PSYCH 250 Exam 3 Compilation

"Side effects" of new thinking abilities

1. See an intense pre-occupation with the self and with presenting self in best light 2. Two distortions in self & other relations - A heightened self-consciousness- imaginary audience = erroneous belief that one's behavior is the subject of constant public attention - Personal fable= erroneous belief that one's thoughts, feelings, and experiences are totally unique 3. Sensitive to hypocrisy - often leads to argumentativeness 4. Difficulty with everyday decision-making

Three Advances in Adolescent Thinking

1. Thinking about possibilities ("what if") - propositional thought - Able to evaluate logic of propositions without referring to real-world circumstances - Can better handle the abstract and the hypothetical - Allows adolescents to fantasize & speculate on a grander scale - Able to consider range of alternatives in problem solving 2. Thinking through hypotheses-"If, then" - hypothetico deductive reasoning - Able to formulate, test, evaluate hypotheses in an orderly fashion - Example-Whatmakespendulumswing faster? - Younger chn - random; adolescents do this more systematically - Teens might see weight, string length, and force 3. Thinking about abstract concepts (e.g., love, faith, greed) Advances lead them to critically examine assumptions

Levinson's Sequence for Early Adulthood

17-22 = transition to early adulthood. Task is to become psychologically independent from parents. 22-28 - Stable phase. Become autonomous. Establish self in adult world. Work on developing intimacy. 28-33 = Age 30 Transition - Reevaluate life structure. 33-40 - Stable Phase - "settling down" • career consolidation is a major goal • sex differences• men are settling down • often see continued instability for women

Developmental Tasks of Adolescence - Universal

Accept full-grown body and changes of puberty Acquire adult ways of thinking Develop more mature ways of relating to peers of both sexes Consolidate an identity Attain greater independence from the family

Dating and Early Sexual Experiences

Ages: Start dating at 13-14 (girls) & 14-15 (boys) Early dating: Often starts in groups. For many, early dating is based on a superficial intimacy rather than a genuine closeness. Sexual initiation: During ages 15 to 19, a majority become sexually active. Concerns about risks and consequences ■ Inconsistent use of protection and contraception - Adolescents have highest STI rate of all age groups - 1 in 5-6 sexually active teens contracts one each year - 614,000 teen pregnancies in 2010

Nature of Parental Communication about Sexuality

American parents typically give minimal direct, verbal information. Focus of communication is often on biology, physical development, sexual safety. Minimal discussion of sexual pleasure, sexual feelings. Approx 2/3 of young people have talked to their parents about sexuality. Quantities vary by topic. Mothers tend to discuss issues more than fathers. Parents tend to believe they were more communicative than kids perceive them to be.

Levinson's Seasons of Life: Overview

Based on in-depth interviews of White & Black men 35-45 Also reviewed biographies of famous men Wrote Seasons of a Man's Life (1978) Using interviews of women aged 35-45, he wrote Seasons of a Woman's Life in 1996 Central concept is the life structure = the underlying pattern or design of a person's life at a given time - consists of relationships with significant others Sees development as a sequence of stable and transitional phases. • Stable - pursue goals - at ease with self • Transitional phases - question one's life and explore new possibilities Two Organizing Factors 1. Dream = an image of the self in the adult world that guides decision making • Inspires a person in present endeavors • Gender diffs; men-career; women-family & career • Refine and update dreams throughout adulthood 2. Mentors= facilitates realization of the dream • provides a transition from parent-child relationship to the world of adult peers.

General Advances in Logical Thinking- Shift to Formal Operational Thought

Believed to emerge from 11-15 Can now deal with the abstract and hypothetical Thinking is now more enlightened, imaginative, idealistic, and rational Reason like a scientist Research has shown that growth of formal reasoning abilities is slower and less complete than Piaget believed

Body Image is a Focal Concern

Body image is a strong predictor of self-esteem. Why so important? Amazing amount of growth And adolescents are now aware of changing body Adolescents as marginal group-a group between cultures -- within-group conformity is important Mass media contribute by presenting one- dimensional images of attractiveness - - Girls-curvy, thin, sexy, attractive face - Boys-lean, muscular, attractive face Girls:Increased risk of eating disorders, such as anorexia Hospitalizations of teen girls is much higher than any other group, see table

How do these scripts affect early sexual experiences?

Boys' first sexual experience = scoring Girls' first experience often tied to feelings of love & intimacy Example: Grease, Summer Nights Gender scripts can be very constraining

MEDIA AS SEXUAL EDUCATORS?

Consumption Levels are High American youth spend 7:38 with media each day

Parent-Teen Conflict: The Larger Context

Continual turmoil is rare. Most teens -Admire and love parents -Rely on parents for advice -Embrace many of parents' values -Feel loved by parents 20% say top concern is not enough time with parents Quality of parent-child relationship is consistent predictor of teen mental health Disagreements lessen in late adolescence (17-18 years) parents still play a significant role

Major Changes in Overall Body Growth

Controlled by increases in growth hormones such as thyroxine First outward sign of puberty= growth spurt=a large increase in size, strength, weight (50-75 lbs) Girls start spurt earlier, often age 10. Lasts about 2.5 yrs. Boys start spurt later, around age 12.5, and grow for a longer period of time. Reverse of cephalocaudal trend Increase in appetite Increase in size & activity of oil-producing glands See changes in muscle- fat ratio. - Girls add more fat than boys.- Boys gain more muscle strength than girls.

Ethnic Identity

Defined as an enduring, basic aspect of the self that includes a sense of membership in an ethnic group and the attitudes and feelings related to that membership • Many consciously confront it for first time in adolescence Example: My Big Fat Greek Wedding -identity struggle, not proud to be Greek Challenges -dealing with discrimination against your group -negotiating stereotypes of one's group held by mainstream culture -confronting conflicting values between ethnic and mainstream cultures - may develop a bicultural identity Ethnic Identity Strengths (Research Findings) Having a stronger ethnic identity is linked to: 1. Higher self-esteem 2. More satisfying interactions with family 3. Better academic outcomes and school performance 4. Being less affected by discrimination experiences 5. Greater levels of daily happiness and less daily anxiety

Sexual Socialization

Defined as what and how we learn about sexuality and sexual relationships. Multidimensional process - Learning involves many issues - Input comes in different forms - Input received across the lifespan - Information comes from several sources Most important sources? - Parents seen as initial sexuality educators. - Peers, schools, media often cited as most important - Source of information varies by topic.

Depression in Adolescence

Depression is the most common psychological problem of adolescence - 15-20% Characterized by pervasive feelings of sadness, irritability, low self-esteem, boredom, inability to experience pleasure Depression increases sharply between 12-16 Occurs twice as often in girls as in boys. Why? -Biological changes of puberty? It's more than this -Coping strategies? F more likely to ruminate -Female gender role that emphasizes passivity & dependence (lack of voice)? -Negative body-image? CAUSES? Linked both to biological factors (e.g., heredity and neurotransmitter levels), and to environmental factors (e.g., loss, stressful event)

Changes in Cognition that Result from the College Experience

EXAMPLES - Seniors: Four Years in Retrospect Improves verbal and quantitative skills and knowledge of specific subject areas Improves oral and written communication skills Improves various aspects of problem-solving • Applying reason and evidence• Identifying strengths and weaknesses • Aware of multiple perspectives and truths - relativism See revisions in attitudes and values Foster concern with individual rights and human welfare - enlightenment Develop greater self-understanding, enhanced self-esteem, and a firmer sense of identity Prepares students to be lifelong learners.

What happens when we show young people specific sexual content?

EXPERIMENTAL GROUP xposed to common sexual stereotypes CONTROL GROUP Exposed to nonsexual content Women as sexual objects Men as players Importance of appearance Example 1: TV Programs & College Students Does exposure to specific content lead students to more strongly endorse the sexual themes depicted? Yes Example 2: Do these effects extend to music videos? Participants were 152 Black teens Viewed either 4 stereotypical (women as sexual objects, men as players) or 4 neutral videos Sexual Stereotypes - 14 items "Using her body and looks is the best way for a woman to attract a man." "What women find most attractive about a man is his money, job, or car." Experimental and correlational results suggest that media impacts

Marital Transition and Changes in Personality

Empirical evidence: Lavner, Weiss, Miller, & Karney (2018) 169 heterosexual newlyweds; first marriage; 0 babies; predom W Surveyed on marital satisfaction & big 5 personality traits at 3 time points: 0-6 months after marriage, +6 months, +6 months Findings for Husbands: declines in extraversion and agreeableness; increase in conscientiousness Findings for Wives: Declines in agreeableness, neuroticism, and openness Changes not affected by age, relationship history, initial marital satisfaction, education, race, income Marital satisfaction declined less over time among husbands with greater openness and wives with less neuroticism

Impact of Parental Communication on Early Sexual Behavior

Expectation is that parental input will be beneficial. Reality: Mixed results in the field Some studies find that parent/child comm. is associated with a delay of sexual intercourse & safer sex practices. Handful report opposite association. Others report no associations. Widman et al (2016) meta-analysis - examined 52 studies, 71 effect sizes - impact of comm. on safer-sex behavior - average r=.10*, but not signif. for boys, or from Dads One reason behind mixed results: research has viewed parental communication too simplistically - Focus on amount over content - Don't consider gendered scripts

Gender Differences in Sexual Scripts

Females Expected to be less interested in sex and more interested in love and relationships Act sexually passive Use bodies and looks to attract men; biggest asset Set sexual limits Little emphasis on own desire; goal is to be desirable males Expected to be interested in sex; part of being a man Expected to take the initiative Expected to focus on women's appearance Avoid commitment & emotional attachment

What does the psychosocial immaturity stem from?

Gap in the maturation of brain networks Socioemotional networks develop early- highlight emotion, rewards, sensation-seeking, positive interactions Cognitive control systems develop later and more gradually; responsible for - Impulse control - Emotional regulation - Delay of gratification - Resistance to peer influence

Physical Changes of Aging - 20s & 30s

Gradual changes in functioning of internal body systems-Examples: -Heart & lung functioning decline (exertion) -Gradual muscle loss & change in motor performance -Reproductive capacity declines, especially 35+ -Takes longer to adapt and recover Changes in physical appearance -Gradual loss of collagen - thinner, less flexible skin, wrinkles, sagging -Other parts of body wrinkle & sag -Gray hair begins to emerge around 30 - decrease in number of pigment producing cells - thinning hair

A Moral Dilemma for Younger Children

Holly is an 8-year-old girl who likes to climb trees. She is the best tree climber in the neighborhood. One day while climbing down from a tall tree, she falls off the bottom branch but does not hurt herself. Her father sees her fall. He is upset and asks her to promise not to climb trees any more. Holly promises. Later that day, Holly and her friends meet Shawn. Shawn's kitten is caught up in a tree and can't get down. Something has to be done right away, or the kitten may fall. Holly is the only one who climbs trees well enough to reach the kitten and get it down, but she remembers her promise to her father. What should Holly do? More age appropriate, higher reasoning for children

Role of Brain Development

Improvements in rational thinking fostered by extensive maturation of prefrontal cortex - are as for planning, thinking ahead, weighing risks & rewards - includes synaptic pruning, myelination, increased connections to other brain parts But adolescents still do not fully resemble adults in their decision-making See risk-taking and "What were they thinking?" moments- Why? Decision-making in the real world is the product of both logical reasoning AND psychosocial factors (e.g., impulse control, handling peer pressure) - these 2 components mature at different rates

What is the nature of adult thought?

Klaus Riegel - Dialectical operations • Accept contradiction and integrate differing viewpoints into a larger conceptual understanding - understand pros and cons William Perry - epistemic cognition (studied college students) Younger - knowledge as discrete, separate units - dualistic thinking (e.g., right & wrong, good & bad) Older - knowledge embedded in a framework - relativistic thinking - few absolute truths Gisela Labouvie-Vief -Employing only traditional models may be maladaptive -Subjective feelings and personal experiences must be integrated with objective, analytic thought Need to consider situational constraints and circumstances logical - like a scientist Example: John and Mary -Mary says she'll leave John if he drinks again, will she really?

Domains of Conflict in Early Adolescence (Allison & Schultz, 2004)

METHOD Surveyed 357 youth aged 11-14 Indicated whether each of 40 issues had been discussed with parents during past month (13 themes) Rated intensity of this discussion: 1=calm 2=a little angry 3=angry

A Closer Examination of the Sexual Content on TV: Ward (1995)

Method Focused on verbal messages about sexuality Analyzed 3 episodes of each of the 12 most popular programs among chn and adolescents Dialogue coded using a list of 17 themes about sexuality common in our culture Focused on interactions EXAMPLE: Scene from Step-by-Step General Findings: Overall, 29% of interactions contained messages about sexuality Which Sexual Themes were Most Common? 1. Dating is a game/competition 2. Women are valued for appearance 3. Men are supposed to want sex

From whom did Psych 250 students learn the most about sex? (First Day Survey 2019)

Mostly from friends then TV/movies, then school

Body Image: Other Contributing Factors

Multiple factors lead teens to internalize these narrow cultural ideals Jones et al. (2004) tested 4 factors among 780 7th-10 graders Peer appearance conversations mattered most bmi magazine peer appearance criticism appearance conversation with friends

Nature and Complexity of Identity Work

Nature of process • Not a simple, straightforward process. Takes place gradually over time. Involves exploration & questioning. Complexities 1. Multiple domains of exploration - not all equally developed 2. Multiple influences - peers, parents, school activities 3. Identities are hierarchical - some identities are more important to us than others 4. Identities are intersectional - identities often overlap in meaningful ways - unique identity created at intersection 5. Identity is contextual - different environments or situations can highlight specific identities

What I am NOT saying

Not saying that all media are bad Media can amuse, inspire, thrill, educate Not saying all sexual media content is bad Take Home Message A. Acknowledge the power of media effects "We are educated by entertainment media, even if unintended by the source and unnoticed by the audience." (Singhal & Rogers, 1999, p. 8) B. Steer youth to content that C. Encourage youth to be matches our values critical media consumers

Identity Consolidation

Often seen as the major psychological task of adolescence • Identity = a well-organized conception of the self made up of values, beliefs, & goals to which the individual is solidly committed. • Must integrate the various components of one's self- understanding into a coherent identity defined by Erikson

HOW DOES EXPOSURE TO THIS CONTENT AFFECT YOUNG PEOPLE'S BELIEFS ABOUT SEX AND SEXUAL RELATIONSHIPS?

PART A: TESTING CONTRIBUTIONS OF REGULAR, EVERYDAY MEDIA USE SURVEY METHOD 6 point scale MEDIA USE Exposure (cultivation theory)' ■TV programs ■Music videos Involvement (social cognitive theory) ■Use TV to learn about the "real world" (motives) ■Identify with popular fictional characters ■See media content as realistic BELIEFS ABOUT SEXUALITY ■"Using her looks is the best way for a girl to attract a guy." ■"Something's wrong with a man who turns down a chance for sex." Example 1: Is regular media use associated with college students' beliefs about gendered sexual scripts? (Ward, 2002) yes (association) Example 2: Is regular media use associated with teens' beliefs about gendered sexual scripts in 2020? Yes (association)

Discourses Matter: More Troubling Contributors

Parental Abstinence Discourses and Peer Gendered Discourses predict: less Sexual communication assertiveness More Acceptance of rape myths More Feeling worse about sexual status More Feelings of shame about sexual status More Perpetration of sexual coercion among men Less Safe-sex self-efficacy among women Less Consistent use of protection

Lessons Learned from Comparisons

Parents and peers differ in the nature of the sexual themes and messages conveyed - Parents - relational, abstinence - Peers - sex-positive, gendered, relational Different messages have different contributions to sexual health and risk behaviors - Most beneficial: parental relational & parental sex-positive discourses - More troubling: parental abstinence, peer gendered discourses

WHAT DO WE TELL OUR YOUNG PEOPLE TO HELP FACILITATE A HEALTHY APPROACH TO SEXUALITY? Measuring Exposure to Sexual Themes

Participants indicate the extent to which parents (or peers) have communicated each of 24 messages: 0=none 1=a little 2=some 3=a lot Abstinence/Procreational (4 items) ■ "Sex outside of marriage is a sin." Relational (5 items) ■ "Sex is best when the partners are in a loving & committed relationship." Sex-Positive (7 items) ■ "Having sex should be viewed as just a normal part of dating relationships." Gendered Sexual Roles (8 items) "It is difficult for men to resist their sexual urges." "It is up to women to limit men's sexual advances and keep men from 'going too far'." Which themes are youth exposed to most frequently? parents used more relational and abstinence messages Peers used more sex-positive and gendered messages Does level of exposure to each theme differ by source? YES

Physical Changes of Puberty: Sexual Maturation

Primary sexual characteristics-involve reproductive organs directly Secondary sexual characteristics-external physical changes that help distinguish human M & F in appearance (e.g., breasts, facial hair) General Changes Increases in levels of androgens and estrogens for girls and boys, but levels are sex-specific Boys get more androgens like testosteroneàmuscle growth, gains in body size, sex characteristics Girls get more estrogens - cause breasts & uterus to mature, fat to accumulate, regulate menstrual cycle Menarche (first menstruation) - occurs late in sequence, typically around age 12.5

Early Adulthood: Time of Peak Physical Functioning and Health

Prime of life concerning physiological development Physical strength generally increases during the 20s, peaks around 30, and then declines Athletic skill peaks between 20 and 30 All body systems function at optimum level - overall healthy state Death from disease is rare Body has reached full form. In 20s see: • Growth in muscle • Increases in fat • Weight typically increases

Psychological Response to Pubertal Timing

Psychological effects vary by sex. Early: boys tend to fare better than girls. Later: Girls fare better than boys. Early boys - athleticism; closer to cultural ideal Early girls - further from thin ideal

Theories of Young Adult Development: Erikson

Psychosocial conflict of intimacy vs. isolation Intimacy involves a mutually satisfying, close relationship with another -Must balance needs for independence and intimacy -Without independence - define self only in terms of partner - sacrifice self-respect & initiative -Without intimacy - face isolation, loneliness, self-absorption Positive resolution = intimacy - able to commit to a love relationship & sacrifice & compromise Negative resolution = isolation - involves an inability or failure to achieve mutuality

General Nature of Puberty

Puberty= the set of biological processes that change the immature child into a sexually mature person Not a single event. Part of a gradual process. Timing: Girls: 10-15 Boys: 11.5-17 Occurring earlier now. Improved health care & diets. -early age of menarche, was 15-15 in 1860s 4. Growth Patterns Youth progress through events at diff rates, all generally following the same sequence. Characterized by uneven growth (asynchrony) Two categories of physical changes: - Body growth - Sexual maturation

Concerns and Criticisms with Levinson's Theory

Relevance of patterns to today's youth - cohort effects? Few non-college educated, & low-income men and women in samples Possible inaccurate memories of early stages - retrospective Rigidity of stages

Effects of these Themes: Testing Diverse Sexual Outcomes

Seven studies testing UG - sexual health/risk behaviors ■Number of sexual partners (0=43%; 1=21%) ■Consistent use of protection ■Safe-Sex Self-Efficacy ("be able to buy condoms/contraceptives") ■Feelings about sexual status (e.g., Content, Ashamed) ■Sexual Communication Assertiveness (25 items): - "I communicate my sexual desires to my partner." - "It is easy for me to discuss sex with my partner." ■Rape myth acceptance ■Perpetration of sexual coercion (Calzo & Ward, 2009; Day, Ward, et al., 2015; Kim & Ward, 2007; Levin, Ward, & Neilson, 2012; Manago, Ward, & Aldana; 2015; Smiler, Ward, Caruthers, & Merriwether, 2005; Trinh, Ward, et al., 2014)

Lifestyle Choices & Health: Smoking & Binge Drinking

Smoking and its consequences • single biggest contributor to health problems • harms nearly every organ of the body • related to 480,000 deaths each year • Approx. 90% of smokers start before age 21 • Quitting at any point can have enormous health benefits Binge Drinking • Definitions: Men: 5 or more drinks in a 2-hour period Women: 4 or more drinks in a 2-hour period Prevalence • Of 17,500 UG surveyed, 44% reported to be binge drinkers • 2015 National Survey on Drug Use and Health • 26.9% of adults engaged in binge drinking in past month • 37.9% of college students 18-22 reported binge drinking in past month Binge Drinking Patterns Across the Lifespan: figure Binge Drinking Patterns -Once a binge drinker, always a binge drinker? Do these patterns persist or is this mostly a life-stage issue? -Work by Schulenberg and colleagues followed 6,852 youths from age 18 to 24 -Sample mean? Once or twice for all time periods. But sample means don't tell the full story. More on Binge Drinking Patterns What distinguished Chronic (6.8%) from Decreased (11.7%)? Decreased were more likely to: • Have relatively more concrete plans for the future • Express more dissatisfaction with the present • Express a lower desire to drink to get drunk

Classic Example: Miller, Kotchick, et al. (1998)

Surveyed 907 Latino and Black teens aged 14-16 and at least one parent regarding extent of communication on 10 sexual topics moms overestimate info provided moms provide more info than dads

Beliefs about Marriage: Quiz

TRUE OR FALSE: In most marriages, having a child improves marital satisfaction for both spouses. - FALSE The best single predictor of marital satisfaction is the quality of the couple's sex life. - FALSE A husband's marital satisfaction is usually lower if his wife is employed full time than if she is a full-time homemaker. - FALSE "If my spouse loves me, he/she should instinctively know what I want and need to make me happy."- FALSE "No matter how I behave, my spouse should love me because he/she is my spouse." - FALSE For most couples, maintaining romantic love is the key to marital happiness over the lifespan. - FALSE

Example 1: Does media use predict men's sexual beliefs and sexual risk behaviors?

Tested these relations among 796 heterosexual undergraduate men, M=19.4 Media use predicted greater acceptance Example 2: Does media use contribute to teen boys' gendered sexual scripts and mental health? (Aguinaldo, Ward, & Kutcho, in preparation) Yes Does media use contribute to women's acceptance of sexual scripts, which in turn affects their sexual affect and agency? Yes Example 4: Does media use contribute to women's acceptance both of gendered sexual scripts and of sexualized aggression? RESULTS: Confirmed Expectations, and over time

Moral Development: Kohlberg

The Heinz Dilemma In Europe a woman was near death from a special kind of cancer. There was one drug that the doctors thought might save her. It was a form of radium that a druggist in the same town had recently discovered. The drug was expensive to make, but the druggist was charging ten times what the drug cost him tomake. Hepaid$200fortheradiumandcharged$2000fora small dose of the drug. The sick woman's husband, Heinz, went to everyone he knew to borrow the money, but he could only get together $1000 which is half of what it cost. He told the druggist that his wife was dying and asked him to sell it cheaper or let him pay later. But the druggist said, "No, I discovered the drug, and I am going to make money from it. So,Heinz got desperate and broke in to the man's store to steal the drug for his wife. Sequences of Moral Development Focused on reasoning & explanations for moral choices Based on interviews with 10-16 year old boys, he formulated stages of moral reasoning 3 Broad Levels of Moral Reasoning (6 substages) Preconventional - morality is externally controlled and self- centered - focus on fear of personal punishment Conventional - moral reasoning is guided by laws and social norms Postconventional - moral reasoning is guided by universal ethical principles Early adolescence - preconventionalàconventional for mid-late Criticisms of Kohlberg's Approach 1. Wide variability in moral reasoning across situations - not as neat and stepwise as might assume 2. Age biases? Dilemmas too mature. Possible gender bias? Gilligan: .• Justice perspective (individual rights, principles of justice) does not fully reflect relationships and concern for others • Female morality- embedded in human relationships - ethic of care - based on harmony, need for compassion, care • No consistent evidence for sex differences in reasoning level

Factors Affecting Pubertal Timing

Timing is influenced by both genes and environment ■ Approximately 2/3 of variation in age of puberty is genetic. ■ See role of genes via twin studies Identical - 2.0 months difference Fraternal - 12.0 months difference

The Transition to Marriage: Transition

Transition = changes in which we restructure our lives or reorder our goals in response to changing experiences.

Making it Work: Marital Roles

Type of marriage 1. Traditional marriage Clear division of husband's and wife's roles Male as head of household, breadwinner Female as caregiver & homemaker 2. Egalitarian marriage • Relate as equals • Power and authority are shared

Whom to Marry: Selecting a Mate

We tend to select mates similar to ourselves. Compatibility. What traits matter? Both women and men prefer intelligent, honest, & emotionally stable partners, who are attractive, with a "good" personality. Sex differences commonly reported • Women - good earning potential, ambition, intelligence • Men - physical attractiveness, domestic skills But these sex diffs are not universal across all contexts -See cultural differences. -See diffs. in stated preferences but fewer diffs. in real life choices assessed via speed dating - research methodology matters (e.g., Eastwick & Finkel, 2008) -See diffs. based on short-term vs. long-term relationships

10 Factors Predicting Marital Satisfaction

communication of emotion homogamy - similarity of values & interests age of marriage - after 23 length of courtship timing of first pregnancy warm & positive relationship to extended family stable marital patterns in extended family financial and employment security expectations and myths about marriage personality characteristics • emotionally positive personality • good conflict resolution skills

Discourses Matter: Most Beneficial Contributors

increased Safe-sex self-efficacy increased Sexual communication assertiveness and Feeling better about sexual status Less sexual shame decreased Perpetration of sexual coercion

Hypothetical Graph of Developing Maturity

logical reasoning AND psychosocial factors

EarlyAdulthood: BiologicalAgingBegins

• Biological aging = genetically influenced declines in the functioning of organs and systems that are universal among humans General nature of biological aging • Process of decline is asynchronous • Large diffs. across individuals in rate & course of aging Due to many factors: • Genetics • Lifestyle choices • Living environment • Historical period CAUSES: Biological aging is the sum of many causes. • Does body just wear out? This is an oversimplification.

Stages of Identity Formation (James Marcia)

• Identity achievement = completed the struggle; committed to a set of self-chosen values and goals • Identity moratorium = holding pattern; not yet made commitments; midst of exploration • Identity foreclosure = pursuing goals chosen by others; commitment without exploration • Identity diffusion = not committed to particular values and goals; not actively exploring, lack of clear direction -least mature teens have longterm diffusion Other issues and characteristics These are not static states. Adolescents often shift from one status to another until identity is achieved; College often triggers increased exploration Example: Berktext, identity & conflict

Development of autonomy & individuation

• Individuation = process of becoming an individual, separate emotionally from one's parents Changing dynamics: Increase in conflict -Often accompanied by an increase in parent-child conflict -Conflict is often most frequent in early adolescence (11-12) and most intense in mid-adolescence -Conflicts tend to focus on issues of self- discipline and self-control - usually involve repeated, petty arguments about cleanliness, leisure time, chores -Represents teen's desire for independence

Body Image among Boys

• Primary concerns: height, muscle, physical strength; at risk for steroid abuse • Example: boys talking about body image want muscles, abs,

Why are identity issues so important now?

• Realize you are changing & becoming someone else. Who? Erikson's Perspective • Erikson saw process as driven by an identity crisis = a temporary period of confusion and distress experienced while experimenting with alternatives • Outcomes: identity achievement vs. identity role confusion (= failure in identity consolidation - lack of an adult path) • Exploration - more typical

Summary of Central Characteristics of Postformal Thought

• Relativism - awareness of multiple truths • Contradiction - a basic aspect of reality • Synthesis - synthesizing contradictory thoughts, emotions, and experiences into a larger framework

The Transition to Marriage

• Transition = changes in which we restructure our lives or reorder our goals in response to changing experiences. When to Marry Approx. 70% of Americans marry at least once in their lives. Waiting longer. 1960: 20 yrs for women & 23 for men today: 27 yrs for women & 29 for men Where do people meet? see figure -Most people meet off-line at work, and online on dating sites (Cacioppo et al., 2013) -Nationally representative survey of 19,131 respondents who married between 2005 & 2012 -34.95% met on-line & 65.05% met off-line -Marital satisfaction: online > off-line

Summary of Ward Lab Media Effects Findings

■ Both correlational and experimental data indicate that media use does play a role in shaping students' attitudes about sexual relationships. Related to: - Holding stereotypical notions about female and male sexual roles - More traditional gender role attitudes - A stronger acceptance of recreational attitudes about sex (game-playing) and of the sexual objectification of women ■ Both exposure levels and viewer involvement (viewing to learn, identification, perceived realism) are important mechanisms ■ Endorsing these gendered sexual scripts affects sexual & mental health. - For young men, linked to increased number of sexual partners- For boys, linked to diminished well-being- For young women, linked to diminished sexual agency - For young women, linked to increased acceptance of sexualized aggression 50

Environmental Factors Affecting Pubertal Timing

■ Nutrition, weight, dieting, exercise - Girls need to reach a certain weight/fat accumulation ■ Psychosocial aspects contribute - Links between earlier pubertal timing & environmental stress: divorce, family conflict, father absence - Why might socioemotional stress matter? - Evolutionary model: - In a stressful home environment, it is adaptive to mature early, reproduce early