Psych 260 Final

In analogical problem solving, the _____ problem has higher difficulty than the _____ problem.

target; source

When the front part of a sentence can be interpreted more than one way, but the end of the sentence clarifies which meaning is correct, we say that the sentence is an example of

temporary ambiguity.

Mental imagery involves

experiencing a sensory impression in the absence of sensory input.

In an eye movement study, Rayner and coworkers had participants read sentences that contained either a high- or low- frequency target word. For example, the sentence "Sam wore the horrid coat though his ____ girlfriend complained," contained either the target word "pretty" or "demure." Results showed the participants' _____ was shorter for the target word _____.

fixation; pretty

Gestalt psychologists consider problem solving as a process involving

restructuring

Suppose we ask people to perform the following cognitive tasks. Which is LEAST likely to strongly activate the visual cortex?

Imagine the meaning of the word "ethics."

"Kitchen tables" consists of ____ morphemes.

3

Imagery debate - Pylyshyn

A debate about whether imagery is based on spatial mechanisms, such as those involved in perception or a=on mechanisms related to language, called propositional mechanisms

Situation models

A mental representation of what a text is about. Proposed that the mental representation people form as they read a story does not consist of information about phrases, sentences, or paragraphs. It is a representation of the situation in terms of the people, objects, locations and events

Spatial Representation `

A representation in which different parts of an image can be described as corresponding to a specific locations in space

The principle of late closure can be described as a(n) _____ since it provides a best guess about the unfolding meaning of a sentence

Before the police stopped the Toyota disappeared into the night.

Garden paths

Begin appearing to mean one thing then end up meaning something else

Finke and Pinker

Briefly presented a four dot display ????

Carly is an interior design student. As part of her internship, she is redesigning a small kitchen for a client. She would like to expand the kitchen and add a dining area. Before creating sketches for the client, she imagines the new layout in her mind, most likely using

Correct a depictive representation.

Holyoak and Koh presented different versions of the lightbulb problem to assist in solving the radiation problem. They found the ____ version to be more effective, because it had ____ features in common with the radiation problem.

Correct-fragile-glass; structural

Mental Chronometry -Shepard and Metzler

Determines the amount of time needed to carry out various cognitive tasks.

Inferences

Determining what the text means by going beyond the information and using our knowledge

Examples like Paul McCartney's composition of the song "Yesterday" and Jack Nicklaus's improvement of his golf swing demonstrate a connection between imagery and

Dreams

Paivio proposed the conceptual peg hypothesis. His work suggests which of the following would be most difficult to remember?

Freedom

Suppose we ask people to perform the following cognitive tasks. Which is LEAST likely to strongly activate the visual cortex?

Imagine the meaning of the word "ethics."

Instrument inferences

Inferences about tools or methods

Anaphoric Inferences

Inferences that connect an objet or person in one sentence to an object or person in another sentence are Ex: Riff, the famous poodle won the dog show. She has now won the last 3 dog shows she has entered.

Casual inference

Inferences that the events described in one clause or sentence were caused by events that occurred in a previous sentence

Newell and Simon called the conditions at the beginning of the problem the

Initial state

Temporary Ambiguity

Initial words are ambiguous, they can lead to more than one meaning but the meaning is made clear by the end of the sentence

Visual world paradigm-Tanenhaus

Involves determining how subjects process information as they are observing a visual scene

Propositional Representation

Is one in which relationships can be represented by abstract symbols, such as an equation or statement such as "the cat is under the table in contrast a spatial representation would involve a spatial layout showing the cat and the table that could be represented in a picture.

Tacit knowledge explanation

It states that subjects unconsciously use knowledge about the world in making their judgements

Kosslyn concluded that the image field is limited in size. This conclusion was drawn from the _____ experiment.

Mental Walk

The elements of the problem space include all of the following EXCEPT

Operators

Syntax first approach to parsing

People read a sentence, their grouping of words into phrases is governed by a number of rules that are based on syntax

The rule-based approach to mechanical problem-solving is analogous to the idea that visual imagery involves ____ representations.

Propositional

Depictive representations

Representations that are like realistic pictures of an object, so that parts of the representation correspond to parts of the object

Yoda, a central character of the Star Wars movies created by George Lucas, has a distinctive way of speaking. His statement, "Afraid you will be," violates which English language property?

Rules

The radiation problem can be solved using

representation and restructuring.

Janet is alone in a room that contains a chair and a shelf with a book resting on top. She attempts to retrieve the book, but the shelf is a foot above her reach. How will Janet retrieve the book? Psychologists would NOT classify this scenario as a problem because

Selected Answer: the solution is immediately obvious.

Kaplan and Simon's experiment presented different versions of the mutilated checkerboard problem. The main purpose of their experiment was to demonstrate that

Selected Answer: the way the problem is represented can influence the ease of problem solving.

The lesson to be learned from the imagery techniques for memory enhancement (for example, the pegword technique) is that these techniques work because

Selected Answer: they showcase the fact that memory improvement requires a great deal of practice and perseverance.

A researcher had participants read each of the sentences below and measured the time it took to read each sentence. Trial 1: The lamb ran past the cottage into the pasture. Trial 2: The dog ran past the house into the yard. The participants' response times were longer for _____ because of the _____ effect.

Selected Answer: trial 1; word frequency

The crucial question in comparing syntax-first and interactionist approaches to parsing is ____ is involved.

Selected Answer: when semantics

Epiphenomenon

Something that accompanies the real mechanism but is not actually part of the mechanism Ex: Lights flashing as a mainframe computer carries out its calculations. The lights may indicate that something is going on inside the computer, but they don't necessarily tell us what is actually happening

Considering the fortress and the radiation problems together, the fortress problem represents the _____ problem.

Source

Kosslyn interpreted the results of his research on imagery (such as the island experiment) as supporting the idea that the mechanism responsible for imagery involves ____ representations.

Spatial

The mental simulation approach for solving mechanical problems is analogous to the idea that visual imagery involves ____ representations.

Spatial

Mental Scanning

Subjects create mental images and then scan them in their minds -All experiments were ones were you had to pretty much scan an image then focus on one part then go to a different part and the hypothesis was that it would take longer to get to parts further from the starting point proving that imagery and perception were both spatial

A _____ string led to a restructured representation in the two-string problem.

Swinging

You are conducting a study on how fluency influences the phonemic restoration effect. You study two groups of non-native English speakers, one with a year of English classes and the other with 10 years. All of your stimuli are in English. Who would you expect to show the greatest phonemic restoration effect?

The group with 10 years of English instruction

Parsing

The grouping of words into phrases -Central process for determining the meaning of a sentence

Interaction Approach to parsing

The idea that information provided by both syntax and semantics is taken into account simultaneously as we read or listen to a sentence

Coherence

The representation of the text in a person's mind so that information in one part of the text can be related to information in another part of the text

Which of the following has been used as an argument AGAINST the idea that imagery is spatial in nature?

The tacit-knowledge explanation

Imagery and the Cognitive revolution

This came about when psychologists were able to measure behavior that could used to infer cognitive processes Ex: Paviolo! Showed that people find it easier to remember shit like tree and truck things you can picture rather than justice and truth bc you cant picture it One technique Paviolo used was paired-associated learning

Imagery Neurons -Kreiman

This neuron fired in the same way when the person closed his eyes and imaged a baseball(good firing) or a person's face(no firing)

Which statement below is most closely associated with the early history of the study of imagery?

Thought is always accompanied by imagery.

Intermediate states can be created by

creating subgoals.

Kosslyn

*The visual cortex plays a causal role in both perception and imagery

Imagery and Perception

-Shepard and Metzler showed that both imagery and perception both involve spatial representation of the stimulus -This is further reinforced by Kosslyn with his experiments involving mental scanning

The ____ states that the nature of a culture's language can affect the way people think.

Sapir-Whorf hypothesis

Ganis and coworkers used fMRI to measure brain activation for perception and imagery of objects. Their results showed that

Selected Answer: perception and imagery activate the same areas of the frontal lobe, but perception activates more of the back of the brain than imagery does.

Kosslyn's transcranial magnetic stimulation experiment on brain activation that occurs in response to imagery found that the brain activity in the visual cortex

Selected Answer: plays a causal role in both perception and imagery.

Consider the following sentences: "Captain Ahab wanted to kill the whale. He cursed at it." These two sentences taken together provide an example of a(n)

anaphoric inference.

Suppose that, as a participant in an imagery study, you are asked to memorize the four outside walls of a three-story rectangular house. Later, you are asked to report how many windows are on the front of the house. You will probably be fastest to answer this question if you create an image as though you were standing

at the far side of the front yard, away from the house.

In the lexical decision task, participants are asked to

decide whether a string of letters is a word or a non-word.

In its discussion of expertise and problem solving, your text identifies the kind of scientists who are most likely to make revolutionary discoveries in their fields. This particular discussion suggests that _____ may be more important than _____ in creative thinking.

flexibility; experience

Language consists of smaller components, like words, that can be combined to form larger ones, like phrases, to create sentences, which themselves can be components of a larger story. This property is known as

hierarchical structure.

Finke's "creating an object" experiment had participants create a novel object by combining parts. Once they created an object, they were given the name of an object category and instructed to interpret their creation as a practical object or device within that category. Finke used the term preinventive forms to describe the

novel objects before a function was described.

According to the situation model of text processing,

people create a mental representation of what the text is about in terms of people, objects, locations, and events.

OVER (MOON, MIAMI) is a _____ representation.

propositional

Unilateral neglect

-Brain damage to the parietal lobes -The patient ignores objects in one half of the visual field, even to the extent of shaving just one side of his face or eating only the food on one side of her plate *Supports that mental imagery and perception share the physiological mechanisms

Imagery affects perception or perception affects imagery =Both have access to the same mechanism

-Perky did the experiment asking participants to project visual images of common objects onto the screen and then asked to describe them -Perky was projecting a very deem visual of the image onto the screen

The "imagery debate" is concerned with whether imagery

-actually exists. -can be used to solve spatial problems. -is similar for all people. Correct-is based on mechanisms related to language.

"Early" researchers of imagery (beginning with Aristotle until just prior to the dominance of behaviorism) proposed all of the following ideas EXCEPT

-thought is impossible without an image. -images are one of the three basic elements of consciousness. Correct-imagery requires a special mechanism.

Conceptual peg hypothesis

According to this concrete nouns create images that other words can "hang onto" Ex:Presenting the pair boat-hat creates an image of a boat then presenting the word boat later will bring back the boat image, which provides a number of places on which subjects can place the hat in their mind

Peggy is participating in a paired-associate learning experiment. During the study period, she is presented with pairs of words such as boat-hat and car-house. While taking the test, she would be presented with

CarOVER (MOON, MIAMI) is a _____ representation.

Divergent thinking is most closely associated with ____ problems.

Ill-Defined

Newell and Simon were early pioneers in designing computer programs that could solve problems. Their research program was based on the idea that problem solving is a process that involves

Search

The information processing approach describes problem solving as a process involving

Search

Holly was in her mother-in-law's kitchen preparing lunch for the family. When she was ready to dish up the soup, she searched all the cupboards and drawers for a ladle but couldn't find one. She decided to wait until her mother-in-law returned to ask her where the ladle was, leaving the soup in the stove pot. Her mother-in-law later explained that the ladle had been broken, so she told Holly to use a coffee mug to "spoon" the soup into bowls. Holly's ability to solve the "dish up the soup" problem was hindered by which of the following obstacles?

Selected Answer: Functional fixedness

____ identified people's tendency to focus on a specific characteristic of a problem that keeps them from arriving at a solution as a major obstacle to successful problem solving.

Selected Answer: Gestalt psychologists

Suppose we ask people to perform the following cognitive tasks. Which is LEAST likely to strongly activate the visual cortex?

Selected Answer: Imagine the meaning of the word "ethics."

Gick and Holyoak consider which of the following to be the most difficult step to achieve in the process of analogical problem solving?

Selected Answer: Noticing that there is an analogous relationship between problems because most participants need prompting before they notice a connection

Which of the following is an operator for the acrobat problem?

Selected Answer: Only one acrobat may jump at a time

You are conducting a study on how fluency influences the phonemic restoration effect. You study two groups of non-native English speakers, one with a year of English classes and the other with 10 years. All of your stimuli are in English. Who would you expect to show the greatest phonemic restoration effect?

Selected Answer: The group with 10 years of English instruction

Which statement below is most closely associated with the early history of the study of imagery?

Selected Answer: Thought is always accompanied by imagery.

Which of the following is NOT influenced by meaning?

Selected Answer: Word frequency effect

Which set of stimuli would be the best selection for having people perform a lexical decision task?

Selected Answer: Words "pizza, history" and non-words "pibble, girk"

The text's discussion of the research on in vivo problem solving highlighted that ____ play(s) an important role in solving scientific problems.

Selected Answer: analogies

Boxing champion George Foreman recently described his family vacations with the statement, "At our ranch in Marshall, Texas, there are lots of ponds and I take the kids out and we fish. And then of course, we grill them." That a reader understands "them" appropriately (George grills fish, not his kids!) is the result of a(n) _____ inference.

Selected Answer: anaphoric `

The typical purpose of subgoals is to

Selected Answer: bring the problem solver closer and closer to the goal state.

The given-new contract is a method for creating

Selected Answer: coherence in people's conversations.

Ali works for Citrus Squeeze, a company that makes orange juice. Sales of their calcium-enhanced OJ have been poor, and the product was cancelled. His factory still had three cases of cartons, and Ali was told he could take them if he wanted them. With the cartons, Ali made several birdfeeders for his backyard and also planted tree seedlings in some of them; he used the remaining ones to build a "fort" for his four-year-old son. Ali's use of the cartons represents

Selected Answer: divergent thinking.

Experts categorize problems based on

Selected Answer: general principles that problems share.

Language consists of smaller components, like words, that can be combined to form larger ones, like phrases, to create sentences, which themselves can be components of a larger story. This property is known as

Selected Answer: hierarchical structure.

Noam Chomsky proposed that

Selected Answer: humans are genetically programmed to acquire and use language.

"Early" researchers of imagery (beginning with Aristotle until just prior to the dominance of behaviorism) proposed all of the following ideas EXCEPT

Selected Answer: imagery requires a special mechanism.

In the two-string problem, tying the pliers to one of the strings best represents a(n) ____ state.

Selected Answer: intermediate

The "imagery debate" is concerned with whether imagery

Selected Answer: is based on mechanisms related to language.

When we look at a record of the physical energy produced by conversational speech, we see that the speech signal

Selected Answer: is continuous.

To reduce the likelihood of design fixation when completing a creative design task, you should

Selected Answer: not present a sample design.

B.F. Skinner, the modern champion of behaviorism, proposed that language is learned through

Selected Answer: reinforcement.

In analogical problem solving, the _____ problem has higher difficulty than the _____ problem.

Selected Answer: target; source

Tanenhaus and coworkers' eye movement study presented participants with different pictures for interpreting the sentence, "Put the apple on the towel in the box." Their results support

Selected Answer: the interactionist approach to parsing.

Syntax is

Selected Answer: the rules for combining words into sentences.

A phoneme refers to

Selected Answer: the shortest segment of speech that, if changed, changes the meaning of a word.

ERP Event Related Potential

Syntax and semantics can be distinquished by this -Placed on a person's scalp -Investigating a process such as understanding a converstation in which speakers say three words rapidly

Mental imagery

The ability to recreate the sensory world in the absence of stimuli -Wudnt proposed that images were one fo the three basic elements of consciousness along with sensations and feelings

"Kitchen tables" consists of ____ morphemes.

Three

The conceptual peg hypothesis would predict enhanced memory for which word pair?

True lies Amazing grace Correct-Valley girl Mission impossible

The conceptual peg hypothesis would predict enhanced memory for which word pair?

Valley Girl

Late Closure

When a person encounters a new word, the person's parsing mechanisms assumes that this word is part of the current phrase, so each new word is added to the current phrase for as long as possible

Amber lives in a housing development between two parallel streets that both connect to a freeway. She usually takes the street to the south when heading southbound on the freeway to work, but that street is closed for repairs for three months. Amber takes the street to the north during that time. After the street to the south is re-opened, she continues to take the street to the north, even though it is a slightly longer route. Continuing to take the street to the north represents

a mental set.

The typical purpose of subgoals is to

bring the problem solver closer and closer to the goal state.

Amedi and coworkers used fMRI to investigate the differences between brain activation for perception and imagery. Their findings showed that when participants were ____, some areas associated with non-visual sensation (such as hearing and touch) were ____.

creating images; deactivated

Examples like Paul McCartney's composition of the song "Yesterday" and Jack Nicklaus's improvement of his golf swing demonstrate a connection between imagery and

dual coding. Correct-dreams. inner audition. the visual buffer.

Tanenhaus and coworkers' eye movement study presented participants with different pictures for interpreting the sentence, "Put the apple on the towel in the box." Their results showed the importance of _____ in how we understand sentences in real-life situations.

environmental context

Swinney's lexical priming studies using ambiguous words as stimuli show that context

exerts its influence after all meanings of the word have been briefly accessed.

Perky's experiment, in which participants were asked to " project & quot; visual images of common objects onto a screen, showed that

imagery and perception can interact with one another.

Chaz is listening to his grandma reminisce about the first time she danced with his grandpa 60 years ago. When his grandma says, "It seemed like the song would play forever," Chaz understands that it is more likely his grandma was listening to a radio playing and not a CD. This understanding requires Chaz use a(n)

instrument inference.

In the two-string problem, tying the pliers to one of the strings best represents a(n) ____ state.

intermediate

When we look at a record of the physical energy produced by conversational speech, we see that the speech signal

is continuous.

Finke's creating an object studies show that people were more likely to come up with creative uses for preinventive objects if they

made the objects themselves.

Kosslyn's island experiment used the _____ procedure.

mental

The scanning task used by Kosslyn involves

mental images.

Wilma is a famous chef. Since she does not like to share her secret family recipes, she does not write down her special creations, which makes it difficult to remember their ingredients. To aid her memory, she has created a unique "mental walk" that she takes to recall each recipe. For each one, she has a familiar "route" she can imagine walking through (e.g., from the end of her driveway to her living room) where she places each item in the recipe somewhere along the way (e.g., Tabasco sauce splattered on the front door). By doing so, Wilma is using _____ to organize her memories.

mental synthesis paired-associate learning the pegword technique Correct-method of loci

Your text describes imagery performance of a patient with unilateral neglect. This patient was asked to imagine himself walking in a familiar plaza and to report the objects he saw. His behavior shows

neglect always occurred on the left side of the image, with "left side" being determined by the direction in which the patient imagined he was walking

Gick and Holyoak proposed that analogical problem solving involves the following three steps:

noticing, mapping, and applying.

Functional fixedness would be LOWEST for a(n)

novel object.

The rule-based approach to mechanical problem-solving is analogous to the idea that visual imagery involves ____ representations.

propositional

Ty has finished work on his doctoral dissertation. He studied how most adults understand words, specifically the priming effects of categorically related words and submitted a proposal to be included in a psychological conference to present his work to his peers. Presentation at the conference is segregated based on the particular topic in psychology under consideration. It is most likely that Ty's work will be presented in a conference session on

psycholinguistics.

The information processing approach describes problem solving as a process involving

search

The water-jug problem demonstrates that one consequence of having a procedure that does provide a solution to a problem is that, if well-learned, it may prevent us from

seeing more efficient solutions to the problem.

In a study, participants listened to the following tape recording: Rumor had it that, for years, the government building had been plagued with problems. The man was not surprised when he found several spiders, roaches, and other bugs in the corner of the room. As participants heard the word "bugs," they completed a lexical decision task to a test stimulus flashed on a screen. Results showed that the participants responded most slowly to the test stimulus

sky

Imageless thought debate

some psychologists said that thought is impossible without an image and others saying thinking can occur without images

When two people engage in a conversation, if one person produces a specific grammatical construction in her speech and then the other person does the same, this phenomenon is referred to as

syntactic priming.

Transcranial magnetic stimulation is used to

temporarily disrupt the functioning of a brain area.