Psych 241 Exam 1 chapter Questions

What do you think the take home message was from Dawn Rendell's dissertation research?

"The Stress Problem: Exploring the intersections of student stress, campus involvement, and problem--Dramatic increase in proportion of students reporting high levels of stress and anxiety early in college career Results: -Problem Solving negatively correlated with Stress -Technology Use negatively correlated with Stress even after controlling for other variables -Involvement not significantly correlated with Stress Take home message: that stress levels and problem solving skills seem to be negatively correlated, so focus on improving problem solving skills may help students reduce their stress

What are archival records and physical traces, and why have they both become more important in recent years?

-Archival records include on-line behavior, academic records, health records, etc. that can be DVs from the past or present, and are not subject to reactivity -Physical traces can be things from the past but also individual characteristics that are not reactive -They are more interesting because many more archival records are being kept electronically and are easily accessible for analysis. In addition, we can now measure many physical traces (including genes, brain volume, connectivity, etc.) and look at the relationships between these traces and behavior.

What are the three possible inferences for any correlation?

1) A causes B 2) B causes A 3) C causes A and B Can't actually draw any causal inferences from correlation because there is no way to control for confounding variables.

Please list and describe the three main types of research designs.

1. Cross-sectional Design: researchers select one or more samples from the population at a time. Can help with understanding characteristic of the population or differences between populations. 2. Successive Independent samples Design: a series of cross-sectional surveys are conducted over time with a different sample of respondents at each timepoint. The samples answer the same set of questions and the different samples are drawn from the same population so that the responses can be compared. 3. Longitudinal Design: researchers survey the same repondants over time with the hope of describing individual change overtime. This can be difficult because people may drop out.

Please list and describe the four main goals of the scientific method.

1. Description: Researchers define, classify, catalogue, or categorize events or observations they have. This process helps in aims at describing mental processes, behaviors, and relationships. 2. Prediction: Researchers use correlations among variables to predict mental processes and behavior. Use data to predict relationships between events. 3. Explanation: Researchers identify possible causes of phenomena/ behavior to gain better understanding. 4. Application: Psychologists apply the knowledge acquired through research to improve current practices and help people.

Please list and describe the four levels of scale used in quantitative measures.

1. Nominal: Used to sort stimuli into discrete categories, using equal/not equal operations. 2. Ordinal: Used to rank stimuli as greater/less than a single dimension. 3. Interval: Used to specify the distance between stimuli on a given dimension. Can use addition, multiplication, subtraction, and division as operations. 4. Ratio: Uses to express ratios of values to specify the distance between the stimuli and a given dimension. Can use addition, multiplication, subtraction, division, and formation of ratios as operations.

What specific aspects of the scientific method did John Snow use in his study of cholera?

1. Question about cause(s) of cholera 2. Hypothesis about water as source, cause unknown 3. Observational data provide support (but correlational) -DV: Deaths (Physical Trace Data + Natural Observations) 4. Remove handle and observe changes (design) 5. Observation with Intervention, Field experiment 6.Pretest - Post-test design: AB design

3 Ss of Informed consent

1. Setting: expectation of privacy 2. Shared: how will the data be showed? 3. Sensitive: what kind of info?

How would you describe a hypothesis, and what aspects are important in creating a strong testable hypothesis?

A hypothesis is an informed prediction accompanied by a tentative explanation for something. In the context of research, a hypothesis typically suggests how the independent and dependent variables are related. Hypotheses typically aim to answer "How?" and "Why?" about a testable question. The biggest requirement for a hypothesis to be recognized by science is falsifiability, meaning that the hypothesis does not rely on a circular argument. In addition to being falsifiable, a hypothesis also needs to have well defined concepts so that these concepts may be tested.

What do we mean by a theory, and a hypothesis, and how are these two related to each other?

A hypothesis is the prediction for an experimental outcome, which is supported by a tentative explanation. Research hypotheses typically state that the independent variable will have an affect on the dependent variable, and then the experiment is conducted to see if this is falsified. A theory, on the other hand, is supported by evidence and functions as a unifying explanation for several already supported hypotheses. In the context of psychology, a theory takes information gained from several tested hypotheses to develop a model for some aspect of thought or behavior. This means that a hypothesis functions as a kind of building block that can provide knowledge for producing a more encompassing scientific theory.

What does it mean for a sample to be representative of a population? What does a representative sample allow, in regards to that population?

A sample is representative of the population when researchers are able to generalize their observations of the sample in attempt to learn about the larger population. This requires to a degree of external validity so that the sample can be generalized for that particular population, setting, and set of conditions. This allows researchers to learn things about the general population using the smaller sample available for the study.

What do we mean by a theory, and what are three important aspects of a good scientific theory?

A scientific theory is an explanation that aims to explain the causes of phenomena in an organized set of propositions that connect empirical data and suggest a testable hypothesis. Three important aspects of a theory are that is it logical, precise, and parsimonious. A theory needs to logically organize empirical data from several studies so that these studies can be connected. This connection between studies may involve an intervening variable to link the independent and dependant variables and explain why the variables are related. Theories must also make a precise prediction in the form of a testable hypothesis. This hypothesis helps guide future research and gives the scientific community the chance to attempt to falsify the theory. Lastly, theories are expected to follow the rule of parsimony, meaning that theories should strive for the simplest possible explanation.

AB- Design

Basic design in which collect some baseline data and change conditions to observe any impact...no control :(

What step needs to be taken before any research study can be conducted?

Before researchers can start a study, they must propose their research to be reviewed against ethical standards. If the study does not have an ethical plan of action, it may lead to significant legal and financial penalties as well as damage to the public's view of the scientific community. The step of reviewing a study before its conducted avoids the negative outcomes.

What do we mean by informed consent, and what are researchers obligated to do before starting most studies?

Before starting most studies, researchers are obligated to clearly describe the research procedures so that any potential participants understands the factors that may impact their willingness to participate. Potential participants are also given the opportunity to ask any questions they may have. These are essential parts of informed consent, where the participant explicitly shows they are willing to participate in the study. Informed consent requires a clear understanding of the nature of the research as well as any consequences associated with it. Consent must be given freely, without any undue pressure and with the understanding that participants are able to withdraw from the study as any point.

What do we mean when we say correlation does not imply causation? What does it mean for a relationship to be spurious?

Correlation does not imply causation means that simply because two variables have a strong correlation does not actually mean that one of the variables causes or directly impacts the other. In correlational research, there is no way to explicitly determine if one variable is actively causing the other variable because there is always the possibility of confounding variables that may be linking the data. A good example of this is a spurious relationship, where the relationship between the two variables can be explained by a third variable.

What do we mean by deception in psychological research and how does this lead to an ethical dilemma?

Deception in psychological research refers to when researchers purposely withhold or misinform participants about the research. This leads to an ethical dilemma because the nature of deception violates informed consent. Omission and commission in psychological research is a difficult dilemma for researchers because some research may require some level of deception, but deception can also lead to a general distrust of psychologists and researchers.

What are dependent variables and what can they tell us in experiments?

Dependent variables are the variables that are used to assess if the independent variable has any effect. Researchers are able to measure the dependent variable in order to observe how the dependent variable changes when the independent variable, which researchers are able to manipulate, changes. If there is not a significant change in the dependent variables, the variables may not have a causal relationship because the independent variable has no significant effect on the dependent variable.

How do ethical issues relate to the reporting of psychological research?

Ethical issues relate to the reporting of psychological research because researchers are expected to report their findings in a way that recognizes the work of others via proper citations and references. These ethical standards for reporting the results of a scientific investigation are put in place to ensure that the credit is given to those who have made significant contributions to the research project and that the study does not plagiarize the work of others.

How would you describe the cyclical nature of the scientific method and research process?

In psych its difficult to answer a question with a single study, so studies are conducted with the aim of gaining more information that can help inform future hypotheses and studies (so continue with the cycle of research multiple times)

What are indirect observational methods and why have archival records become so important in recent years?

Indirect observational methods are methods in which researchers focus on evidence of past behavior using physical traces or archival records. Archival records have become so important in recent years because they are nonreactive and they can show reactions to natural treatment (events that significantly impact society). This form of observation also supplies plentiful data, especially with the internet, and can help increase the external validity of other direct or experimental observations if their findings converge.

Inductive vs deductive theorizing.

Inductive: Use observations or data to build a theory (bottom up) Deductive: Theories guide research, where researcher starts with a prediction from theory as their hypothesis. This method is preferred because it is falsifiable

What are the three conditions that need to be met to have internal validity? External Validity?

Internal validity: ability to draw a causal inference 1. Covariation between variables 2. Time order relationship 3. Elimination of potential alternatives (eliminate confounding variables) External validity: ability to use sample to learn about population 1. representative sample (share key characteristics) 2. Data from different time points (helps improve)

Why is important to assess inter-observer reliability, and what can we do to increase this type of reliability?

It is important to assess inter-observer reliability because if individual observers are not able to agree in their observations, than the data will not be consistent or reliable. Interobserver reliability can be increased through the use of clear behavior definitions, training observers, and providing feedback pertaining to the accuracy of observations.

Why does it matter that science occurs within different contexts? Please describe the three contexts discussed.

It matters that science occurs in different contexts because it shows that science is influenced by culture. This contradicts the common misconception that science is completely unrelated to events outside of science. Even with the scientific method to prevent bias, historical, social-cultural, and moral factors all impact how scientific studies are conducted. Viewing science in a historical context shows how prevailing topics of a time reflect their time frame and shift overtime. For example, psychology has shifted from focusing on sensation, to behaviorism, and now the computer revolution has played a role is shifting the dominant theme to cognitive psychology. Additionally, the social-cultural context of research impacts what people are interested in, which goes on to influence the topics that researchers choose to study, the availability of resources for certain topics, as well as the acceptance of any significant results. If any significant results contradict the current social-cultural opinion, then they are more likely to be ignored or questioned. The cultural lense through which a scientist works can also impact their work, as shown by ethnocentric biases that may influence how researchers observe behavior. Lastly, moral contexts impact science by continuously holding researchers to ethical guidelines that are developed to evaluate the risks and benefits associated with scientific research. These guidelines impact the scope of topics and methods that scientists can use to conduct research.

What do we mean by minimal risk?

Minimal risk is used to refer to studies with a potential risk for harm or discomfort that is no greater than the risks of daily life. One example includes the completion of lengthy computerized tests that assess a number of mental abilities, which may be similar to the experience of taking an exam.

What would you propose to do in order to provide stronger evidence for the relationship between stress levels and problem solving skills in college students?

Need to provide evidence of a causal relationship. This may be accomplished by measuring perceived stress before and after a problem solving intervention, ensuring to have a control group that does not take part in the intervention.

Why can't we draw a causal inference from observational research alone?

Not controlling for confounding variables

What do we mean by observer bias, and what steps should be taken to minimize this bias?

Observer bias is when the researcher's own biases and thoughts impact how they choose to observe and interpret behaviors. This can lead to systematic errors in identifying and recording behaviors. This bias can be reduced by keeping observers blind to the goals of the study, meaning that they do not know what they should expect to observe.

What are the two committees in charge of evaluating proposals and what type of research does each focus on?

One committee that is in charge of evaluating research proposals is the National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research, which focuses on protecting the rights and welfare of human participants in psychological research. This is accomplished through a number of review committees called Institutional Review Boards (IRBs) that work to protect the rights and safety of human participants. The second committee in charge of reviewing research proposals is the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC), which ensures that research meets guidelines for care of laboratory animals. This committee must include at least one scientist, a veterinarian, and a member not affiliated with the institution. Violation of these standards for either human or animal research can lead to halting all research at an institution, fines, and a loss of all federal funding.

What are some keys aspects of the scientific method and how do these differ from our everyday approaches to knowledge?

One key aspect of the scientific method that does not seem to play a large role in everyday life is the exercise of skepticism. Although it's helpful to practice healthy skepticism in everyday learning, it is not a requirement. This differs from the scientific method because skeptical thinking is essential for assessing one's own results as well as other published papers. Everyday learning also puts less stress on control and potential biases. This is in stark contrast of the scientific method because experiments require a great deal of control over the experimental conditions to ensure that any outside variables don't impact the results. In addition to this control, experiments need an unbiased way to collect and analyze the data.

Why do psychologists develop theories and conduct psychological research?

Psychologists develop theories and conduct psychological research to gain a better understanding of behavior, thoughts, and feelings. Knowledge gained by research can then be applied to improve lives.

What are the main differences between quantitative data analysis and qualitative data analysis?

Qualitative data lacks numbers, so it is analyzed by identifying themes, categories of behaviors, and the use of interpretation. Researchers often do not begin with a hypothesis, and instead generate hypotheses from their analysis. This differs greatly from Quantitative data analysis, which typically involves statistical analysis like frequency counts, standard deviations, etc.

What do mean by reactivity and why might this be a problem for survey research?

Reactivity refers to how people may change their behavior if they know they are being observed. This may be a problem for survey research because people may answer questions in the way they think the researcher want the question to be answered or how the individual feels the answer should be. This means that people may not report the truth because they are inclined to write the more socially acceptable answer rather than the most truthful one. This creates an issue because it makes the survey sample unrepresentative of the population in normal life.

What do we mean by reactivity, and what methods might be used to minimize reactivity?

Reactivity refers to when when people react to the fact they are being observed by changing their normal behavior, which can make a sample unrepresentative of the population. Nonreactive forms of data collection, such as indirect observations, may be used to minimize the impact of reactivity. Also, reactivity can be limited by concealing the observer's presence, or through desensitization.

What do you need to have to be able to generalize from a sample to the population?

Researchers must be able to generalize the particular characteristics they are focusing on from the sample to the population. This means that within the scope of the experiment, the sample should be able to accurately represent and describe the population.

How do we deal with risk in research, and what needs to happen as risks become greater?

Risk in psychological studies is accompanied by safeguards to protect participants, which increase as the potential risk increases. Researchers can limit psychological stress by explaining the procedure to participants, or providing resources for psychological help. Social risk can also be reduced by ensuring confidentiality. As the risks increase, the measures to which researchers must go to protect their participants also increase accordingly.

How do we determine risk levels, and what are the three main potential risks in psychological research?

Risk levels are determined by considering characteristics of the participants and the specific activities that they would do as part of the study. The three main potential risks in psychological research are risk of physical injury, social injury, and mental/emotional stress. Physical risk stems from activities like running, social risks include the confidentiality of personal information, and psychological risks involve the level of stress the participants will be subjected to.

Why is selection of the sample so important in many types of research?

Selection of the sample is so important in many types of research because it is crucial to have a representative sample. Without a good sample, the data could be misleading or fail to accurately represent the target population, reducing its value.

When would stratified random sampling be a better approach than simple random sampling?

Stratified sampling overall increases the representativeness of the sample and is especially helpful when you want to describe specific portions of the population.

Which of the four main goals is survey research particularly good at addressing?

Survey research particularly leads itself to making predictions and describing people's opinions, thoughts, and attitudes

What are surveys generally used for, and what do we mean by the scope of a survey?

Surveys are generally used to assess people's thoughts, opinions, and feelings. The scope of a survey refers to the goals and design of the survey, whether it is more specific and limited or has much larger, and possibly global, goals.

What do we mean by the Risk/Benefit ratio and what is it used for?

The Risk/Benefit ratio is a subjective evaluation of the risks and benefits of a study. This is considered in conjunction with ethical principles to determine if the study should be conducted. This ratio weighs the benefit of any potential new knowledge, issues associated with not conducting the study, and the potential costs of the experiment may have for individuals involved and the community as a whole. The IRB will approve or disapprove of a study based on the Risk/Benefit. Consider: participant, society, the researcher/institution

What do we mean by debriefing and what are researchers trying to achieve with this step?

The final step of debriefing participants aims to inform participants about the nature of the research and their role in the study. This step allows researchers to learn about how participants viewed the procedures, provide ideas for future research, and hopefully leave feeling good about their participation. This step is particularly important for studies involving deception because researchers are obligated to address any misconceptions, explain the need for deception, and remove any harmful effects resulting from the deception.

What are the four main methods for obtaining survey data?

The four main methods of obtaining survey data include mail surveys , personal interviews, telephone interviews, and internet surveys. Each method varies and comes with its own advantages and disadvantages. Mail surveys and online surveys may have issues with the response rate, while both telephone and personal interviews can be impacted by interviewer bias.

What are the main features of an experiment and what are scientists trying to accomplish by conducting them?

The main feature of an experiment is control because scientists must be able to manipulate one or more factors to observe the effects of this manipulation. This process involves an independent variable, which can be manipulated, and a dependent variable, which is observed. The experimental design is helpful in determining the nature of the relationship between the independent and dependent variables. Scientists ultimately conduct experiments to determine if there is a causal relationship between the independent and dependent variables. This information can then be used to help develop theories and applied to help improve lives.

What are the goals of the two main types of direct observational methods?

The main goal of naturalistic observation is to observe and describe behavior as it normally occurs so that researchers can examine the relationship among variables. The main of observations with intervention is to observe behaviors and situations that are not usually open to scientific observation.

What are the main steps involved in creating a questionnaire?

The main steps to create a questionnaire are deciding what information the questionnaire will collect and the best way to administer the questionnaire. Next, a draft of the questions has to be made, reexamined and revised to ensure the best questions, wording, and order. After this revision period, the questionnaire has to be pretested to gain feedback. Lastly, after the questionnaire has been edited, the researcher should follow the procedures to administer the questionnaire and collect data.

What do you think the most important aspect of thinking like a researcher is, really?

The most important aspect of thinking like a researcher is scepticism. Researchers must be able to view both their own work as well at other studies from a sceptical viewpoint.. This is essential because not all research will be conducted in strong and reliable way, so researchers must be able to spot of flaws and be cautious of believing everything they read.

What is the multi-method approach, and what does it offer for the field of Psychological and Brain Sciences?

The multimethod approach uses several research methodologies and measures in order to gain a holistic understanding. The multi-method approach offers the field of Psychology and Brain Sciences a better way to seek information because no single method is able to encompass the complex relationships that factor into behavior and development.

Causal Inference

The process of drawing a conclusion about a causal connection based on the conditions of the occurrence

What do we mean by the reliability and validity of a measurement?

The reliability of a measurement refers its consistency, which can be assessed using a test-retest method. The validity of a measure refers to the ability of the measurement to actually measure what it intends to measure.

How do we, as a research community, evaluate the validity of theories?

The research community evaluates the validity of a theory by first considering if it proposes a logical argument free of contradictions. Next, the hypothesis proposed by the theory is subjected to scrutiny. If the theory is successful, testing of the derived hypothesis will increase the acceptability of the hypothesis, though this may be difficult. Lastly, the scientific community examines if the theory is precise and follows the rule of parsimony by proposing the simplest explanation for the phenomena.

Who benefits from this scientific approach, potentially?

The scientific approach can potentially benefit anyone impacted by the information gained from research, which extends far past the individual researchers. This is because the scientific method strives to provide unbiased answers to questions of interest. Ultimately, the set standards provided by the scientific approach can potentially benefit all people by giving researchers a systematic and more comparable way to learn and advance knowledge.

What do we mean by the scientific method, and what are we able to gain through this approach?

The scientific method refers to techniques used to advance knowledge in an unbiased way by basing any conclusions on measurable evidence and specific reasoning. This approach requires that researchers investigate a research question in an unbiased way with a sceptical outlook. The scientific method aims to provide a more reliable way to produce new knowledge that is less subject to personal opinions or incentives. This is import because it allows researchers to compare their results to the results of different studies and then form ideas based off of this information.

What are the three main methods of observation with intervention? Why is it important if the participant observer is disguised or undisguised?

The three main methods of observation with intervention are participant observation, structured observation, and field experiments. These methods vary in researcher's level of intervention, with field experiment being the most involved. It is important is the participant observer is disguised or undisguised because people may change their behavior if they know they are being observed. These changes in behavior would then cause the observations to be unrepresentative of the population.

What are the two main approaches to sampling and what is the main difference between them?

The two main approaches to sampling are probability sampling and nonprobability sampling. The main difference between these two methods of sampling is that probability sampling selects individuals randomly, so every individual in the sample frame has an equal probability of being included in the sample. In non-probability sampling, individuals in the sample frame may not have the same chance of being selected.

What are the two main domains of sampling and why is sampling so important for external validity?

The two main domains of sampling are time sampling and situation sampling. Time sampling is when researchers choose time intervals for their observations, where situation sampling involves observations in different locations under different circumstances. Sampling is so important for external validity because a sample may not be able to accurately represent the entire population if the sample observations are unique to that particular group, time, or context.

What are the two main types of observational methods?

The two main types of observational methods are direct and indirect observation. Direct observation involves observing behavior while it occurs while indirect observations look at evidence of past behaviors.

What does the Duhem-Quine thesis say about assumptions and hypotheses in research? Do you agree?

There are always auxiliary or alternative hypotheses/assumptions such that we can never really test a reach hypothesis in isolation 2q "argues that no scientific hypothesis is by itself capable of making predictions" because while investigating one hypothesis, there are inherent assumptions of other involved hypotheses being correct "Although a bundle of hypotheses (i.e. a hypothesis and its background assumptions) as a whole can be tested against the empirical world and be falsified if it fails the test, the Duhem-Quine thesis says it is impossible to isolate a single hypothesis in the bundle"

What are two important characteristics of the scientific method?

Two important characteristics of the scientific method are the empirical approach and the skeptical attitude. The empirical approach prevents people from stating opinion as fact without evidence. The skeptical attitude is also critical for ensure that any information being presented has a strong foundation. The skeptical attitude makes researchers more cautious of potentially misleading evidence as well as flaws in procedure.

What are the two main types of bias present and how do we minimize them?

Two main sources of bias: 1. Selection Bias: 2. Response Late Bias

Which of the four main goals is observational research good at addressing?

describing