Psych 130 midterm
kwashikor
caused by an unbalanced diet very low in protein; disease usually strikes after weaning, between 1 and 3 years of age
meiosis
cell division process which halves the number of chromosomes normally present in body cells; creates gametes; diploid (2n) into haploid (1n)
conservation
certain physical characteristics of objects remain the same, even when their outward appearance changes
personal fable
certain that others are observing and thinking about them, teenagers develop an inflated opinion of their own importance - a feeling that they are special and unique
secular trends in physical growth
changes in body size from one generation to next
plasticity
changes in neural pathways and synapses due to changes in behavior, environment, neural processes, thinking, emotions, as well as changes resulting from bodily injury
dynamic systems perspective
child's mind, body, and physical and social worlds form an integrated system that guides mastery of new skills; system is dynamic, constantly in motion
make-believe play
children act out everyday and imaginary activities
cognitive-developmental theory
children actively construct knowledge as they manipulate and explore their world (Piaget)
how do children shape their own environment?
children contribute to their own development form early in life, and their contributions increase as they grow older ex. sociality older children and adolescents choose many environments, friends, and activities for themselves; their choices can exert a large impact on their future
private speech
children internalize new information through private speech
sociocultural theory
children learn through interaction with others best known theorist; vygotsky
psychoanalytic perspective
children move through a seies of stages in which they confront conflicts between biological drives and social expectations --
psychoanalytic theories
children move through a series of stages in which they confront conflicts between biological drives and social expectations
psychoanalytic perspective
children move through a series of stages in which they confront conflicts between biological drives and social expectations; how these conflicts are resolved determines the person's ability to learn, to get along with others, and to cope with anxiety
early childhood early childhood
from 2 years to 6 years body - longer leaner, motor skills are refined and children become more self-controlled and self-sufficient - make believe play blossoms
structured observations
investigator sets up laboratory situation that evokes the behavior of interest so that every participant has an equal opportunity to display the response
primary sexual characteristics
involve reproductive organs directly
temporal lobe
involved in memory, visual recognition, and the processing of emotion and auditory information
adaptation
involves building schemes through direct interaction with the environment
plasticity
is the ability of parts of the brain to take over functions they ordinarily would not serve decreases with age
amnion
membrane that encloses developing zygote in amniotic fluid, which helps keep the temperature of the prenatal world constant and provides a cushion against any jolts caused by the woman's movement
operations
mental representations of actions that obey logical rules
cognitive maps
mental representations of familiar large-scale spaces, such as neighborhood or school
expulsive
messy - personality related to parents weren't demanding enough
circles of bronfenbrenner's ecological model
microsystem (child) mesosystem (family, neighborhood, school, organized activities exosystem (workplace, media, extended family) macrosystem (government, culture)
proximodistal
midline to outward
early maturers (girls)
more anxious and depressed, less outgoing and popular
late maturers (boys)
more anxious, eager, attention seeking, feel more socially inadequate, have lower academic aspirations
sensitive period
more forgiving version of a critical period
motor development theory: dynamic systems (thelan)
motor skills are active reorganization (construction) of previously mastered capabilities that are undertaken to find more effective ways of exploring the environment or satisfying other objectives
eye tracking in infants
movement and edges are most salient to infants
what are the five stage for psychosexual development
oral - age 0-2 anal - age 2 - 3 phallic - age 3-7 latency - age 7 to 11 gential - age 11 to adult
hierarchical classification
organization of objects into classes and subclasses on the basis of similarities and differences
schemes
organized ways of making sense of experience
frontal lobe
organizes behavior and is responsible for planning
gene-environment correlation
our genes influence the environments to which we are exposed
incomplete dominance
pattern of inheritance in which both alleles are expressed in the phenotype, resulting in a combined trait, or one that is intermediate between the two
intermodal perception
perceiving running streams of light, sound, tactile, odor, and taste information as integrated wholes
shape constancy
perception of an object's shape as stable, despite changes in the shape projected on the retina
size constancy
perception of an object's size as the same, despite changes in the size of its retinal image
embryo
period from implantation through eighth week of pregnancy; six weeks of most rapid prenatal changes; groundwork is laid for all body structures and internal organs
fetus
period from ninth week to end of pregnancy; longest prenatal period; "growth and finishing" phase
what is the purpose of synaptogenesis?
period of overproduction followed by pruning. increases plasticity
placenta
permits food and oxygen to reach embryo and waste products to be carried away by bringing the mother's and the embryo's blood close together
velocity curve
plots the average amount of growth at each yearly interval, revealing the exact timing of growth spurts
distance curve
plots the average size of a sample of children at each age, indicating typical yearly progress toward maturity
what region of the brain is associated with impulse control?
prefrontal cortex continues to develop until late adolescence; immature impulse control "an engine without a skilled driver"
piaget stage 2
preoperational period (2-7): developmental of symbolic thought marked by irreversibility, decentration, and egocentrism.
albert bandura
social - learning behaviors are learned through observation and imitation - don't necessarily need punishments or rewards
what are the four levels of human development?
social learning cognitive ecological socio-cultural
what 2 forces converged to create the research-based approach?
social reform movements and charles darwins theory of evolution
neutral stimulus
something that is unrelated to the unconditioned response - -
developmental science
all changes we experience throughout the lifespan
bronfenbrenner's Ecological theory
all the surroundings and different systems can and DO impact how the children develop. Child is at the center the systems interact in complex ways.
genomic imprinting
alleles are imprinted, or chemically marked, so that one pair member (either the mother's or the father's) is activated, regardless of its makeup
child development
an area of study devoted to understanding constancy and change from conception through adolescense
teratogen
any environmental agent that causes damage during the prenatal period
Teratogens
any environmental agent that causes damage during the prenatal period Drugs Alcohol Tobacco Radiation Pollution Disease
teratogen
anything that can harm the fetus (virus, chemicals, drugs, radiation)
analogical problem solving
applying a solution strategy from one problem to other relevant problems
child development
area of study devoted to understanding constancy and change from conception through adolescence
plasticity
as open to change in response to influential experiences
carolyn rovee collier testing infant memory
assess baseline kicking. then tie mobile to 2-3 month old's ankle; takes a while for infant to realize that kicking does something. test to see if infant remembers kicking consequences
example of habituation in a fetus
at 32 weeks gestation, the fetus decreases responses to repeated stimulation
statistical learning capacity
by analyzing the speech stream for patterns - repeatedly occurring sequences of sounds - they acquire a stock of speech structures for which they will later learn meanings, long before babies start to talk around 12 months old
reflexes
inborn, automatic responses to a particular form of stimulation
developmental science
includes all changes we experience throughout the lifespan
william greenough's rats: enriched vs control environments
increased: learning on future tasks, synapse formation, dendritic spines (surface area), and neural growth
reinforced
increases behavior
violation of expectency
infant addition 1+1= 2 experiment - two dolls going behind the wall and when the wall moves only one is there -- or when you can see it moving the whole time and then it was gone. -- surpised by the impossible event new experiment - that instead of there just being a normal sized doll it was a doll that was as big as the two dolls combined they were not surprised "surprised" at continuous amount changes not discrete number
prereaching
infant reflex; newborn's coordinated swipes toward an object in front of them (~7 weeks of age)
smell
infant sense of smell draws them to their mothers infants are sensitive to the smell of breast milk
operant conditioning
infants act, or operate, on the environment, and stimuli that follow their behavior change the probability that the behavior will occur again
differentiation theory
infants actively search for invariant features of the environment (those that remain stable) in a constantly changing perceptual world
core knowledge perspective
infants begin life with innate, special-purpose knowledge systems referred to as core domains of thought; each of these "prewired" understandings permits a ready grasp of new, related information and therefore supports early, rapid development of certain aspects of cognition
pincer grasp
infants use thumb and index finger; well-coordinated (~1 year old)
amodal sensory properties
information that is not specific to a single modality but that overlaps two or more sensory systems
charles darwin's theory of evolution
inspired research in child development in order to gain insights into the nature of the human species
id
instinct driven; at birth
visual cliff: depth perception
interacts with reading social cues from parent ("social referencing") happy: 12 mo more likely to cross fear/anger: 12 mo less likely to cross the cliff
mental representation
internal depictions of information that the mind can manipulate
organization
internal process, apart from direct contact with the environment; once children form new schemes, they rearrange them, linking them with other schemes to create a strongly interconnected cognitive system
superego
internalized moral standards; emerges 3-6 yrs. old
piaget's stages are ____ and ______
invariant and universal
risks of prematurity
small, immature organs, immature CNS, less physical contact
cephalocaudal trend
"head to tail" embryonic development
oral stage
(0-1) needs are gratified orally (by sucking), fostering attachment to the mother
subitizing
A quick and effortless perceptual process that people can apply to small numbers Infants can do it with numbers 1-3 Even adults cannot subitize large numbers
proliferation
(1) overproduction of neurons
anal stage
(1-3) toddlers are told to control bladder and bowels, creating a conflict between biological urges and sociocultural demands
genital
(12 years and older) a period of sexual maturation in which psychosexual needs are directed toward heterosexual relationships
migration
(2) following chemical paths to its final destination
aggregation
(3) adhering to similar cells
phallic
(3-6) psychosexual energy form the genitals prompts desires for the opposite sex parent. fear of retaliation from the same sex parent causes children to identify with that parent and vicariously satisfy attraction to the opposite sex parent
differentiation
(4) specialization
synapse formation
(5) synaptogenesis; development of axons and dendrites - over produciton
apoptosis
(6) selective cell death and synapse elimination (pruning)
latency
(6-12) a "quiet time" in which psychosexual energy is channeled into socially acceptable activities such as schoolwork and play with same-sex parent
melination
(7) myelin covers neurons (speed)
operant conditioning
(skinner) avoid unfavorable outcomes and promote favorable ones
classical conditioning
(watson) no inborn tendencies, all paired associations - little albert
Neuron connections created by Synaptogenesis dying after 9 months old making your brain more efficient
Prunning
steps of the scientific method
1. formulate a research question 2. develop a hypothesis 3. test the hypothesis; make a prediction, design study, collect data, analyze data 4. draw conclusions 5. disseminate findings
three dimensions of developmental theories
1. nature vs nurture 2. actiity vs passivity 3. continuity vs discontinuity (quantitative vs qualitative)
what are the 5 key issues in human development
1. physical development 2. perceptual development 3. cognitive development 4. emotional development 5. social development
sensorimotor stage
0-2 years old; infants and toddlers "think" with their eyes, ears, hands, and other sensorimotor equipment, but cannot yet carry out many activities mentally (Piaget)
adolescence
11 TO 18 YEARS initiates the transition to adulthood - thought becomes abstract and idealistic
emerging adulthood
18 to 25 contemporary youths in industrialized nation and transition to adult roles have been incredibly prolonged exploration of options in love, career, personal values before making enduring commitments
William James
1842-1910 The baby, assailed by eyes, ears, nose, skin, and entrails at once, feels it all as one great blooming, buzzing confusion"
sigmund freud
1856 - 1939 the mind consists of three basic components: id- primitive instincts, completely unconscious ego - ration thought superego - ethics, morals , conscience constant state of conflict between the three components
schneider's experiment on prenatal stress
6 pregnant rhesus monkeys exposed to unpredictable noise 5X a week. Infants whose mothers were stressed and had high levels of cortisol, were more anxious, antisocial, low birth weight, etc.
middle childhood
6 to 11 years old lean about wider world and master new responsibilities -- improved athletic abilites - organized games with rules -- understanding the self, morality and friendship
concrete operational stage
7 to 11 years old; marks a major turning point in cognitive development; thought becomes far more logical, flexible, and organized
Erik Erikson
8 distinct stages of development each stage was defined by a conflict between a pair of opposing impulses or behaviors. The resolution - or not -- affects our personalities and identities
Piaget's Legacy
His findings still hold up today, but... Children often show competency earlier than he believed Other theories can help inform his findings E.g., Dynamic Systems Theory & A-not-B Error
embryo
Implantation - 8 weeks Most rapid period of growth Groundwork laid for all body structures and internal organs
Correlational designs
Measuring the relationship between two variables -- Variable X and Variable Y ex- number of books at home and the children's reading scores
cognitive change
Adaptation Assimilation Accomodation Equilibration / Disequilibration
Scaffolding
Adjusting the support offered during a teaching session to fit the child's current level of performance
Children with Anxiety
Anxious children have atypical responses to fearful faces Anxious Children have enlarged amygdala volume What is the relationship between anxiety, amygdala development and early life stress
A scale to measure the baby's health condition. stands for
Appearance Pulse Grimace Activity Respiration
Self-locomotion
At 8 months or so, infants begin to move themselves around in the environment. By 13-14 months they are walking.
Lev Vygotsky
Sociocultural Theory Perceived children as social beings intertwined with other people who were eager to help them learn and gain skills Emphasizes role of language and culture
Larger Developmental Patterns in the Brain
Brain development continues throughout childhood Development of larger brain areas correlates with corresponding advances in behavior and thought
fetus at 12 weeks
By 12 weeks, sex can be discerned and the baby practices many bodily functions ---- kicking, moving arms, forming fists, turning head, opening mouth, sucking thumb, stretching, yawning, changing positions Minor body structures in place - nails, tooth buds, eyelids
Sociocultural Principles of Cognitive Development
Children are social beings shaped by (and also shaping) their cultural contexts Children are both learners and teachers A uniquely human quality Enables us to pass on culture
Formal Operational (12 & up)
Can make mental manipulations without reliance upon present objects Abstract thought Stage not necessarily universal
Considerations of Experimental Designs
Careful operational definition of variables Avoid confounding variables Random assignment Ethical considerations
Jean Piaget
Children are motivated to explore their environments, which leads to cognitive change (learning). Believed in 4 primary stages of cognitive development Stage (NOT Age) drives development
results of monkey experiment
During baseline, prenatally stressed monkeys displayed greater non-social stress related anxious behaviors. both groups increased social contact during stress. during stress, prenatally stressed monkeys displayed greater social related anxious behaviors (prenatally stressed group displayed age inappropriate behavior)
genetic code
DNA duplicates itself through mitosis (chromosomes copy themselves) Genes: The segments on a DNA molecule that act as hereditary blueprints for the organism's development
Concrete Operational Thinking & Conservation
Decentered - consider multiple aspects of the problem Dynamic transformations - kids consider the action that changed objects Reversibility - realize that the process would be reversed and they would appear the same again
Principles of Teratogens
Dose- amount of exposure Heredity- genes influence reaction Other negative influences- effects can be cumulative Age -- more harmful during sensitive periods
The Brain & the Environment
Early exposure to a stressful environment resulted in long-lasting changes in brain structure & function The environment has a major impact on brain development
fetus - second trimester
During the second trimester, many organs and most brain cells are developed Lanugo (fine hair) covers skin, which is covered in vernix (white, protective substance) Fetus uses its senses to begin experiencing the world from inside the womb
fetus third trimester
During the third trimester, the fetus becomes viable (22-26 weeks at earliest) Important developments in brain and lungs that make life outside the womb possible Increasingly responsive to external stimuli
Fraternal twins are also known as
Dyzygotic
what are the observation design samplings and what are the two ones?
Event sampling - record all instances of a particular behavior during a specified time period Timesampling - record whether certain behaviors occur during a sample of short intervals
Cognitive
Focus on the development of thinking Children's active role in constructing their own thinking through interaction with the environment Best known theorist: Piaget
non-rapid-eye-movement (NREM) sleep
body almost motionless, and heart rate, breathing, and brain-wave activity are slow and even
Ethical Standards
Freedom from harm Exposure to experiences significantly different from their daily lives? Will there be lasting psychological effects? Informed consent Confidentiality Institutional Review Board (IRB)
Segment of DNA molecule that acts as the hereditary blueprints for development
Gene
Genetic code a person inherits
Genotype
Genotype v. Phenotype
Genotype -- The genetic code a person inherits Phenotype--- The observable trait a person shows, resulting in part from his or her inherited genotype
The reflex of closing your hand when something touches it
Grasping
American teens have
Higher rates of unprotected sex & sexually transmitted infections than American adults Higher teen pregnancy rate compared to their other countries
Hearing Preferences
Human voice over other sounds "Motherese"(Infant-Directed-Speech) Familiar voices (mom, dad) Own language
what are the time restrictions to be considered premature
born before 36 weeks gestation
intermodal perception
Infants are able to combine information from two or more senses. Very young infants link oral and visual experiences. Infants at about 4 months can integrate speaking sounds with a picture of lips moving.
hearing
Infants only minutes old will startle with a loud noise They will also turn their heads toward the source of a noise (audio localization)
rapid-eye-movement (REM) sleep
brain-wave activity, measured with EEG, remarkably similar to that of the waking state; eyes dart beneath lids, heart rate, blood pressure, and breathing uneven, and slight body movements occur
Experimental designs
Manipulation of an independent variable (IV) Measurement of a dependent variable (DV) ex: does the number of books at home impact children's reading?
Considerations of Correlational Designs
Measurements must be on a continuous, numerical scale Often relies on self-report Correlation does not equal causation Third variable problem Directionality problem
Process in which DNA duplicates itself
Mitosis
Idential twins are also known as
Monozygotic
autosomes
NOT sex chromosomes; pairs 1 through 22
Observational Designs - what are the two types and example --
Naturalistic observation Simply observing behavior as it naturally occurs ex: how often do perschoolers look at books? Structured observation A situation is set up to elicit the desired behavior to observe ex: marshmallow test
phylogenetics
the study of evolutionary relationships among biological entities - often species, individuals or genes
What affects pubertal timing?
Nutrition - Obesity can lead to early maturation Genes - Timing influenced by genes Stress - Severe stress can influence timing of maturation
what are the common designs of an experiment
Observational Neurobiological Correlational Experimental
The physical observeable traits from an inherited gene
Phenotype
constructivist approach
Piaget viewed children as discovering, or constructing, virtually all knowledge about their world through their own activity
Intuitive thought
Reasoning based on personal experience or intuitive logic. "Airplanes fly because they move their wings up and down like a bird"
Research Considerations
Reliability - consistency or repeatability of measures Inter-rater reliability Test-retest reliability Validity - accurately measure characteristics intended to measure Internal validity IV DV External validity Results can be generalized
The reflex of turning your face towards the stimulus that touches your cheek
Rooting
Sensorimotor Stage (0-2 years)
Sensory-motor as the basis of knowledge Skills and knowledge advance with advancing motor skills New skills build on reflexes
psychoanaytic
Sigmund freud; intrinsic drives and motives, qualitative stages, psychosexual in nature, irrational and unconscious, resolution of earlier stages affects later self.
The reflex of making stepping movemets when you're dragged along a surface
Stepping
Preoperational Stage (2-7) and congnitive characteristics
Strength in Symbolic Thought: Language Pretend Play More cognitive characteristics: Intuitive Thought Egocentrism Centration
The creation of new synapses on a baby's brain. Very rapid in early years, then stops at around 9 months as neurons start to die in Prunning
Synaptogenesis
Egocentrism and what are some demonstrations of this egocentrism
Tendency to consider the world entirely in terms of one's own point of view Cannot see the world from another person's perspective Figuratively AND literally The three-mountain task and Children's conversations
clinical, or case study, method
brings together a wide range of information on one child, including interviews, observations, test scores, and sometimes neurobiological measures
object permanence
the understanding that objects continue to exist when they are out of sight
Menarche
The first menstrual period for females, usually occurring around 12 to 13 years of age
Cultural Differences Surrounding Birth
The general biology of giving birth is the same for all human beings. The way that the birthing process is approached varies considerably across cultures.
guided participation
broader concept than scaffolding; refers to shared endeavors between more expert and less expert participants, without specifying the precise features of communication
Gene x Environment (GxE) Interaction
The interacting effects of genetics and the environment on the development of traits and characteristics
Zone of Proximal Development
The range between what children can do unsupported and what they can do with optimal social support -- if whatever iit is is too hard they will get lost and stop learning but if it is too easy they won't learn anything new and won't be challenged
Aspects of Development
There may be a disconnect between physical, cognitive and emotional maturity Pubertal timing - relative development (onset and rate) compared to same-age, same-gender peers
nerual tube
U-shaped groove formed from the top layer of differentiated cells in the embryo; eventually becomes the brain and the spinal cord
continuous development
age-related changes occur gradually; quantitative
puberty
Young people attain an adult-sized body and become capable of reproduction Development in both primary and secondary sexual characteristics Primary - involves reproductive organs directly Secondary - visible from the outside of the body and serve as signs of sexual maturity
palmar reflex
a baby grasps an object placed in the palm of its hand; precursor to voluntary grasping
sucking reflex
a baby sicks when an object is placed in its mouth; permits feeding
moro reflex
a baby throws its arms out and then inward in response to loud noise or when its head falls; may help a baby cling to its mother
stepping reflex
a baby who is held upright by an adult and is then moved forward begins to step rhythmically; precursor to voluntary walking
withdrawal reflex
a baby withdraws its foot when the sole is pricked with a pin; protects a baby from unpleasant stimulation
blink reflex
a baby's eyes close in response to bright light or loud noise; protects the eyes
babinski reflex
a baby's toes fan out when the sole of the foot is stroked from heel to toe; perhaps a remnant of evolution
brain plasticity
a highly plastic cerebral cortex, in which many areas are not yet committed to specific functions, has a high capacity for learning; if part of the cortex is damaged, other parts can take over the tasks it would have handled
why is Freud's so lasting?
a model f thinking of personality relationship between early experiences and later personality awareness of conscious v unconsconsciou made its way into out cultural consciousness
recovery
a new stimulus - a change in the environment - causes the habituation response to return to a high level (e.g., increase in interest in a new toy)
discontinuous
a process in which new ways of understanding and responding to the world emerge at specific times
continuous
a process of gradually adding more of the same types of skills that were there to begin with
continuous development
a process of gradually adding more of the same types of skills that were there to begin with --smooth and continuos
zone of proximal development (ZPD)
a range of tasks too difficult for the child to do alone but possible with the help of adults and more skilled peers (Vygotsky)
reticular formation
a structure in the brain stem that maintains alertness and consciousness
reversibility
ability to go through a series of steps in a problem and then mentally reverse direction, returning to the starting point
seriation
ability to order items along a quantitative dimension, such as length or weight
transitive inference
ability to seriate mentally
importance of self-supported sitting to visual development
able to use both hands; see an increase in rotating, fingering, and especially transferring toys
identical twins
accounting for about 1 in 250 births, thesea re created when a single egg is fertilized by on sperm the egg splits into halves. each develops into a fetus with the same genetic composition
validity
accuracy of measured characteristics
Validity
accurately measure characteristics intended to measure Internal validity IV ---> DV -- the iv forces or changes or causes the dv External validity Results can be generalized
cognitive developmental viewpoint (piaget's theory of cognitive development)
active explorers who create schemas. when they encounter disequilibrium, they assimilate or accommodate knowledge. follows an invariant sequence.
microgenetic design
adaptation of longitudinal approach that presents children with a novel task and follows their mastery over a series of closely spaced sessions; within this "microcosm" of development, researchers observe how change occurs
positive reinforcement
adding something to strengthen response
positive punishment
adding something to weaken response
scaffolding
adjusting the support offered during a teaching session to fit the child's current level of performance
propositional thought
adolescents' ability to evaluate the logic of propositions (verbal statements) without referring to real-world circumstances
imaginary audience
adolescents' belief that they are the focus of everyone else's attention and concern
advantages and disadvantages of eye tracking
advantages: requires no explicit response from subject, same dependent variable across different ages and populations disadvantages: difficult to achieve due to motion and calibration
theory theory
after children observe an event, they draw on innate concepts to explain, or theorize about, its cause; they then test their naive theory against experience, revising it when it cannot adequately account for new information
oral
age 0-2 infant seeks oral gratification by sucking, biting and babbing
gential
age 11 to adult with puberty sexual urges reappear, and the adolescent learns about mature relationship
anal
age 2-3 potty training helps toddles balance their needs for anal gratification with society's demand to be clean and neat
phallic
age 3 to 7 in early childhood an unconscious desire for the opposite-sex parent is controlled by identification with the same- sex parent
latency
age 7 to 11 sexual urges are repressed, and the child prefers same-sex companions
discontinuous development
age-related changes include occasional large shifts so that children of different ages seem qualitatively different
c-shaped development
axons and glia; brain develops in a c-shape
Campos/Adolph
baby is part of a dynamic system: motor development driving perceptual development. moving through the world teaches you things about depth
equilibriation
back-and-forth movement between equilibrium and disequilibrium (Piaget)
formal operational stage
begins around 11 years of age; develop the capacity for abstract, systematic, scientific thinking
Watson's learning
behaviorism; environmental determinism, influenced by Pavlov's work on classical conditioning
skeletal age
best estimate of a child's physical maturity; measure of the development of the bones of the body
bobo doll experiment
children watched adult either be mean or nice to the bobo doll - then watched what the kids did later with the doll - if kid saw a mean person then the kid acted mean and if the person was nice then the kid acted nice to it
private speech
children's self-directed speech
medieval times
clear awareness exsited if children as vulnerable beings
ulnar grasp
clumsy motion in which baby's fingers close against the palm (~4 months old)
sequential designs
combination of both longitudinal and cross-sectional
genetic counseling
communication process designed to help couples assess their chances of giving birth to a baby with a hereditary disorder and choose the best course of action in view of risks and family goals
kinship studies
compare the characteristics of family members
ethology
concerned with the adaptive, or survival, value of behavior and its evolutionary history
Behavioral theory
conclusions about human behavior should be based on observable behaviors; 1. classical conditioning (watson) 2. operant conditioning (skinner)
piaget stage 3
concrete operational periods (7-11): mental operations applied to concrete event; mastery of conservation, hierarchical classificaiton
what does it mean to say development is holistic
consider how everything works together to result in new psychological phenomenon: testing of wills social interaction attachment behaviors boldness and agency
reliability
consistency or repeatability of measures Inter-rater reliability Test-retest reliability
reliability
consistency, or repeatability, of measures of behavior
umbilical cord
contains one large vein that delivers blood loaded with nutrients and two arteries that remove waste products
intentional, or goal-directed, behavior
coordinating schemes deliberately to solve problems
evolution of the mammalian brain
cortex control behavior. last to develop phylogenetically and ontogenetically; c shaped development
accommodation
creating new schemes or adjusting old ones after noticing that our current way of thinking does not capture the environment completely
motor development theory: nurture
opportunities to exercise and practice motor skills are critical in developing these skills
nature-nurture controversy
debate over whether genetic or environmental factors are more important in influencing development
habituation
decrease in response to stimuli (boredom), then look for what causes dishabituation
punishment
decreases behavior
internal validity
degree to which conditions internal to the design of the study permit an accurate test of the researcher's hypothesis or question
external validity
degree to which finding generalize to settings and participants outside the original study
inhibitory control
delay of gratification task and go-nogo task + fMRI
selection
describes the more frequent survival and reproduction of organisms that are well adapted to their environment.
ethnography
descriptive, qualitative technique with aim of understanding a culture or distinct social group through participant observation
plasticity
development as open to change in response to influential experiences
epigenesis
development resulting from ongoing, bidirectional exchanges between heredity and all levels of the environment
behaviorism
directly observable events - stimuli and responses - are the appropriate focus of study (Watson)
Infant habituation core knowledge
discriminate 2 vs 3 experiment : two black boxes vs three black boxes -- but if you made the three boxes smaller to cover the same amount of space then they were not surprised discriminate continuous amount not discrete number
reasons fetus may be affected when mother remains unharmed
dose of medicine for a mother compared to a small fetus; mother is not undergoing organogenesis; placenta is not fullproof
visual acuity
drops rapidly in infants
why was freud revolutionary
drove field to recognize that unconscious motives can shape thoughts and behavior; early experiences
results of the experiment to thelan's theory of dynamic systems theory
during rapid weight gain, decreased number of steps. heavier infants stepped less. with artificial weights, stepped less. with weight loss (in water), stepped more. rate of stepping is limited by muscle strength and expression (phenotype) of behavioral capability was limited by external factors
when is a teratogen most effective
during the time of a given structure's rapid growth (sensitive period)
concrete operation (7-12)
enter concrete operational stage upon mastering the concept of conservation ex - water from tall and skinny , wide and short -- then they think the tall one had more -- spread out stuff of quarter was more than the smaller amount
why does genotype not equal phenotype
environment plays a role
social reform movements
established a legacy of research conducted for the benefit of children and provided some of the earliest descriptions of the adverse effects that harsh environments can have on child development.
superego
ethics, morals and conscience
Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale (NBAS)
evaluates baby's reflexes, muscle tone, state changes, responsiveness to physical and social stimuli, and other reactions
cooperative learning
small groups of classmates work toward common goals
what does hierarchical and self organizing change mean?
each change is dependent on the preceding series of changes
structured interview
each individual asked the same set of questions in the same way
early adversity -- orphanage experience
early adversity - lack of stable caregiving --> stress-induced changed in neurobiology (amygdala ) --> hyperactivity of amygdala, poor self-regulation in emotional arousing context (social) , altered social behavior
early maturers (girls) WHY
early developing girls are not as appealing to their underdeveloped male counterparts. tend to attract older boys who may draw them away from schoolwork. may be drawn to activities that they are not cognitively ready to handle
urie bronfenbrenner ecological and systems approach
ecological model; environment influences on child development are series of concentric circles. dynamic transactions between ever-changing individual in an ever-changing environment.
observer influence
effects of observer on the behavior studied
psychosocial theory
ego makes a positive contribution to development, acquiring attitudes and skills that make the individual an active, contributing member of society (Erikson); conflicts: basic trust versus mistrust, autonomy versus shame and doubt, initiative versus guilt, industry versus inferiority, identity versus role confusion, intimacy versus isolation, generativity versus stagnation, and integrity versus dispair
social learning theory
emphasized modeling (imitation/observational learning) as a powerful source of development (Bandura)
psychosexual theory
emphasizes that how parents manage their child's sexual and aggressive drives in the first few years is crucial for healthy personality development (Freud); oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital stages
fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD)
encompasses fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS), characterized by slow physical growth, short eyelid openings, thin upper lip, flattened philtrum, and brain injury; partial fetal alcohol syndrome (pFAS), characterized by brain abnormality and two out of the three facial abnormalities of FAS; and alcohol-related neurodevelopmental disorder (ARND), in which at least three areas of mental functioning are impaired despite typical physical growth and absence of facial abnormalities
modifier genes
enhance or dilute the effects of other genes
case study
in-depth observation of a single subject low validity and cannot generalize it
late maturers (boys) WHY
evolcative processes: bigger (athletics), given more responsibilities, and parents have higher aspirations
experiment to thelan's theory of dynamic systems theory
examined number of steps with body size/weight; no manipulation, or added weight, or removed weight (in water)
neuroimaging
examining phenomena at a different level of analysis
john watson
experiment with 11 month old "little albert" in 1920s
what are the limitation of theories?
explains but leaves out important facts - one theory can't explain everything and each theory has its own focus
egocentrism
failure to distinguish others' symbolic viewpoints from one's own
Myelination
fatty insulation grows around the axons (speeds up messages).
infants first reach with what first?
feet first
what can fetuses do? sensation
fetus experiences tactile stimulation as a result of its own activity, and tastes and smells the amniotic fluid; responds to sounds from at least the 6th month of gestation; prenatal visual experience however is negligible
behavioral genetics
field devoted to uncovering the contributions of nature and nurture to this diversity in human traits and abilities
visual acuity
fineness of discrimination; newborns cannot focus their eyes well
mirror neurons
fire identically when a primate hears or sees an action and when it carries out that action on its own
spermache
first ejaculation
spermarch
first ejaculation for males, usually occurring at around age 13 1/2
age of viability
first point at which baby can survive; 22-26 weeks
states of arousal
five degrees of sleep and wakefulness newborn infants move in and out of throughout day and night
neurobiological methods
fmri and eeg/erp
behavioral theories
focus on observable conditions and behaviors development change is caused by environmental sources famous theorists ; pavlov watson skinner
centration
focus on one aspect of a situation, neglecting other important features; understanding is centered
piaget stage 4
formal operational period (11-onward): mental operations applied to abstract ideas; logical, systematic thinking
reflex
inborn, automatic response to a particular form of stimulation
infancy and toddlerhood
from birth to 2 years dramatic changes in body and brain - motot, perceptual and intellectual capacities - begining of language , infancy - first year toddlerhood - second year - first independent steps
prenatal period
from conception to birth most rapid time of change
how does the brain develop?
from the back to front
Sperm and Egg. Each has 23 chromosomes and together they make 23 pairs
gamete
scientific method
general way to seek evidence to answer question Formulate a research question Develop a hypothesis Test the hypothesis Draw conclusions Make findings available
what are teratogens dependent on?
genetic diathesis: stress model serves to explore how biological or genetic traits (diatheses) interact with environmental influences (stressors) to produce disorders
PKU
genetic disease that causes inability to metabolize phenylalanine and can lead to intellectual disability; environment can alter the fate of these individuals (do not feed these children phenylalanine)
hierarchical aspect of dynamic systems
genetic influences (reflexes) necessary for setting the stage (building blocks). each skill sits on top of previously established skills; environment is necessary to provide motivation and purposes to move
maturation
genetically determined, naturally unfolding course of growth
parietal lobe
governs spatial processing and integrates sensory input with information in memory
habitutation
gradual reduction in the strength of a response due to repetitive stimulation (e.g., loss of interest in a known toy)
proximodistal trend
growht proceeds from "near to far;" from center of body outward
dominant cerebral hemisphere
handedness reflects the greater capacity of one side of the brain to carry out skilled motor action
chemosensation (taste and smell)
have taste preferences (can be influenced by prenatal environment; breast fed babies recognize mother by odor
cephalocaudal
head to toe
what are 2 main characteristics of human development?
hierarchical and self-organizing
estrogens and androgens
hormones present in each sex, but in different amounts (estrogens = female, androgens = male)
sociocultural theory
how culture - the values, beliefs, customs, and skills of a social group - is transmitted to the next generation; social interaction is necessary for children to acquire the ways of thinking and behaving that make up a society's culture (Vygotsky)
normative development
how do people on average change with age (how most people are alike) ex. at what age do most children start to walk?
how do we get theories?
hypothesis testing, data
which two states of mind are always at battle?
id and superego
A-not-B search error
if babies reach several times for an object at one hiding place (A), then see it moved to another (B), they still search for it in the first hiding place (A)
extinction
if the CS is presented alone enough times, without being paired with the UCS, the CR will no longer occur
evidence from fMRI for poor inhibitory control
immature frontal lobe contribution
how does developmental change occur
in an analogous way, variation and selection produce changes within an individual lifetime for example: learning to retrieve a toy, to add numbers, to communicate
synaptogenesis
is the formation of synapses between neurons in the nervous system. Although it occurs throughout a healthy person's lifespan, an explosion of synapse formation occurs during early brain development Rapid increase in synapses in early years Gradual pruning process that extends beyond first decade of life "Use it or lose it"
core knowledge theory
kids come into the world with a universal foundation of knowledge - domain -specific knowledge ; physics , biology , number
psychosexual stages
largely shaped by parent - child stages; 1. oral stage (0-1) 2. anal stage (1-3) 3. phallic stage (3-6) 4. latency stage (6-12) 5. genital (12 years and older)
vision
last sense to develop. acuity (small objects and fine detail) is very bad initially, but by 12 months it is almost at adult levels. accommodation (changing lens for focus) is very bad
john lockes perspective on child development
like aristotle, saw the child as a tabula rasa, and advocated first instilling discipline, then gradually increasing the child's freedom
how can you Measure Change over Time
longitudinal designs cross-sectional designs sequential designs microgentic design
longitudinal vs cross sectional research
longitudinal: following one individual and studying them throughout life cross sectional: collecting observations and data from a group of individuals at a specific point in time
individual differences
looking at individual variations in development (how people differ from each other) ex. if your mother carried you a lot, will your walking be delayed?
lobes of cerebral cortex
major areas of the cortex that are associated with different categories of behavior
X-linked inheritance
males are more likely to be affected by harmful alleles carried on the X chromosome because their sex chromosomes do not match
polygenic inheritance
many genes determine a characteristic
dynamic systems theory of motor development
mastery of motor skills involves acquiring increasingly complex systems of action; when motor skills work as a system, separate abilities blend together, each cooperating with others to produce more effective ways of exploring and controlling the environment
habituation
measure differentiation - show stimuli until "bored" then measure look time at new stimuli
results of the mobile conjugate reinforcement
measure retention or savings in subsequent test. results: 2 month olds remember up to 3 days and 3 month olds remember for more than one week
heritability estimates
measure the extent to which individual differences in complex traits in a specific population are due to genetic factors
normative approach
measures of behavior are taken on large numbers of individuals and age- related averages are computed to represent typical development
preferential looking
measuring what the "preference" -- what the baby wants to look at ex- how babies will look for longer at a schematic face then scrambled face -- babies have a more concern / innate to look at a human face
prenatal diagnostic methods
medical procedures that permit detection of developmental problems before birth
Thelan's Theory: dynamic systems theory apprach
need to consider the entire baby as a system; changes as simple as physical growth could affect phenotype
synaptic pruning
neurons that are seldom stimulated lose their synapses; returns neurons not needed at the moment to an uncommitted state so they can support future development
classical conditioning
neutral stimulus (becomes conditioned stimulus, CS) paired with stimulus that leads to reflexive response (unconditioned response, UCR); once baby's nervous system makes connection between the two stimuli, new stimulus produces behavior by itself (conditioned response, CR)
Jean-Jacques Rousseau
noble savages -- naturally endowed with a sense of right and wrong and an innate plan for orderly healthy growth children's built - in normal sense and unique ways of thinking and feeling would only be harmed by adult training two concepts - stage and maturation discontinuous - single unified course mapped out by nature
cohort effect
non-developmental effects caused by differences in group experiences
fMRI
non-invasively measure brain activity with large magnet; spatial resolution is great, but temporal is poor. expensive and sensitive to movement
ERP methods
non-invasivey measure brain activity form scalp; electrodes. temporal resolution is great, but spatial is bad. relatively cheap but sensitive to movement
what are the two types of quesitons
normative development, and individual differences
class inclusion
not being able to include certian things into different classes -- like the is there more dogs or animals -- would say there are more dogs
skills of the sensorimotor stage
object permanence a- not- b error deferred imitation
what are the limitations to the observational designs ?
observer influence - reactivity observer bias
event sampling
observer records all instances of a particular behavior during a specified time period
experience-dependent brain growth
occurs throughout our lives; additional growth and refinement of established brain structures as a result of specific learning experiences that vary widely across individuals and cultures
logical necessity
of propositional thought - that the accuracy of conclusions drawn from premises rests on the rules of logic, not on real-world confirmation
growth hormone (GH)
only pituitary secretion produced continuously throughout life; affects development of all tissues except the central nervous system and the genitals
B.R Skinner
operant conditioning child learn through consequences "operate" on their environments to avoid punishments and attract more reinforcements
delay of gratification task
present with one small marshmallow now, or wait until later for large marshmallow. the experimenter leaves the room and monitors the behavior of the child; preschoolers do very poorly, but by 6 they do much better
go-nogo task
press button whenever you see letter, don't press for X; children have a hard time doing this due to an increased false alarm rate (c-shaped development)
occipital lobe
primarily associated with processing visual information
id
primitive instincts, completely unconscious
why is the stepping reflex present at birth, but then disappears after a few weeks
primitive reflex that is suppressed by maturation of inhibitory input from cortex; lost because of disuse, need practice to regain ability
mitosis
process by which DNA duplicates itself; diploid (2n) into diploid (2n)
discontinuous development
process in which new ways of understanding and responding to the world emerge at specific times -- step process
puberty
process of reaching sexual maturity; includes not only physical changes, but psychological changes as well (sensitive period)
intersubjectivity
process whereby two participants who begin a task with different understandings arrive at a shared understanding
what are the stages of neural development?
proliferation, migration, aggregation, differentiation, synapse formation, apoptosis, myelination
stage theories
propose that development occurs in a progression of age-related, qualitative shifts
overlapping - waves model
proposes that at any one age, children use multiple strategies; that with age and experience, they rely increasingly on more strategies and that development involves changes in use of existing strategies as well as discovery of new approaches. Children benefit from strategic variability
Erikson's theory pros , cons, major difference
pros ; spans lifetime development cons ; broad and somewhat vague major difference from freud's ; focused on social instead of sexual
chorion
protective membrane that surrounds the amnion
what are the key theories of development?
psychoanalytic behavioral social learning ecological systems cognitive sociocultural
reformation
puritan belief in orginal sin gave rise to the view that children were born evil and stubborn and had to be civilized adopted a moderate balance between serverity and permissiveness
stages
qualitative changes in thinking, feeling and behaving that characterize specific period of development
stages
qualitative changes in thinking, feeling, and behaving that characterize specific periods of development
ego
ration component; early childhood
ego
ration thought
maturation
refers to a genetically determined, naturally unfolding course of growth
variation
refers to differences in thought and behavior within and among individuals
nature
refers to our genetic endowment, especially the genes we receive from our parents
nurture
refers to the wide range of environments, both physical and social, that influence our development
experience-expectant brain growth
refers to the young brain's rapidly developing organization, which depends on ordinary experiences - opportunities to interact with people, hear language and other sounds, see and touch objects, and move about and explore the environment
punishment
removing a desirable stimulus or presenting an unpleasant one to decrease the occurrence of a response
time sampling
researcher records whether certain behaviors occur during a sampling of short intervals
field experiments
researchers capitalize on opportunities to randomly assign participants to treatment conditions in natural settings
violation-of-expectation method
researchers may habituate babies to a physical event (expose them to the event until their looking declines) to familiarize them with a situation in which their knowledge will be tested, or they may simply show babies an expected event (one that follows physical laws) and an unexpected event (a variation of the first event that violates physical laws); heightened attention to the unexpected event suggests that the infant is "surprised" by a deviation from physical reality - and, therefore, is aware of that aspect of the physical world
clinical interview
researchers use a flexible, conversational style to probe for the participant's point of view
naturalistic observation
researching behavior of interest in the field, or natural environment
glial cells
responsible for myelination, the coating of neural fibers with an insulating fatty sheath (myelin) that improves the efficiency of message transfer; makes up about half of brain's volume
thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)
secondary pituitary hormone that prompts the thyroid gland in the neck to release thyroxine, which is necessary for brain development and for GH to have its full impact on body size
taste
sensitivity to taste and smell develops before birth newborns innately prefer sweet flavors exposure to food in utero influence food preferences
piaget stage 1
sensorimotor period (0-2): coordination of sensory input and motor responses; development of object permanence
what are piaget's stages?
sensorimotor stage peroperational stage conrete operational stage formal operational stage
what is a theory
set of concepts and propositions designed to organize, describe, and explain observations. constrain and interpret findings. make predictions about future behavior
epiphyses
special growth centers that appear at the two extreme ends of each of the long bones of the body
circular reaction
special means of adapting first schemes; involves stumbling onto a new experience caused by the baby's own motor activity; reaction is "circular" because, as the infant tries to repeat the event again and again, a sensorimotor response that originally occurred by chance strengthens into a new scheme
lateralization
specialization of the two hemispheres
Neurons
specialized cells that process information and allow communication in the nervous system.
reproduction
sperm and egg (ganetes) each have 23 chromosomes resulting zygote has 23 chromosome pairs
reinforcer
stimulus that increases occurrence of a response
neuroimaging tools
structural methods: MRI, Diffusion tensor imaging functional methods: electroencenphalogram (EEG)/event-related potentials(ERP), PET, fMRI
pituitary gland
structure located at the base of the brain near the hypothalamus, which initiates and regulates pituitary secretions; releases most important hormones for human growth
cross-sectional designs
study groups that differ in age - like one at 2 yr one at 4 yr
longitudinal design
study individuals over a long period of time
subtraction method
subtract brain activation for task b (control condition) form task a (experimental condition) you are left with the activation of interest
examples of experience-expectant
sunlight and vitamin D language development
systems theories
systems theories view the child as developing within layers of variables which interact with each other in complex ways
John Locke
tabula rase - blank slate children being as nothing ar all - all characters are shaped entirely by experience changed view from harshness to kindess to children development - continuous nurture high plasticity at later ages due to new experiences a passive child has to be discarded -- view children as active, purposeful beings who contribute substantially to their own development
negative reinforcement
taking something away to strengthen response
negative punishment
taking something away to weaken response
reciprocal teaching
teacher and two to four students form a collaborative group and take turns leading dialogues on the content of a text passage; within the dialogues, group members apply four cognitive strategies: questioning, summarizing, clarifying, and predicting
canalization
tendency of heredity to restrict the development of some characteristics to just one or a few outcomes
niche-picking
tendency to actively choose environments that complement our heredity
stability
that children who are high or low in a charactertistic will remain so ar later ages
plasticity; negative vs positive
the ability of the brain to change in response to the environment negative: neglect - kitten's eyes positive: violinists' left hand
examples of experience-dependent
the ability to read one particular language
deferred imitation
the ability to remember and copy the behavior of models who are not present
affordances
the action possibilities that a situation offers an organism with certain motor capabilities; guides perception
information processing
the human mind can be viewed as a symbol-manipulating system through which information flows
sociodramatic play
the make-believe with others that is under way by the end of the second year and increases rapidly in complexity during early childhood
fraternal (dizygotic) twins
the most common type of multiple birth; result from the release and fertilization of two ova; no more alike than ordinary siblings
human development
the multidisciplinary study of how people change systematically over time
ontogenetics
the origination and development of an organism, usually from the time of fertilization of the egg to the organism's mature form
proximodistal development
the sensory structures are present relatively early in prenatal development and play a vital role in fetal development and learning
why do we need theories?
they help us understand the mechanism of how things work, and help us make predictions
critical period
time in the early stages of an organism's life during which it displays a heightened sensitivity to certain environmental stimuli, and develops in particular ways due to experiences at this time. If the organism does not receive the appropriate stimulus during this "critical period", it may be difficult, or even impossible, to develop some functions later in life.
sensitive period
time that is optimal for certain capacities to emerge because the individual is especially responsive to environmental influences
the scientific method
to test a belief while retaining objectivity
natural, or quasi-, experiments
treatments that already exist, such as different family environments, child-care centers, or schools, are compared; groups of participants carefully chosen to ensure that their characteristics are as much alike as possible
sex chromosomes
twenty-third pair of chromosomes; XX in females, XY in males
fraternal twins
twice as common as identical, fraternal arise when two eggs are released at once if both are fertilized by separated sperm, two fetuses form. Genetically they are just ordinary siblings
motor development theory: nature
unfolding of genetically programmed sequence of events; cephalocaudal, proximodistal (muscle/skeleton and behaviors)
contexts
unique combinations of personal and enviormental circumstances that can result in different paths of change
visual cliff
used in the earliest studies of depth perception; consists of a plexiglas-covered table with a platform at the center, a "shallow" side with a checkerboard pattern just under the glass, and a "deep" side with a checkerboard several feet below the glass; crawling babies readily cross the shallow side, but not the deep side (infant demonstrates ability to perceive depth)
Apgar Scale
used to assess a baby's physical condition; rating of 0, 1, or 2 on characteristics: heart rate, respiratory effort, reflex irritability (sneezing, coughing, and grimacing), muscle tone and color; Appearance, Pulse, Grimace, Activity and Respiration
assimilation
using current schemes to interpret the world
what are the 2 aspects of Darwin's theory of evolution
variation and selection
what is the technique lab setup
video camera, video monitor computer and VCR parents and child
dual representation
viewing a symbolic object as both an object in its own right and a symbol
ecological systems theory
views the child as developing with a complex system of relationships affected by multiple levels of the surrounding environment (Bronfenbrenner); microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, chronosystem
secondary sexual characteristics
visible on the outside of the body; additional signs of sexual maturity
marasmus
wasted condition of the body caused by a diet low in all essential nutrients; appears in first year of life when a baby's mother is too malnourished to produce enough breast milk and bottle-feeding is also inadequate
watch/go over lecture 4
watch lecture 4
compulsive
way too demanding - too orderly
rooting reflex
when a baby's cheek is stroked, it turns its head toward the cheek that was stroked and opens its mouth; helps a baby to find the nipple
hypothetico-deductive reasoning
when faced with a problem, they start with a hypothesis, from which they deduce logical, testable inferences; then, they systematically isolate and combine variables to see which of these inferences are confirmed in the real world
observer bias
when observers are aware of the purpose of a study, they may see and record what they expect to see rather than what participants actually do
dishabituation
when you basically unbored the babies - giving new stimuli
displaced reference
words can be used to cue mental images of things not physically present; emerges around the first birthday
ivan pavlov
worked with dogs to demonstrated -- classical conditioning
preoperational stage
years 2 - 7; most obvious change is extraordinary increase in representational, or symbolic, activity
identical (monozygotic) twins
zygote that has started to duplicate separates into two clusters of cells that develop into two individuals; same genetic makeup