Psych 250 Exam 1
limitations of cross-sectional study
does not permit study of individual developmental trends, age differences may be distorted because of cohort effect
limitations of Structured Interview
does not yield the same depth of information as a clinical interview, responses are subject to inaccurate reporting
dominant-recessive inheritance
dominant gene overrides the recessive gene
age-graded influences
events that are strongly related to age and therefore fairly predictable in when they occur and how long they last ex: walking, drivers license
blastocyst
hollow, fluid-filled ball of cells
monozygotic twins
identical twins, zygote that has started to duplicate separates into two clusters of cells that develop into two individuals with the same genetic makeup
niche-picking/active influence
individuals seek out environments most compatible with their genetic predispositions
operant conditioning (infants)
infants act, or operate, on the environment, and stimuli that follow their behavior change the probability that the behavior will occur again
field experiment
investigators assign participants randomly to treatment conditions in natural settings
structured observation (systematic)
observation of behavior in a laboratory, where conditions are the same for all participants
naturalistic observation (systematic)
observation of behavior in natural contexts
X-linked inheritance
recessive gene carried on X chromosome in 23rd pair, more likely to impact men b/c women have 2 X's
Habituation
refers to a gradual reduction in the strength of a response due to repetitive stimulation
experience-expectant brain growth
refers to the young brain's rapidly developing organization, which depends on ordinary experiences - opportunities to explore the environment, interact with people, and hear language and other sounds
strengths of naturalistic observation
reflects participant's everyday lives
Nature of body growth during infancy
- growth is in uneven spurts -plump up + fill out (baby fat)
sensorimotor substage 2
-1-4 months -Primary Circular reactions -circular reactions oriented towards infants own body
sensorimotor substage 5
-12-18 months -Tertiary Circular reactions -experimentation -repeating acts w/ variation
sensorimotor substage 6
-18 months-2 years -Mental Representation -represent the world in a symbolic conceptual manner -use of words/gestures as symbols -changes in nature of play from functional to pretend
sensorimotor substage 3
-4-8 months -Secondary circular reactions -repeat interesting or novel events in environment (rattle)
sensorimotor substage 4
-8-12 months -coordination of secondary circular reactions -can engage in goal-directed behavior -combination of schemes -object permanence (A not B)
Hutton et al. findings on screens and infant cognitive development
-Higher screen use was linked with lower language & literacy scores -Higher screen use associated with lower microstructural organization and myelination of brain white matter tracts that support language, executive function, and emergent literacy skills
Morelli reading findings
-Mayan mothers: co-sleeping to promote interdependent self, continue to have children sleep in same room/bed as an adult or sibling -American mothers: babies sleep in separate bed or room to promote independent self
concerns of medicalization - pain medication controversy
-analgesics: relax mother and relieve pain but may sedate the baby -regional anesthetics: may prolong labor, trouble w/ pushing
age impact on pregnancy
-best rate in 20's - older than 40 = higher chances of infertility, miscarriage, and chromosomal defects
sensorimotor substage 1
-birth to 1 month -Reflexive schemes -exercising reflexes, building block of sensorimotor intelligence
nativist approach to language acquisition
-children are born w/ innate grammar -learning is a matter of mapping input onto innate knowledge
Behaviorist approach to language acquisition
-children learn via imitation and reinforcement
Skinner's Operant Conditioning
-consequences of behavior determine if it's repeated in the future -reinforcement: increases likelihood (positive added or negative/unpleasant removed) -punishment: decreases likelihood (take away pleasure, add negative)
Contributions of Piaget's Cognitive Developmental Theory
-convinced field that children are active learners -sparked research on children's concepts of themselves, others and human relationships
Contributions of psychoanalytic perspective
-emphasis on understanding the individual's unique life history (case studies) -inspired research on aspects of emotional and social development
categorization
-grouping similar objects and events into a single representation -reduces the enormous amount of new info infants encounter everyday, helping them learn and remember
Nature of infant brain development
-have nearly all neurons @ birth -during infancy connections between neurons increase
pattern perception
-infants preference for patterned + complex stimuli over plain
deprivation in Romanian orphanages
-intellectual deficits and remained below average -most displayed at least three serious mental health problems -generalized decrease in size and activity of the cerebral cortex
Emotional stress impact on pregnancy
-intense emotional stress can lead to miscarriage, low birth weight, and premature delivery -can increase fetal heartrate and heighten stress reactivity in life
interactionist approach to language acquisition
-language achievements emerge through an interaction of innate ability and environmental influences
Nutrition impact of pregnancy
-malnutrition = central nervous system damage, lower # of brain cells and birth weight -recommended 25-30 pound gain for mother, take multivitamin
Piaget's Cognitive Developmental Theory
-nature of child: active, naïve, scientist, constructivist -nature of change: learning in stages, qualitatively different thinking
Badura's Social Cognitive Theory
-observational learning/modeling -complex process of who to model -humans = cognitive beings - active processing of information plays role in learning
limitations of nativist approach to language acquisition
-original idea was too specific, no one was born to speak English or Chinese
Consequences for caregiving of pre-term infants
-parents can be less sensitive in caring -babies are less often held close, touched, and talked to gently
Updated views of infant cognition
-research indicates infants display certain cognitive abilities earlier than Piaget believed -Piaget may have relied too heavily on displaying knowledge through movement -development is likely gradual, continuous, and even
mutation
a sudden but permanent change in a segment of DNA
fetal alchohol spectrum disorder
a term that encompasses a range of physical, mental, and behavioral outcomes caused by prenatal alcohol exposure
sensitive period
a time that is biologically optimal for certain capacities to emerge because the individual is especially responsive to environmental influences
Ethology
concerned with the adaptive, or survival, value of behavior and its evolutionary history
Ego
conscious, rational, problem-solving, restricts ID and controls urges, forms in early infancy
macrosystem
consists of cultural values, laws, customs, and resources
view on the course of development (dimensions on which theories differ)
continuous vs discontinuous (stages)
gross motor development
control over actions that help infants get around in the environment, such as crawling, standing, and walking
imitation
copying the behavior of another person
Epigenesis
development results from ongoing exchange between heredity and all levels of the environment
evocative genetic-environment correlations
different genetically based attributes evoke certain responses
visual acuity
fineness of discrimination, limited in newborns
Germinal Period
first two weeks zygote, placenta is formed ends w/ implantation
clinical interview (self-report)
flexible interviewing procedure in which the investigator obtains a complete account of the participant's thoughts
Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory
focuses on how culture - the values, beliefs, customs, and skills of a social group - is transmitted to the next generation
dizygotic twins
fraternal twins, results from the release and fertilization of two ova
genomic imprinting
genes will behave differently if they come from mother/father
genotype
genetic make-up, set of genes inherited
strengths of structured observation
grants each participant an equal opportunity to display the behavior of interest
Heterozygous
having two different alleles for a trait
Homozygous
having two identical alleles for a trait
newborn taste and smell
highly developed sense of taste @ birth, able to communicate taste and odor preferences (sweet, smell of mother's lactating breast)
Assimilation
incorporation of new information into existing knowledge systems
cohort effect
individuals born in the same time period are influenced by a particular set of historical and cultural conditions. results based on one cohort, may not apply to people developing at other times
gene-environment interaction
individuals will differ in their reactions to the qualities of the environment due to their genetic makeup
Piaget's sensorimotor stage
infants "think" and learn about the world through their 5 senses and motor skills
core knowledge perspective
infants are born with a set of innate knowledge systems or core domains of thought, each of these prewired understandings permits a grasp of new, related information
microsystem
innermost level of the environment, consists of activities and interaction patterns in the person's immediate surroundings (family, school, etc.)
mental representation
internal images of objects, events, and actions
organization
internal process of rearranging and linking schemes
limitations of Behaviorist approach to language acquisition
language acquisition occurs w/ extreme speed and efficiency w/ minimum parental feedback -parental feedback is usually factual, not linguistic
visual development in infancy
last sense to reach full capacity, near adult levels by 6 months
newborn vision
least mature of newborn senses
concerns of medicalization - Cesareans
longer recovery rime, expensive, spiral of medicalization, psychological reaction of mother can be negative
joint attention
looking at an object that is being pointed to or following another person's eye gaze
limitations of clinical/case study method
may be biased by researchers' theoretical preferences, findings cannot be applied to individuals other than the participant
limitations of ethnography
may be biased by researchers' values and theoretical preferences, findings cannot be applied to individuals and settings other than the ones studied
limitations of sequential study
may have the same problems as longitudinal and cross-sectional strategies, but the design itself helps identify difficulties
concerns of medicalization - fetal monitoring
may inhibit mobility
limitations of structured observation
may not yield observations typical of participants' behavior in everyday life
circular reaction
means by which infants build schemes by trying to repeat chance events caused by their own motor activity
heritability estimates
measure the extent to which individual differences in complex traits in a specific population are due to genetic factors
why is formula considered?
medical reasons, historical trends, and societal structues/barriers
Superego
moral/ethical, ages 3-6, includes conscious and ego-ideal
strengths of cross-sectional study
more efficient than the longitudinal design, not plagued by problems such as participant dropout and practice effects
infantile amnesia
most of us cannot retrieve events that happened to us before ages 2- 3
polygenic inheritance
multiple genes interact to produce a characteristic (skin)
view of the determinants of development (dimensions on which theories differ)
nature v nurture
neuron
nerve cells that store and transmit information
Watson/Traditional Behaviorism
observable stimulus/response observations classical conditioning
experience-dependent brain growth
occurs throughout our lives. It consists of additional growth and refinement of established brain structures as a result of specific learning experiences that vary widely across individuals and cultures
View of the developing person (dimensions on which theories differ)
organismic: change stimulated from within, active mechanistic: change stimulated by environment, passive
trophoblast
outer ring of cells of the blastocyst that develop into 3 life support systems
in vitro fertilization
ova are surgically removed and placed in a dish of nutrients to which sperm are added, once the ovum is fertilized and duplicates into several cells, it's injected into the mother's uterus
passive genetic-environmental correlation
parents provide an environment influenced by heredity, may be predisposed
Ethnography
participant observation of a culture or distinct social group. by making extensive field notes, the researcher tries to capture the culture's unique values and social processes
changing notion of traditional childbirth
past: home delivery, natural family event current: hospitals, medical event
cephalocaudal trend
pattern of physical growth and motor control that proceeds from head to tail
proximodistal trend
pattern of physical growth and motor control that proceeds from the center of the body outward
Individualism
people are largely concerned with their own personal needs and value independence, personal exploration, discovery, achievement and choice in relationships
Collectivism
people stress group goals over individual goals and value interdependent qualities (social harmony, obligations and responsibility to others, and collaborative endeavors)
concordance rates
percent chance that both twins will share a trait that one twin has
strengths of Structured Interview
permits comparisons of participants' responses and efficient data collection
strengths of longitudinal study
permits study of common patterns and individual differences in development and relationships between early and later events and behaviors
Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Systems Theory
person develops within a complex system of relationships affected by multiple levels of the surrounding environment
video deficit effect
poorer performance after viewing a video than a live demonstration
newborn hearing
prefer complex sounds (voices), can distinguish almost all sounds in human language, can locate and orient to sounds @ 2 months (slow response)
Id
present @ birth, biological needs/desires, requires immediate gratification, unconscious
neural tube
primitive spinal cord and brain that forms when the ectoderm folds
contrast sensitivity
principle that if babies can detect a difference in contrast between two patterns, they will prefer the one with more contrast
myelination
process in which neural fibers are coated with an insulating fatty sheath that helps improve message transfer
adaptation
process of building schemes through direct interaction with the environment
amnion
protective covering, encloses organism in amniotic fluid, cushion and temperature regulation
purpose of reflexes
provide newborns with adaptive responses to their environments before they can learn about the world
Function of theory
provide organizing framework for observations, produce hypotheses, offer practical guidance
strengths of ethnography
provides a more complete description than can be derived from a single observational visit, interview, or questionnaire
strengths of clinical/case study method
provides rich, descriptive insights into factors that affect development
schemes
psychological structures that organize experience
REM sleep
rapid-eye-movement, 50% of newborn's sleeptime, stimulation for brain, uneven heart rate, blood pressure and breathing
autosomes
regular pairs of chromosomes, 22 of 23 pairs, match in size and function
deferred imitation
reproduce behavior of models who are no longer present
correlational design
researchers gather information on individuals, generally in natural life circumstances, without altering their experiences. Then they look at relationships between participants' characteristics and their behavior or development
chromosomes
rodlike structures inside cell nucleus that store and transmit genetic information, 23 pairs in each cell
umbilical cord
rope of tissue that connects the placenta to the developing organism, contains 2 arteries and a vein
gene
segment of DNA, contains heredity instructions
Structured Interview (self-report)
self-report instrument in which each participant is asked the same questions in the same way
Newborn Touch
sensitivity to touch and pain are present at birth, helps stimulate physical/emotional development
gametes
sex cells (sperm and ova), hold 23 chromosomes
kangaroo care
skin to skin contact that helps promote the recovery of preterm babies -involves placing the infant in a vertical position between the mother's breasts or next to the father's chest so the parent's body functions as a human incubator -occurs most in developing countries where hospitalization isn't always possible
fine motor development
smaller movements, such as reaching and grasping
exosystem
social settings that do not contain the developing person but nevertheless affect experiences in immediate settings (parent's jobs)
impact of crying
stimulates strong feelings of arousal and discomfort in caregivers
developmental neuroscience
study of the relationship between changes in brain and the developing person's cognitive processing and behavior patterns, as well as social and emotional development
chronosystem
temporal dimension, change over lifecourse/history
resilience
the ability to adapt effectively in the face of threats to development
brain plasticity
the capacity of various parts of the cerebral cortex to take over functions of damaged regions, declines as hemispheres of the cerebral cortex lateralize
developmental niche
the interaction of components that affect what goes on within the microsystem and determines the unique world of the child
sequential study
the investigator conducts several similar cross-sectional or longitudinal studies (called sequences), these might study participants over the same ages but in different years or they might study participants over different ages but during the same years
cross-sectional study
the investigator studies groups of participants differing in age at the same time
longitudinal study
the investigator studies the same group of participants repeatedly at different ages
cerebral cortex
the largest, most complex structure of the human brain, which contains the greatest number of neurons and synapses and accounts for the highly developed intelligence of the human species
object permanence
the understanding that objects continue to exist when out of sight
sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS)
the unexpected death, usually during the night, of an infant younger than 1 year of age that remains unexplained after thorough investigation
dependent variable
the variable that the investigator expects to be influenced by the independent variable
independent variable
the variable that the investigator expects to cause changes in another variable
phenotype
the way an individual's genotype is expressed in observable characteristics (hair color, height)
implantation
the zygote burrows into the uterine lining 7 to 9 days after fertilization
synapses
tiny gaps between neurons where fibers from different neurons come close together but do not touch
Doula
trained to provide continuous physical and emotional support to the mother
violation-of-expectation method
use of infant's heightened attention to or surprise at deviations to infer underlying beliefs
intermodal perception
we make sense of these running streams of light, sound, tactile, odor, and taste information, perceiving them as integrated wholes
consequences of poverty for family and child
weakens family system, inadequate housing, fewer neighborhood resources and cognitive enrichment opportunities, reduces ability to parent effectively due to stress, lower physical health, lower socioemotional functioning and cognitive functioning
general dynamics of conception
-ovulation occurs about every 28 days -ovum survives 24 hours -sperm last 5 to 6 days fertilization: union of sperm + ovum, genetic material fuses
trimester
3 equal time periods in the 9-month prenatal period
strengths of sequential study
when the design includes longitudinal sequences, permits both longitudinal and cross-sectional comparisons. also reveals the cohort effects, permits tracking of age-related changes more efficiently than the longitudinal design
vernix
white, cheeselike substance that covers the fetus and protects the skin from being chapped
lanugo
white, downy hair that helps the vernix stick to the skin
memory in infancy
-retention of visual items increases from one item at 6 months to 2-4 items at 12 months -infants learn and retain a wide variety of information just by watching objects and events -10 months = improved sensitivity to object appearance
depth perception
-the ability to judge the distance of objects from one another and ourselves -infants begin to acquire @2-3 months -independent movement (crawling) plays vital role in refinement
information processing
-the human mind might also be viewed as a symbol-manipulating system through which information flows -not stage-like, instead continuous change
Limitations of psychoanalytic perspective
-too vague to be tested empirically
paternal factors on prenatal development
-toxin exposure can lead to abnormal sperm causing possible birth defects and low birth weight -later paternal age is associated with some defects and autism
Limitations of Piaget's Cognitive Developmental Theory
-underestimated the competencies of infants and preschoolers -performance of Piagetian problems can be improved with training -insufficient attention to social and cultural influences on development -no new stages after adolescence
Apgar scale
-used to assess newborn's physical condition -heart rate, respiratory effort, muscle tone, color, and reflex irritability are rated from 0-2 -ratings are given at 1 and 5 minutes -score of 7-10 is good physical condition -score of 3 or below is an emergency
3 ways that culture shapes development
1. Culture shapes multiple dimensions of our everyday physical and social settings (size/type of living space, sleeping/eating schedules and locations, social conditions/daily activities) 2. Childcare + child rearing customs 3. Overall psychology of caregivers (goals, expectations, morals)
5 assumptions of life-span perspective
1. Development is lifelong 2.Development in multidimensional (occurs in multiple domains: physical, cognitive, psychosocial) 3. Development is multidirectional (joint expression of growth/decline) 4. Development is highly plastic (open to change) 5. Development is affected by multiple interacting influences
3 stages of childbirth
1. Dilation and effacement of the cervix 2. Delivery of the baby 3. Delivery of the Placenta
5 Characteristics of reflexes
1. Some have survival value (rooting-find nipple, sucking) 2.Precursors of later motor skills (stepping-stimulates muscles and nervous system) 3.Remains from earlier versions of homo sapiens (moro-startle) 4.Duration: most disappear during first 6 months 5.Helpful for diagnosing early neurological problems
6 advantages of breastmilk over formula
1. correct balance of fat + protein 2. nutrition completeness 3. protection against disease-fewer respiratory/intestinal illnesses 4. easily digestible 5.smoother transition to solid foods 6. often cheaper, more immediate and safer
newborn sleep
16-18 hours a day alternate between REM + non-REM
crying time
2-3 hours per day crying/on the verge
Embryonic Period
2-8 weeks most rapid prenatal changes, groundwork for all body structures and internal organs
age of viability
22-26 weeks, age @ which the fetus can survive if born early
sex chromosomes
23rd pair of chromosomes, determined by the sperm
Fetal Period
9 weeks to birth "growth and finishing phase" developing organs increase in size and become functional
allele
Different forms of a gene
Differences between Freud and Erikson's Theory
Erikson: 1. covers the lifespan 2. viewed it as a psychosocial process w/ emphasis on interactions and culture 3. 8 stages of psychosocial crisis 4. more emphasis on ego than id
zone of proximal development
a range of tasks that the child cannot yet handle alone but can do with the help of more skilled partners
history-graded influences
Explain why people born around the same time--called a cohort--tend to be alike in ways that set them apart from people born at other times. ex. epidemics, wars and tech advances
Madigan et al. findings on screens and infant cognitive development
Greater screen time at 24 & 36 months was associated with poorer performance on ages and stages questionnaire at 36 & 60 months,
surrogate motherhood
In vitro fertilization is used to impregnate a woman with a couple's fertilized ovum
Limitations of clinical interview
May not result in accurate reporting of information. Flexible procedure makes comparing individuals' responses difficult.
findings from Evans and English
Poor children exposed more often to each stressor domain than middle-income children Poverty lead to greater psychological distress among children & more chronic stress
behavioral genetics
a field devoted to uncovering the contributions of nature and nurture to this diversity in human traits and abilities
motherese/infant directed speech
a form of communication made up of short repetitive sentences w/ high pitched and exaggerated expressions
clinical/case study method
a full picture of one individual's psychological functioning, obtained by combining interviews, observations, test scores, and sometimes neurobiological assessments
visual cliff demonstration
a laboratory device, which showed that babies would not cross the clear glass placed between 2 structures, proving that depth perception is innate
classical conditioning (infants)
a neutral stimulus is paired with a stimulus that leads to a reflexive response, once the baby's nervous system makes the connection between the two stimuli, the neutral stimulus produces the behavior by itself
correlation coefficient
a number that describes how two measures, or variables, are associated with each other
Definition of development
a process of age-related changes across the lifespan; changes in growth, feelings, and patterns of thinking
DNA
active biochemical substance that programs cells to make protein
limitations of longitudinal study
age-related changes may be distorted because of participant dropout, practice effects, and cohort effects
Reflex definition
an inborn, automatic response to a particular form of stimulation organized behavior patterns that govern the newborns movements
language acquisition device
an innate system that contains a universal grammar, or set of rules common to all languages, that enables children, no matter what language they hear, to understand and speak in a rule-oriented fashion as soon as they pick up enough words
Definition of theory
an orderly set of statements that describes, explains and predicts behavior
Teratogen definition
any environmental agent that causes damage during the prenatal period
How is socioeconomic status measured?
assessed by parental education, occupation prestige, and income
Newborn Physical appearance
average is about 20 inches, 7.5 pounds and the head is larger than the body
Freud's Theory of Psychosexual Development
basic personality and psychological functioning is determined by the Id, ego, and superego. emphasizes that how parents manage their child's sexual and aggressive drives in the first few years is crucial for healthy personality development
3 types of crying
basic, mad, pain
vygotsky's approach to infant cognition
complex mental activities have their origins in social interaction
non-REM sleep
body is motionless and heart rate, breathing and brain-wave activity are slow and even
incomplete dominance
both the dominant and recessive allele are expressed
random assignment
by using an unbiased procedure (drawing numbers or flipping a coin), investigators increase the chances that participants' characteristics will be equally distributed across treatment groups
limitations of naturalistic observation
cannot control conditions under which participants are observed
embryonic disk
cells on the inside of the blastocyst that become the new organism
glial cells
cells that are responsible for myelination of neural fibers, improving the efficiency of message transfer, multiply rapidly from end of pregnancy through second year of infancy
accommodation
change in existing knowledge systems to accommodate new information
Neurotransmitters
chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons
Features of natural childbirth approach
classes, relaxation, coach can all help mother feel more in control
Birthing center
combines the intimacy of homebirth w/ medical technology, covers the entire process
strengths of clinical interview
comes as close as possible to the way participants think in everyday life, great breadth and depth of information can be obtained in a short time
function of crying
communicate physical needs
kinship studies
compare the characteristics of family members
natural/quasi experiment
comparison of treatments that already exist when conditions can't be manipulated
placenta
disc-shaped mass of tissue, partial filter
4 factors that determine impact of teratogens
dose, genetic predispositions, presence of other factors, time of exposure
synaptic pruning
elimination of unused/unnecessary synapses
mesosystem
encompasses connections between microsystems
Learning Theories definition
environment controls behavior, role of experience
nonnormative influences
events that are irregular: they happen to just one person or a few people and do not follow a predictable timetable ex. car crash, winning lottery
Findings of Crystal & Stevenson (1995) from lecture ("bad kid")
expected that perceptions of deviance, like perceptions of normalcy, would be influenced by sociocultural values -substance use and interpersonal harmony highest in US -interpersonal harmony highest in Japan -society highest in Taiwan
