobe contribution

how does developmental change occur

in an analogous way, variation and selection produce changes within an individual lifetime for example: learning to retrieve a toy, to add numbers, to communicate

synaptogenesis

is the formation of synapses between neurons in the nervous system. Although it occurs throughout a healthy person's lifespan, an explosion of synapse formation occurs during early brain development Rapid increase in synapses in early years Gradual pruning process that extends beyond first decade of life "Use it or lose it"

core knowledge theory

kids come into the world with a universal foundation of knowledge - domain -specific knowledge ; physics , biology , number

psychosexual stages

largely shaped by parent - child stages; 1. oral stage (0-1) 2. anal stage (1-3) 3. phallic stage (3-6) 4. latency stage (6-12) 5. genital (12 years and older)

vision

last sense to develop. acuity (small objects and fine detail) is very bad initially, but by 12 months it is almost at adult levels. accommodation (changing lens for focus) is very bad

john lockes perspective on child development

like aristotle, saw the child as a tabula rasa, and advocated first instilling discipline, then gradually increasing the child's freedom

how can you Measure Change over Time

longitudinal designs cross-sectional designs sequential designs microgentic design

longitudinal vs cross sectional research

longitudinal: following one individual and studying them throughout life cross sectional: collecting observations and data from a group of individuals at a specific point in time

individual differences

looking at individual variations in development (how people differ from each other) ex. if your mother carried you a lot, will your walking be delayed?

lobes of cerebral cortex

major areas of the cortex that are associated with different categories of behavior

X-linked inheritance

males are more likely to be affected by harmful alleles carried on the X chromosome because their sex chromosomes do not match

polygenic inheritance

many genes determine a characteristic

dynamic systems theory of motor development

mastery of motor skills involves acquiring increasingly complex systems of action; when motor skills work as a system, separate abilities blend together, each cooperating with others to produce more effective ways of exploring and controlling the environment

habituation

measure differentiation - show stimuli until "bored" then measure look time at new stimuli

results of the mobile conjugate reinforcement

measure retention or savings in subsequent test. results: 2 month olds remember up to 3 days and 3 month olds remember for more than one week

heritability estimates

measure the extent to which individual differences in complex traits in a specific population are due to genetic factors

normative approach

measures of behavior are taken on large numbers of individuals and age- related averages are computed to represent typical development

preferential looking

measuring what the "preference" -- what the baby wants to look at ex- how babies will look for longer at a schematic face then scrambled face -- babies have a more concern / innate to look at a human face

prenatal diagnostic methods

medical procedures that permit detection of developmental problems before birth

Thelan's Theory: dynamic systems theory apprach

need to consider the entire baby as a system; changes as simple as physical growth could affect phenotype

synaptic pruning

neurons that are seldom stimulated lose their synapses; returns neurons not needed at the moment to an uncommitted state so they can support future development

classical conditioning

neutral stimulus (becomes conditioned stimulus, CS) paired with stimulus that leads to reflexive response (unconditioned response, UCR); once baby's nervous system makes connection between the two stimuli, new stimulus produces behavior by itself (conditioned response, CR)

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

noble savages -- naturally endowed with a sense of right and wrong and an innate plan for orderly healthy growth children's built - in normal sense and unique ways of thinking and feeling would only be harmed by adult training two concepts - stage and maturation discontinuous - single unified course mapped out by nature

cohort effect

non-developmental effects caused by differences in group experiences

fMRI

non-invasively measure brain activity with large magnet; spatial resolution is great, but temporal is poor. expensive and sensitive to movement

ERP methods

non-invasivey measure brain activity form scalp; electrodes. temporal resolution is great, but spatial is bad. relatively cheap but sensitive to movement

what are the two types of quesitons

normative development, and individual differences

class inclusion

not being able to include certian things into different classes -- like the is there more dogs or animals -- would say there are more dogs

skills of the sensorimotor stage

object permanence a- not- b error deferred imitation

what are the limitations to the observational designs ?

observer influence - reactivity observer bias

event sampling

observer records all instances of a particular behavior during a specified time period

experience-dependent brain growth

occurs throughout our lives; additional growth and refinement of established brain structures as a result of specific learning experiences that vary widely across individuals and cultures

logical necessity

of propositional thought - that the accuracy of conclusions drawn from premises rests on the rules of logic, not on real-world confirmation

growth hormone (GH)

only pituitary secretion produced continuously throughout life; affects development of all tissues except the central nervous system and the genitals

B.R Skinner

operant conditioning child learn through consequences "operate" on their environments to avoid punishments and attract more reinforcements

delay of gratification task

present with one small marshmallow now, or wait until later for large marshmallow. the experimenter leaves the room and monitors the behavior of the child; preschoolers do very poorly, but by 6 they do much better

go-nogo task

press button whenever you see letter, don't press for X; children have a hard time doing this due to an increased false alarm rate (c-shaped development)

occipital lobe

primarily associated with processing visual information

id

primitive instincts, completely unconscious

why is the stepping reflex present at birth, but then disappears after a few weeks

primitive reflex that is suppressed by maturation of inhibitory input from cortex; lost because of disuse, need practice to regain ability

mitosis

process by which DNA duplicates itself; diploid (2n) into diploid (2n)

discontinuous development

process in which new ways of understanding and responding to the world emerge at specific times -- step process

puberty

process of reaching sexual maturity; includes not only physical changes, but psychological changes as well (sensitive period)

intersubjectivity

process whereby two participants who begin a task with different understandings arrive at a shared understanding

what are the stages of neural development?

proliferation, migration, aggregation, differentiation, synapse formation, apoptosis, myelination

stage theories

propose that development occurs in a progression of age-related, qualitative shifts

overlapping - waves model

proposes that at any one age, children use multiple strategies; that with age and experience, they rely increasingly on more strategies and that development involves changes in use of existing strategies as well as discovery of new approaches. Children benefit from strategic variability

Erikson's theory pros , cons, major difference

pros ; spans lifetime development cons ; broad and somewhat vague major difference from freud's ; focused on social instead of sexual

chorion

protective membrane that surrounds the amnion

what are the key theories of development?

psychoanalytic behavioral social learning ecological systems cognitive sociocultural

reformation

puritan belief in orginal sin gave rise to the view that children were born evil and stubborn and had to be civilized adopted a moderate balance between serverity and permissiveness

stages

qualitative changes in thinking, feeling and behaving that characterize specific period of development

stages

qualitative changes in thinking, feeling, and behaving that characterize specific periods of development

ego

ration component; early childhood

ego

ration thought

maturation

refers to a genetically determined, naturally unfolding course of growth

variation

refers to differences in thought and behavior within and among individuals

nature

refers to our genetic endowment, especially the genes we receive from our parents

nurture

refers to the wide range of environments, both physical and social, that influence our development

experience-expectant brain growth

refers to the young brain's rapidly developing organization, which depends on ordinary experiences - opportunities to interact with people, hear language and other sounds, see and touch objects, and move about and explore the environment

punishment

removing a desirable stimulus or presenting an unpleasant one to decrease the occurrence of a response

time sampling

researcher records whether certain behaviors occur during a sampling of short intervals

field experiments

researchers capitalize on opportunities to randomly assign participants to treatment conditions in natural settings

violation-of-expectation method

researchers may habituate babies to a physical event (expose them to the event until their looking declines) to familiarize them with a situation in which their knowledge will be tested, or they may simply show babies an expected event (one that follows physical laws) and an unexpected event (a variation of the first event that violates physical laws); heightened attention to the unexpected event suggests that the infant is "surprised" by a deviation from physical reality - and, therefore, is aware of that aspect of the physical world

clinical interview

researchers use a flexible, conversational style to probe for the participant's point of view

naturalistic observation

researching behavior of interest in the field, or natural environment

glial cells

responsible for myelination, the coating of neural fibers with an insulating fatty sheath (myelin) that improves the efficiency of message transfer; makes up about half of brain's volume

thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)

secondary pituitary hormone that prompts the thyroid gland in the neck to release thyroxine, which is necessary for brain development and for GH to have its full impact on body size

taste

sensitivity to taste and smell develops before birth newborns innately prefer sweet flavors exposure to food in utero influence food preferences

piaget stage 1

sensorimotor period (0-2): coordination of sensory input and motor responses; development of object permanence

what are piaget's stages?

sensorimotor stage peroperational stage conrete operational stage formal operational stage

what is a theory

set of concepts and propositions designed to organize, describe, and explain observations. constrain and interpret findings. make predictions about future behavior

epiphyses

special growth centers that appear at the two extreme ends of each of the long bones of the body

circular reaction

special means of adapting first schemes; involves stumbling onto a new experience caused by the baby's own motor activity; reaction is "circular" because, as the infant tries to repeat the event again and again, a sensorimotor response that originally occurred by chance strengthens into a new scheme

lateralization

specialization of the two hemispheres

Neurons

specialized cells that process information and allow communication in the nervous system.

reproduction

sperm and egg (ganetes) each have 23 chromosomes resulting zygote has 23 chromosome pairs

reinforcer

stimulus that increases occurrence of a response

neuroimaging tools

structural methods: MRI, Diffusion tensor imaging functional methods: electroencenphalogram (EEG)/event-related potentials(ERP), PET, fMRI

pituitary gland

structure located at the base of the brain near the hypothalamus, which initiates and regulates pituitary secretions; releases most important hormones for human growth

cross-sectional designs

study groups that differ in age - like one at 2 yr one at 4 yr

longitudinal design

study individuals over a long period of time

subtraction method

subtract brain activation for task b (control condition) form task a (experimental condition) you are left with the activation of interest

examples of experience-expectant

sunlight and vitamin D language development

systems theories

systems theories view the child as developing within layers of variables which interact with each other in complex ways

John Locke

tabula rase - blank slate children being as nothing ar all - all characters are shaped entirely by experience changed view from harshness to kindess to children development - continuous nurture high plasticity at later ages due to new experiences a passive child has to be discarded -- view children as active, purposeful beings who contribute substantially to their own development

negative reinforcement

taking something away to strengthen response

negative punishment

taking something away to weaken response

reciprocal teaching

teacher and two to four students form a collaborative group and take turns leading dialogues on the content of a text passage; within the dialogues, group members apply four cognitive strategies: questioning, summarizing, clarifying, and predicting

canalization

tendency of heredity to restrict the development of some characteristics to just one or a few outcomes

niche-picking

tendency to actively choose environments that complement our heredity

stability

that children who are high or low in a charactertistic will remain so ar later ages

plasticity; negative vs positive

the ability of the brain to change in response to the environment negative: neglect - kitten's eyes positive: violinists' left hand

examples of experience-dependent

the ability to read one particular language

deferred imitation

the ability to remember and copy the behavior of models who are not present

affordances

the action possibilities that a situation offers an organism with certain motor capabilities; guides perception

information processing

the human mind can be viewed as a symbol-manipulating system through which information flows

sociodramatic play

the make-believe with others that is under way by the end of the second year and increases rapidly in complexity during early childhood

fraternal (dizygotic) twins

the most common type of multiple birth; result from the release and fertilization of two ova; no more alike than ordinary siblings

human development

the multidisciplinary study of how people change systematically over time

ontogenetics

the origination and development of an organism, usually from the time of fertilization of the egg to the organism's mature form

proximodistal development

the sensory structures are present relatively early in prenatal development and play a vital role in fetal development and learning

why do we need theories?

they help us understand the mechanism of how things work, and help us make predictions

critical period

time in the early stages of an organism's life during which it displays a heightened sensitivity to certain environmental stimuli, and develops in particular ways due to experiences at this time. If the organism does not receive the appropriate stimulus during this "critical period", it may be difficult, or even impossible, to develop some functions later in life.

sensitive period

time that is optimal for certain capacities to emerge because the individual is especially responsive to environmental influences

the scientific method

to test a belief while retaining objectivity

natural, or quasi-, experiments

treatments that already exist, such as different family environments, child-care centers, or schools, are compared; groups of participants carefully chosen to ensure that their characteristics are as much alike as possible

sex chromosomes

twenty-third pair of chromosomes; XX in females, XY in males

fraternal twins

twice as common as identical, fraternal arise when two eggs are released at once if both are fertilized by separated sperm, two fetuses form. Genetically they are just ordinary siblings

motor development theory: nature

unfolding of genetically programmed sequence of events; cephalocaudal, proximodistal (muscle/skeleton and behaviors)

contexts

unique combinations of personal and enviormental circumstances that can result in different paths of change

visual cliff

used in the earliest studies of depth perception; consists of a plexiglas-covered table with a platform at the center, a "shallow" side with a checkerboard pattern just under the glass, and a "deep" side with a checkerboard several feet below the glass; crawling babies readily cross the shallow side, but not the deep side (infant demonstrates ability to perceive depth)

Apgar Scale

used to assess a baby's physical condition; rating of 0, 1, or 2 on characteristics: heart rate, respiratory effort, reflex irritability (sneezing, coughing, and grimacing), muscle tone and color; Appearance, Pulse, Grimace, Activity and Respiration

assimilation

using current schemes to interpret the world

what are the 2 aspects of Darwin's theory of evolution

variation and selection

what is the technique lab setup

video camera, video monitor computer and VCR parents and child

dual representation

viewing a symbolic object as both an object in its own right and a symbol

ecological systems theory

views the child as developing with a complex system of relationships affected by multiple levels of the surrounding environment (Bronfenbrenner); microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, chronosystem

secondary sexual characteristics

visible on the outside of the body; additional signs of sexual maturity

marasmus

wasted condition of the body caused by a diet low in all essential nutrients; appears in first year of life when a baby's mother is too malnourished to produce enough breast milk and bottle-feeding is also inadequate

watch/go over lecture 4

watch lecture 4

compulsive

way too demanding - too orderly

rooting reflex

when a baby's cheek is stroked, it turns its head toward the cheek that was stroked and opens its mouth; helps a baby to find the nipple

hypothetico-deductive reasoning

when faced with a problem, they start with a hypothesis, from which they deduce logical, testable inferences; then, they systematically isolate and combine variables to see which of these inferences are confirmed in the real world

observer bias

when observers are aware of the purpose of a study, they may see and record what they expect to see rather than what participants actually do

dishabituation

when you basically unbored the babies - giving new stimuli

displaced reference

words can be used to cue mental images of things not physically present; emerges around the first birthday

ivan pavlov

worked with dogs to demonstrated -- classical conditioning

preoperational stage

years 2 - 7; most obvious change is extraordinary increase in representational, or symbolic, activity

identical (monozygotic) twins

zygote that has started to duplicate separates into two clusters of cells that develop into two individuals; same genetic makeup