psych ch 4

coedine

an opioid with relatively low potency. It is often prescribed for minor pain, and it is available over-the-counter in some other countries. Like all opioids, it does have abuse potential. In fact, abuse of prescription opioid medications is becoming a major concern worldwide

biological rhythms

are internal rhythms of biological activity.

collective unconscious

as described by Jung, is a theoretical repository of information he believed to be shared by everyone. According to Jung, certain symbols in dreams reflected universal archetypes with meanings that are similar for all people regardless of culture or location. He believed dreams allowed us to tap into this

cocaine

can be taken in multiple ways. While many users snort, intravenous injection and ingestion are also common. The freebase version of this, known as crack, is a potent, smokable version of the drug. Like many other stimulants, it agonizes the dopamine neurotransmitter system by blocking the reuptake of dopamine in the neuronal synapse.

wakefulness

characterized by high levels of sensory awareness, thought, and behavior.

Rapid eye movement (REM)

characterized by rapid darting movements of the eyes under closed eyelids. Brain waves during this sleep appear very similar to brain waves during wakefulness. this is the period of sleep in which dreaming occurs. associated with paralysis of muscle systems in the body with the exception of those that make circulation and respiration possible. Therefore, no movement of voluntary muscles occurs during this in a normal individual. often referred to as paradoxical sleep because of this combination of high brain activity and lack of muscle tone. Like NREM sleep, REM has been implicated in various aspects of learning and memory.

hallucinogen

class of drugs that results in profound alterations in sensory and perceptual experiences. In some cases, users experience vivid visual hallucinations. It is also common for these types of drugs to cause hallucinations of body sensations (e.g., feeling as if you are a giant) and a skewed perception of the passage of time.

Freud

convinced that dreams represented an opportunity to gain access to the unconscious. By analyzing dreams, he thought people could increase self-awareness and gain valuable insight to help them deal with the problems they faced in their lives. He made distinctions between the manifest content and the latent content of dreams.

stimulants

drugs that tend to increase overall levels of neural activity. Many of these drugs act as agonists of the dopamine neurotransmitter system. Dopamine activity is often associated with reward and craving; therefore, drugs that affect dopamine neurotransmission often have abuse liability. Drugs in this category include cocaine, amphetamines (including methamphetamine), cathinones (i.e., bath salts), MDMA (ecstasy), nicotine, and caffeine.

Physical dependence

involves changes in normal bodily functions—the user will experience withdrawal from the drug upon cessation of use

REM sleep behavior disorder

occurs when the muscle paralysis associated with the REM sleep phase does not occur. Individuals who suffer from this have high levels of physical activity during REM sleep, especially during disturbing dreams. These behaviors vary widely, but they can include kicking, punching, scratching, yelling, and behaving like an animal that has been frightened or attacked. People who suffer from this disorder can injure themselves or their sleeping partners when engaging in these behaviors. Furthermore, these types of behaviors ultimately disrupt sleep, although affected individuals have no memories that these behaviors have occurred

pineal gland

n endocrine structure located inside the brain that releases melatonin, is thought to be involved in the regulation of various biological rhythms and of the immune system during sleep

Obstructive sleep apnea

occurs when an individual's airway becomes blocked during sleep, and air is prevented from entering the lungs

Latent Content

refers to the hidden meaning of a dream.

alpha waves

relatively low frequency (8-13Hz), high amplitude patterns of electrical activity (waves) that become synchronized. This pattern of brain wave activity resembles that of someone who is very relaxed, yet awake.

stage 2 sleep

the body goes into a state of deep relaxation. Theta waves still dominate the activity of the brain, but they are interrupted by brief bursts of activity known as sleep spindles. the appearance of K-complexes is often associated with this stage.

substance use disorders

A person who has this often uses more of the substance than they originally intended to and continues to use that substance despite experiencing significant adverse consequences. In individuals diagnosed with these, there is a compulsive pattern of drug use that is often associated with both physical and psychological dependence. The fifth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, is used by clinicians to diagnose individuals suffering from various psychological disorders. Drug use disorders are addictive disorders, and the criteria for specific substance disorders are described in DSM-5.

CPAP

One of the most common treatments for sleep apnea involves the use of a special device during sleep. A continuous positive airway pressure device includes a mask that fits over the sleeper's nose and mouth, which is connected to a pump that pumps air into the person's airways, forcing them to remain open. Some newer CPAP masks are smaller and cover only the nose. This treatment option has proven to be effective for people suffering from mild to severe cases of sleep apnea. However, alternative treatment options are being explored because consistent compliance by users of these devices is a problem. Recently, a new EPAP (expiratory positive air pressure) device has shown promise in double-blind trials as one such alternative.

heroin

Historically, this has been a major opioid drug of abuse. It can be snorted, smoked, or injected intravenously. This is associated with an initial feeling of euphoria followed by periods of agitation. Because it is often administered via intravenous injection, users often bear needle track marks on their arms and, like all abusers of intravenous drugs, have an increased risk for contraction of both tuberculosis and HIV.

REM Rebound

If people are deprived of REM sleep and then allowed to sleep without disturbance, they will spend more time in REM sleep in what would appear to be an effort to recoup the lost time in REM. it suggests that REM sleep is also homeostatically regulated.

melatonin

Important hormone regulator of sleep wake cycles. The amount released is stimulated by darkness and inhibited by light. thought to be involved in the regulation of various biological rhythms and the immune system

SIDS

In sudden infant death syndrome an infant stops breathing during sleep and dies. Infants younger than 12 months appear to be at the highest risk, and boys have a greater risk than girls. A number of risk factors have been associated, including premature birth, smoking within the home, and hyperthermia. There may also be differences in both brain structure and function in infants that die from this.

Night terrors

Result in a sense of panic in the sufferer and are often accompanied by screams and attempts to escape from the immediate environment. Although individuals suffering from this appear to be awake, they generally have no memories of the events that occurred, and attempts to console them are ineffective. Typically, individuals with this will fall back asleep again within a short time. apparently occur during the NREM phase of sleep. Generally, treatment is unnecessary unless there is some underlying medical or psychological condition that is contributing to the night terrors.

euphoric high

The cocaine, amphetamine, cathinones, and MDMA users seek this, feelings of intense elation and pleasure, especially in those users who take the drug via intravenous injection or smoking. Repeated use of these stimulants can have significant adverse consequences. Users can experience physical symptoms that include nausea, elevated blood pressure, and increased heart rate. In addition, these drugs can cause feelings of anxiety, hallucinations, and paranoia. Normal brain functioning is altered after repeated use of these drugs

EEG

Visualizes changes in brain wave activity

sleep debt

When people have difficulty getting sleep due to their work or the demands of day-to-day life, they accumulate this. A person with a this does not get sufficient sleep on a chronic basis. The consequences of this include decreased levels of alertness and mental efficiency

jet lag

When we travel across multiple time zones we often experience this. A collection of symptoms that results from the mismatch between our internal circadian cycles and our environment, including: fatigue, sluggishness, irritability, and insomnia

circadian rhythm

a biological rhythm that takes place over a period of about 24 hours. Our sleep-wake cycle, which is linked to our environment's natural light-dark cycle, is perhaps the most obvious example of this, but we also have daily fluctuations in heart rate, blood pressure, blood sugar, and body temperature. Some play a role in changes in our state of consciousness. Hypothalamus regulates many of these and acts as a clock. There are individual differences: ex. morning and night people. (chronotype)

insomnia

a consistent difficulty in falling or staying asleep, is the most common of the sleep disorders. often experience long delays between the times that they go to bed and actually fall asleep. In addition, these individuals may wake up several times during the night only to find that they have difficulty getting back to sleep. one of the criteria for this involves experiencing these symptoms for at least three nights a week for at least one month's time.

insomnia

a difficulty in staying or falling asleep in at least 3 nights or a months time

depressant

a drug that tends to suppress central nervous system activity. Examples include alcohol, barbiturates and benzodiazepines. These drugs share in common their ability to serve as agonists of the gamma-Aminobutyric acid (GABA) neurotransmitter system. Because GABA has a quieting effect on the brain, GABA agonists also have a quieting effect; these types of drugs are often prescribed to treat both anxiety and insomnia.

psychological dependence

a person who has this has an emotional need for the drug and may use the drug to relieve psychological distress

narcolepsy

a person with this cannot resist falling asleep at inopportune times. These sleep episodes are often associated with cataplexy, which is a lack of muscle tone or muscle weakness, and in some cases involves complete paralysis of the voluntary muscles, like what people experience during REM sleep. episodes take on other features of REM sleep. individuals can experience vivid, dream-like hallucinations during attacks. episodes are often triggered by states of heightened arousal or stress. The typical episode can last from a minute or two to half an hour. Once awakened, people report that they feel refreshed. treated using psychomotor stimulant drugs, such as amphetamines These drugs promote increased levels of neural activity.

sleep spindles

a rapid burst of higher frequency brain waves that may be important for learning and memory

sleep

a state marked by relatively low levels of physical activity and reduced sensory awareness that is distinct from periods of rest that occur during wakefulness.

hypnosis

a state of extreme self-focus and attention in which minimal attention is given to external stimuli. In the therapeutic setting, a clinician may use relaxation and suggestion in an attempt to alter the thoughts and perceptions of a patient. It has also been used to draw out information believed to be buried deeply in someone's memory. For individuals who are especially open to the power of suggestion, this can prove to be a very effective technique, and brain imaging studies have demonstrated that these states are associated with global changes in brain functioning.

Caffeine

a stimulant drug. the most commonly used drug in the world, the potency of this particular drug pales in comparison to the other stimulant drugs described in this section. Generally, people use caffeine to maintain increased levels of alertness and arousal. found in many common medicines (such as weight loss drugs), beverages, foods, and even cosmetics. While it may have some indirect effects on dopamine neurotransmission, its primary mechanism of action involves antagonizing adenosine activity. While it is generally considered a relatively safe drug, high blood levels of this can result in insomnia, agitation, muscle twitching, nausea, irregular heartbeat, and even death

stage 1 sleep

a transitional phase that occurs between wakefulness and sleep, the period during which we drift off to sleep. During this time, there is a slowdown in both the rates of respiration and heartbeat. In addition, this sleep involves a marked decrease in both overall muscle tension and core body temperature. associated with both alpha and theta waves

methamphetamine

a type of amphetamine that can be made from ingredients that are readily available (e.g., medications containing pseudoephedrine, a compound found in many over-the-counter cold and flu remedies).

Cognitive-behavioral therapy

a type of psychotherapy that focuses on cognitive processes and problem behaviors. The treatment of insomnia likely would include stress management techniques and changes in problematic behaviors that could contribute to insomnia. has been demonstrated to be quite effective in treating insomnia.

K-complexes

a very high amplitude pattern of brain activity that may in some cases occur in response to environmental stimuli. They might serve as a bridge to higher levels of arousal in response to what is going on in our environments

rotating shift work

a work schedule that changes from early to late on a daily or weekly basis. People who do this are likely to experience disruptions in circadian cycles. In such instances, the individual's schedule changes so frequently that it becomes difficult for a normal circadian rhythm to be maintained. This often results in sleeping problems, and it can lead to signs of depression and anxiety.

sleep apnea

defined by episodes during which a sleeper's breathing stops. These episodes can last 10-20 seconds or longer and often are associated with brief periods of arousal. While individuals suffering from this may not be aware of these repeated disruptions in sleep, they do experience increased levels of fatigue. Many individuals diagnosed first seek treatment because their sleeping partners indicate that they snore loudly and/or stop breathing for extended periods of time while sleeping. much more common in overweight people and is often associated with loud snoring.

consciousness

describes our awareness of internal and external stimuli. Awareness of internal stimuli includes feeling pain, hunger, thirst, sleepiness, and being aware of our thoughts and emotions. Awareness of external stimuli includes seeing the light from the sun, feeling the warmth of a room, and hearing the voice of a friend.

central sleep apnea

disruption in signals sent from the brain that regulate breathing cause periods of interrupted breathing.

lucid dreams

dreams in which certain aspects of wakefulness are maintained during a dream state. In this, a person becomes aware of the fact that they are dreaming, and as such, they can control the dream's content.

amphetamines

have a mechanism of action quite similar to cocaine in that they block the reuptake of dopamine in addition to stimulating its release. They are often abused, but they are also commonly prescribed to children diagnosed with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). It may seem counterintuitive that stimulant medications are prescribed to treat a disorder that involves hyperactivity, but the therapeutic effect comes from increases in neurotransmitter activity within certain areas of the brain associated with impulse control.

nicotine

highly addictive, and the use of tobacco products is associated with increased risks of heart disease, stroke, and a variety of cancers. This exerts its effects through its interaction with acetylcholine receptors. Acetylcholine functions as a neurotransmitter in motor neurons. In the central nervous system, it plays a role in arousal and reward mechanisms. most commonly used in the form of tobacco products like cigarettes or chewing tobacco. To date, people have used a variety of nicotine replacement therapies in addition to various psychotherapeutic options in an attempt to discontinue their use of tobacco products. In general, smoking cessation programs may be effective in the short term, but it is unclear whether these effects persist

pons

important for regulating rapid eye movement (REM) sleep

drug withdrawl

includes a variety of negative symptoms experienced when drug use is discontinued. These symptoms usually are opposite of the effects of the drug.

tolerance

linked to physiological dependence, and it occurs when a person requires more and more drug to achieve effects previously experienced at lower doses. can cause the user to increase the amount of drug used to a dangerous level—even to the point of overdose and death.

theta waves

lower frequency (4-7 Hz), higher amplitude brain waves. As stage one sleep continues, there is an increase in these.

stage 3 and 4 sleep

often referred to as deep sleep or slow-wave sleep because these stages are characterized by low frequency (up to 4 Hz), high amplitude delta waves. During this time, an individual's heart rate and respiration slow dramatically. It is much more difficult to awaken someone from sleep during this than during earlier stages. Interestingly, individuals who have increased levels of alpha brain wave activity (more often associated with wakefulness and transition into stage 1 sleep) during stage this often report that they do not feel refreshed upon waking, regardless of how long they slept.

opiods

one of a category of drugs that includes heroin, morphine, methadone, and codeine. They have analgesic properties, so they decrease pain. Humans have an endogenous opioid neurotransmitter system—the body makes small quantities of opioid compounds that bind to opioid receptors reducing pain and producing euphoria. Thus, opioid drugs, which mimic this endogenous painkilling mechanism, have an extremely high potential for abuse. Natural opioids, called opiates, are derivatives of opium, which is a naturally occurring compound found in the poppy plant. There are now several synthetic versions of opiate drugs opioids) that have very potent painkilling effects, and they are often abused.

Parasomnia

one of a group of sleep disorders in which unwanted, disruptive motor activity and/or experiences during sleep play a role. can occur in either REM or NREM phases of sleep. Sleepwalking, restless leg syndrome, and night terrors are all examples of this

methadone

people experiencing opioid withdrawal may be given this to make withdrawal from the drug less difficult. It is a synthetic opioid that is less euphorigenic than heroin and similar drugs. Methadone clinics help people who previously struggled with opioid addiction manage withdrawal symptoms through the use of this.

sleep regulation

refers to the brain's control of switching between sleep and wakefulness as well as coordinating this cycle with the outside world.

sleep rebound

refers to the fact that a sleep-deprived individual will tend to take a shorter time to fall asleep during subsequent opportunities for sleep

hypothalamus

the biological clock of the body, in addition to other nuclei that, in conjunction with the thalamus, regulate slow-wave sleep

non REM sleep

subdivided into four stages distinguished from each other and from wakefulness by characteristic patterns of brain waves. The first four stages of sleep are this, while the fifth and final stage of sleep is REM sleep

meditation

the act of focusing on a single target (such as the breath or a repeated sound) to increase awareness of the moment. an individual can perform this alone. Often, people wishing to learn receive some training in techniques to achieve this state. A meditative state, as shown by EEG recordings of meditators, is not an altered state of consciousness per se; however, patterns of brain waves exhibited by expert meditators may represent a unique state of consciousness. the central feature is clearing the mind in order to achieve a state of relaxed awareness and focus.

manifest content

the actual content, or storyline, of a dream.

sleepwalking

the sleeper engages in relatively complex behaviors ranging from wandering about to driving an automobile. During periods of this, sleepers often have their eyes open, but they are not responsive to attempts to communicate with them. It most often occurs during slow-wave sleep, but it can occur at any time during a sleep period in some affected individuals.

restless leg syndrome

uncomfortable sensations in the legs during periods of inactivity or when trying to fall asleep. This discomfort is relieved by deliberately moving the legs, which, not surprisingly, contributes to difficulty in falling or staying asleep. It is quite common and has been associated with a number of other medical diagnoses, such as chronic kidney disease and diabetes. There are a variety of drugs that treat this.