Psych 250 Exam 1

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limitations of cross-sectional study

does not permit study of individual developmental trends, age differences may be distorted because of cohort effect

limitations of Structured Interview

does not yield the same depth of information as a clinical interview, responses are subject to inaccurate reporting

dominant-recessive inheritance

dominant gene overrides the recessive gene

age-graded influences

events that are strongly related to age and therefore fairly predictable in when they occur and how long they last ex: walking, drivers license

blastocyst

hollow, fluid-filled ball of cells

monozygotic twins

identical twins, zygote that has started to duplicate separates into two clusters of cells that develop into two individuals with the same genetic makeup

niche-picking/active influence

individuals seek out environments most compatible with their genetic predispositions

operant conditioning (infants)

infants act, or operate, on the environment, and stimuli that follow their behavior change the probability that the behavior will occur again

field experiment

investigators assign participants randomly to treatment conditions in natural settings

structured observation (systematic)

observation of behavior in a laboratory, where conditions are the same for all participants

naturalistic observation (systematic)

observation of behavior in natural contexts

X-linked inheritance

recessive gene carried on X chromosome in 23rd pair, more likely to impact men b/c women have 2 X's

Habituation

refers to a gradual reduction in the strength of a response due to repetitive stimulation

experience-expectant brain growth

refers to the young brain's rapidly developing organization, which depends on ordinary experiences - opportunities to explore the environment, interact with people, and hear language and other sounds

strengths of naturalistic observation

reflects participant's everyday lives

Nature of body growth during infancy

- growth is in uneven spurts -plump up + fill out (baby fat)

sensorimotor substage 2

-1-4 months -Primary Circular reactions -circular reactions oriented towards infants own body

sensorimotor substage 5

-12-18 months -Tertiary Circular reactions -experimentation -repeating acts w/ variation

sensorimotor substage 6

-18 months-2 years -Mental Representation -represent the world in a symbolic conceptual manner -use of words/gestures as symbols -changes in nature of play from functional to pretend

sensorimotor substage 3

-4-8 months -Secondary circular reactions -repeat interesting or novel events in environment (rattle)

sensorimotor substage 4

-8-12 months -coordination of secondary circular reactions -can engage in goal-directed behavior -combination of schemes -object permanence (A not B)

Hutton et al. findings on screens and infant cognitive development

-Higher screen use was linked with lower language & literacy scores -Higher screen use associated with lower microstructural organization and myelination of brain white matter tracts that support language, executive function, and emergent literacy skills

Morelli reading findings

-Mayan mothers: co-sleeping to promote interdependent self, continue to have children sleep in same room/bed as an adult or sibling -American mothers: babies sleep in separate bed or room to promote independent self

concerns of medicalization - pain medication controversy

-analgesics: relax mother and relieve pain but may sedate the baby -regional anesthetics: may prolong labor, trouble w/ pushing

age impact on pregnancy

-best rate in 20's - older than 40 = higher chances of infertility, miscarriage, and chromosomal defects

sensorimotor substage 1

-birth to 1 month -Reflexive schemes -exercising reflexes, building block of sensorimotor intelligence

nativist approach to language acquisition

-children are born w/ innate grammar -learning is a matter of mapping input onto innate knowledge

Behaviorist approach to language acquisition

-children learn via imitation and reinforcement

Skinner's Operant Conditioning

-consequences of behavior determine if it's repeated in the future -reinforcement: increases likelihood (positive added or negative/unpleasant removed) -punishment: decreases likelihood (take away pleasure, add negative)

Contributions of Piaget's Cognitive Developmental Theory

-convinced field that children are active learners -sparked research on children's concepts of themselves, others and human relationships

Contributions of psychoanalytic perspective

-emphasis on understanding the individual's unique life history (case studies) -inspired research on aspects of emotional and social development

categorization

-grouping similar objects and events into a single representation -reduces the enormous amount of new info infants encounter everyday, helping them learn and remember

Nature of infant brain development

-have nearly all neurons @ birth -during infancy connections between neurons increase

pattern perception

-infants preference for patterned + complex stimuli over plain

deprivation in Romanian orphanages

-intellectual deficits and remained below average -most displayed at least three serious mental health problems -generalized decrease in size and activity of the cerebral cortex

Emotional stress impact on pregnancy

-intense emotional stress can lead to miscarriage, low birth weight, and premature delivery -can increase fetal heartrate and heighten stress reactivity in life

interactionist approach to language acquisition

-language achievements emerge through an interaction of innate ability and environmental influences

Nutrition impact of pregnancy

-malnutrition = central nervous system damage, lower # of brain cells and birth weight -recommended 25-30 pound gain for mother, take multivitamin

Piaget's Cognitive Developmental Theory

-nature of child: active, naïve, scientist, constructivist -nature of change: learning in stages, qualitatively different thinking

Badura's Social Cognitive Theory

-observational learning/modeling -complex process of who to model -humans = cognitive beings - active processing of information plays role in learning

limitations of nativist approach to language acquisition

-original idea was too specific, no one was born to speak English or Chinese

Consequences for caregiving of pre-term infants

-parents can be less sensitive in caring -babies are less often held close, touched, and talked to gently

Updated views of infant cognition

-research indicates infants display certain cognitive abilities earlier than Piaget believed -Piaget may have relied too heavily on displaying knowledge through movement -development is likely gradual, continuous, and even

mutation

a sudden but permanent change in a segment of DNA

fetal alchohol spectrum disorder

a term that encompasses a range of physical, mental, and behavioral outcomes caused by prenatal alcohol exposure

sensitive period

a time that is biologically optimal for certain capacities to emerge because the individual is especially responsive to environmental influences

Ethology

concerned with the adaptive, or survival, value of behavior and its evolutionary history

Ego

conscious, rational, problem-solving, restricts ID and controls urges, forms in early infancy

macrosystem

consists of cultural values, laws, customs, and resources

view on the course of development (dimensions on which theories differ)

continuous vs discontinuous (stages)

gross motor development

control over actions that help infants get around in the environment, such as crawling, standing, and walking

imitation

copying the behavior of another person

Epigenesis

development results from ongoing exchange between heredity and all levels of the environment

evocative genetic-environment correlations

different genetically based attributes evoke certain responses

visual acuity

fineness of discrimination, limited in newborns

Germinal Period

first two weeks zygote, placenta is formed ends w/ implantation

clinical interview (self-report)

flexible interviewing procedure in which the investigator obtains a complete account of the participant's thoughts

Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory

focuses on how culture - the values, beliefs, customs, and skills of a social group - is transmitted to the next generation

dizygotic twins

fraternal twins, results from the release and fertilization of two ova

genomic imprinting

genes will behave differently if they come from mother/father

genotype

genetic make-up, set of genes inherited

strengths of structured observation

grants each participant an equal opportunity to display the behavior of interest

Heterozygous

having two different alleles for a trait

Homozygous

having two identical alleles for a trait

newborn taste and smell

highly developed sense of taste @ birth, able to communicate taste and odor preferences (sweet, smell of mother's lactating breast)

Assimilation

incorporation of new information into existing knowledge systems

cohort effect

individuals born in the same time period are influenced by a particular set of historical and cultural conditions. results based on one cohort, may not apply to people developing at other times

gene-environment interaction

individuals will differ in their reactions to the qualities of the environment due to their genetic makeup

Piaget's sensorimotor stage

infants "think" and learn about the world through their 5 senses and motor skills

core knowledge perspective

infants are born with a set of innate knowledge systems or core domains of thought, each of these prewired understandings permits a grasp of new, related information

microsystem

innermost level of the environment, consists of activities and interaction patterns in the person's immediate surroundings (family, school, etc.)

mental representation

internal images of objects, events, and actions

organization

internal process of rearranging and linking schemes

limitations of Behaviorist approach to language acquisition

language acquisition occurs w/ extreme speed and efficiency w/ minimum parental feedback -parental feedback is usually factual, not linguistic

visual development in infancy

last sense to reach full capacity, near adult levels by 6 months

newborn vision

least mature of newborn senses

concerns of medicalization - Cesareans

longer recovery rime, expensive, spiral of medicalization, psychological reaction of mother can be negative

joint attention

looking at an object that is being pointed to or following another person's eye gaze

limitations of clinical/case study method

may be biased by researchers' theoretical preferences, findings cannot be applied to individuals other than the participant

limitations of ethnography

may be biased by researchers' values and theoretical preferences, findings cannot be applied to individuals and settings other than the ones studied

limitations of sequential study

may have the same problems as longitudinal and cross-sectional strategies, but the design itself helps identify difficulties

concerns of medicalization - fetal monitoring

may inhibit mobility

limitations of structured observation

may not yield observations typical of participants' behavior in everyday life

circular reaction

means by which infants build schemes by trying to repeat chance events caused by their own motor activity

heritability estimates

measure the extent to which individual differences in complex traits in a specific population are due to genetic factors

why is formula considered?

medical reasons, historical trends, and societal structues/barriers

Superego

moral/ethical, ages 3-6, includes conscious and ego-ideal

strengths of cross-sectional study

more efficient than the longitudinal design, not plagued by problems such as participant dropout and practice effects

infantile amnesia

most of us cannot retrieve events that happened to us before ages 2- 3

polygenic inheritance

multiple genes interact to produce a characteristic (skin)

view of the determinants of development (dimensions on which theories differ)

nature v nurture

neuron

nerve cells that store and transmit information

Watson/Traditional Behaviorism

observable stimulus/response observations classical conditioning

experience-dependent brain growth

occurs throughout our lives. It consists of additional growth and refinement of established brain structures as a result of specific learning experiences that vary widely across individuals and cultures

View of the developing person (dimensions on which theories differ)

organismic: change stimulated from within, active mechanistic: change stimulated by environment, passive

trophoblast

outer ring of cells of the blastocyst that develop into 3 life support systems

in vitro fertilization

ova are surgically removed and placed in a dish of nutrients to which sperm are added, once the ovum is fertilized and duplicates into several cells, it's injected into the mother's uterus

passive genetic-environmental correlation

parents provide an environment influenced by heredity, may be predisposed

Ethnography

participant observation of a culture or distinct social group. by making extensive field notes, the researcher tries to capture the culture's unique values and social processes

changing notion of traditional childbirth

past: home delivery, natural family event current: hospitals, medical event

cephalocaudal trend

pattern of physical growth and motor control that proceeds from head to tail

proximodistal trend

pattern of physical growth and motor control that proceeds from the center of the body outward

Individualism

people are largely concerned with their own personal needs and value independence, personal exploration, discovery, achievement and choice in relationships

Collectivism

people stress group goals over individual goals and value interdependent qualities (social harmony, obligations and responsibility to others, and collaborative endeavors)

concordance rates

percent chance that both twins will share a trait that one twin has

strengths of Structured Interview

permits comparisons of participants' responses and efficient data collection

strengths of longitudinal study

permits study of common patterns and individual differences in development and relationships between early and later events and behaviors

Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Systems Theory

person develops within a complex system of relationships affected by multiple levels of the surrounding environment

video deficit effect

poorer performance after viewing a video than a live demonstration

newborn hearing

prefer complex sounds (voices), can distinguish almost all sounds in human language, can locate and orient to sounds @ 2 months (slow response)

Id

present @ birth, biological needs/desires, requires immediate gratification, unconscious

neural tube

primitive spinal cord and brain that forms when the ectoderm folds

contrast sensitivity

principle that if babies can detect a difference in contrast between two patterns, they will prefer the one with more contrast

myelination

process in which neural fibers are coated with an insulating fatty sheath that helps improve message transfer

adaptation

process of building schemes through direct interaction with the environment

amnion

protective covering, encloses organism in amniotic fluid, cushion and temperature regulation

purpose of reflexes

provide newborns with adaptive responses to their environments before they can learn about the world

Function of theory

provide organizing framework for observations, produce hypotheses, offer practical guidance

strengths of ethnography

provides a more complete description than can be derived from a single observational visit, interview, or questionnaire

strengths of clinical/case study method

provides rich, descriptive insights into factors that affect development

schemes

psychological structures that organize experience

REM sleep

rapid-eye-movement, 50% of newborn's sleeptime, stimulation for brain, uneven heart rate, blood pressure and breathing

autosomes

regular pairs of chromosomes, 22 of 23 pairs, match in size and function

deferred imitation

reproduce behavior of models who are no longer present

correlational design

researchers gather information on individuals, generally in natural life circumstances, without altering their experiences. Then they look at relationships between participants' characteristics and their behavior or development

chromosomes

rodlike structures inside cell nucleus that store and transmit genetic information, 23 pairs in each cell

umbilical cord

rope of tissue that connects the placenta to the developing organism, contains 2 arteries and a vein

gene

segment of DNA, contains heredity instructions

Structured Interview (self-report)

self-report instrument in which each participant is asked the same questions in the same way

Newborn Touch

sensitivity to touch and pain are present at birth, helps stimulate physical/emotional development

gametes

sex cells (sperm and ova), hold 23 chromosomes

kangaroo care

skin to skin contact that helps promote the recovery of preterm babies -involves placing the infant in a vertical position between the mother's breasts or next to the father's chest so the parent's body functions as a human incubator -occurs most in developing countries where hospitalization isn't always possible

fine motor development

smaller movements, such as reaching and grasping

exosystem

social settings that do not contain the developing person but nevertheless affect experiences in immediate settings (parent's jobs)

impact of crying

stimulates strong feelings of arousal and discomfort in caregivers

developmental neuroscience

study of the relationship between changes in brain and the developing person's cognitive processing and behavior patterns, as well as social and emotional development

chronosystem

temporal dimension, change over lifecourse/history

resilience

the ability to adapt effectively in the face of threats to development

brain plasticity

the capacity of various parts of the cerebral cortex to take over functions of damaged regions, declines as hemispheres of the cerebral cortex lateralize

developmental niche

the interaction of components that affect what goes on within the microsystem and determines the unique world of the child

sequential study

the investigator conducts several similar cross-sectional or longitudinal studies (called sequences), these might study participants over the same ages but in different years or they might study participants over different ages but during the same years

cross-sectional study

the investigator studies groups of participants differing in age at the same time

longitudinal study

the investigator studies the same group of participants repeatedly at different ages

cerebral cortex

the largest, most complex structure of the human brain, which contains the greatest number of neurons and synapses and accounts for the highly developed intelligence of the human species

object permanence

the understanding that objects continue to exist when out of sight

sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS)

the unexpected death, usually during the night, of an infant younger than 1 year of age that remains unexplained after thorough investigation

dependent variable

the variable that the investigator expects to be influenced by the independent variable

independent variable

the variable that the investigator expects to cause changes in another variable

phenotype

the way an individual's genotype is expressed in observable characteristics (hair color, height)

implantation

the zygote burrows into the uterine lining 7 to 9 days after fertilization

synapses

tiny gaps between neurons where fibers from different neurons come close together but do not touch

Doula

trained to provide continuous physical and emotional support to the mother

violation-of-expectation method

use of infant's heightened attention to or surprise at deviations to infer underlying beliefs

intermodal perception

we make sense of these running streams of light, sound, tactile, odor, and taste information, perceiving them as integrated wholes

consequences of poverty for family and child

weakens family system, inadequate housing, fewer neighborhood resources and cognitive enrichment opportunities, reduces ability to parent effectively due to stress, lower physical health, lower socioemotional functioning and cognitive functioning

general dynamics of conception

-ovulation occurs about every 28 days -ovum survives 24 hours -sperm last 5 to 6 days fertilization: union of sperm + ovum, genetic material fuses

trimester

3 equal time periods in the 9-month prenatal period

strengths of sequential study

when the design includes longitudinal sequences, permits both longitudinal and cross-sectional comparisons. also reveals the cohort effects, permits tracking of age-related changes more efficiently than the longitudinal design

vernix

white, cheeselike substance that covers the fetus and protects the skin from being chapped

lanugo

white, downy hair that helps the vernix stick to the skin

memory in infancy

-retention of visual items increases from one item at 6 months to 2-4 items at 12 months -infants learn and retain a wide variety of information just by watching objects and events -10 months = improved sensitivity to object appearance

depth perception

-the ability to judge the distance of objects from one another and ourselves -infants begin to acquire @2-3 months -independent movement (crawling) plays vital role in refinement

information processing

-the human mind might also be viewed as a symbol-manipulating system through which information flows -not stage-like, instead continuous change

Limitations of psychoanalytic perspective

-too vague to be tested empirically

paternal factors on prenatal development

-toxin exposure can lead to abnormal sperm causing possible birth defects and low birth weight -later paternal age is associated with some defects and autism

Limitations of Piaget's Cognitive Developmental Theory

-underestimated the competencies of infants and preschoolers -performance of Piagetian problems can be improved with training -insufficient attention to social and cultural influences on development -no new stages after adolescence

Apgar scale

-used to assess newborn's physical condition -heart rate, respiratory effort, muscle tone, color, and reflex irritability are rated from 0-2 -ratings are given at 1 and 5 minutes -score of 7-10 is good physical condition -score of 3 or below is an emergency

3 ways that culture shapes development

1. Culture shapes multiple dimensions of our everyday physical and social settings (size/type of living space, sleeping/eating schedules and locations, social conditions/daily activities) 2. Childcare + child rearing customs 3. Overall psychology of caregivers (goals, expectations, morals)

5 assumptions of life-span perspective

1. Development is lifelong 2.Development in multidimensional (occurs in multiple domains: physical, cognitive, psychosocial) 3. Development is multidirectional (joint expression of growth/decline) 4. Development is highly plastic (open to change) 5. Development is affected by multiple interacting influences

3 stages of childbirth

1. Dilation and effacement of the cervix 2. Delivery of the baby 3. Delivery of the Placenta

5 Characteristics of reflexes

1. Some have survival value (rooting-find nipple, sucking) 2.Precursors of later motor skills (stepping-stimulates muscles and nervous system) 3.Remains from earlier versions of homo sapiens (moro-startle) 4.Duration: most disappear during first 6 months 5.Helpful for diagnosing early neurological problems

6 advantages of breastmilk over formula

1. correct balance of fat + protein 2. nutrition completeness 3. protection against disease-fewer respiratory/intestinal illnesses 4. easily digestible 5.smoother transition to solid foods 6. often cheaper, more immediate and safer

newborn sleep

16-18 hours a day alternate between REM + non-REM

crying time

2-3 hours per day crying/on the verge

Embryonic Period

2-8 weeks most rapid prenatal changes, groundwork for all body structures and internal organs

age of viability

22-26 weeks, age @ which the fetus can survive if born early

sex chromosomes

23rd pair of chromosomes, determined by the sperm

Fetal Period

9 weeks to birth "growth and finishing phase" developing organs increase in size and become functional

allele

Different forms of a gene

Differences between Freud and Erikson's Theory

Erikson: 1. covers the lifespan 2. viewed it as a psychosocial process w/ emphasis on interactions and culture 3. 8 stages of psychosocial crisis 4. more emphasis on ego than id

zone of proximal development

a range of tasks that the child cannot yet handle alone but can do with the help of more skilled partners

history-graded influences

Explain why people born around the same time--called a cohort--tend to be alike in ways that set them apart from people born at other times. ex. epidemics, wars and tech advances

Madigan et al. findings on screens and infant cognitive development

Greater screen time at 24 & 36 months was associated with poorer performance on ages and stages questionnaire at 36 & 60 months,

surrogate motherhood

In vitro fertilization is used to impregnate a woman with a couple's fertilized ovum

Limitations of clinical interview

May not result in accurate reporting of information. Flexible procedure makes comparing individuals' responses difficult.

findings from Evans and English

Poor children exposed more often to each stressor domain than middle-income children Poverty lead to greater psychological distress among children & more chronic stress

behavioral genetics

a field devoted to uncovering the contributions of nature and nurture to this diversity in human traits and abilities

motherese/infant directed speech

a form of communication made up of short repetitive sentences w/ high pitched and exaggerated expressions

clinical/case study method

a full picture of one individual's psychological functioning, obtained by combining interviews, observations, test scores, and sometimes neurobiological assessments

visual cliff demonstration

a laboratory device, which showed that babies would not cross the clear glass placed between 2 structures, proving that depth perception is innate

classical conditioning (infants)

a neutral stimulus is paired with a stimulus that leads to a reflexive response, once the baby's nervous system makes the connection between the two stimuli, the neutral stimulus produces the behavior by itself

correlation coefficient

a number that describes how two measures, or variables, are associated with each other

Definition of development

a process of age-related changes across the lifespan; changes in growth, feelings, and patterns of thinking

DNA

active biochemical substance that programs cells to make protein

limitations of longitudinal study

age-related changes may be distorted because of participant dropout, practice effects, and cohort effects

Reflex definition

an inborn, automatic response to a particular form of stimulation organized behavior patterns that govern the newborns movements

language acquisition device

an innate system that contains a universal grammar, or set of rules common to all languages, that enables children, no matter what language they hear, to understand and speak in a rule-oriented fashion as soon as they pick up enough words

Definition of theory

an orderly set of statements that describes, explains and predicts behavior

Teratogen definition

any environmental agent that causes damage during the prenatal period

How is socioeconomic status measured?

assessed by parental education, occupation prestige, and income

Newborn Physical appearance

average is about 20 inches, 7.5 pounds and the head is larger than the body

Freud's Theory of Psychosexual Development

basic personality and psychological functioning is determined by the Id, ego, and superego. emphasizes that how parents manage their child's sexual and aggressive drives in the first few years is crucial for healthy personality development

3 types of crying

basic, mad, pain

vygotsky's approach to infant cognition

complex mental activities have their origins in social interaction

non-REM sleep

body is motionless and heart rate, breathing and brain-wave activity are slow and even

incomplete dominance

both the dominant and recessive allele are expressed

random assignment

by using an unbiased procedure (drawing numbers or flipping a coin), investigators increase the chances that participants' characteristics will be equally distributed across treatment groups

limitations of naturalistic observation

cannot control conditions under which participants are observed

embryonic disk

cells on the inside of the blastocyst that become the new organism

glial cells

cells that are responsible for myelination of neural fibers, improving the efficiency of message transfer, multiply rapidly from end of pregnancy through second year of infancy

accommodation

change in existing knowledge systems to accommodate new information

Neurotransmitters

chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons

Features of natural childbirth approach

classes, relaxation, coach can all help mother feel more in control

Birthing center

combines the intimacy of homebirth w/ medical technology, covers the entire process

strengths of clinical interview

comes as close as possible to the way participants think in everyday life, great breadth and depth of information can be obtained in a short time

function of crying

communicate physical needs

kinship studies

compare the characteristics of family members

natural/quasi experiment

comparison of treatments that already exist when conditions can't be manipulated

placenta

disc-shaped mass of tissue, partial filter

4 factors that determine impact of teratogens

dose, genetic predispositions, presence of other factors, time of exposure

synaptic pruning

elimination of unused/unnecessary synapses

mesosystem

encompasses connections between microsystems

Learning Theories definition

environment controls behavior, role of experience

nonnormative influences

events that are irregular: they happen to just one person or a few people and do not follow a predictable timetable ex. car crash, winning lottery

Findings of Crystal & Stevenson (1995) from lecture ("bad kid")

expected that perceptions of deviance, like perceptions of normalcy, would be influenced by sociocultural values -substance use and interpersonal harmony highest in US -interpersonal harmony highest in Japan -society highest in Taiwan


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