Psych Ch. 4 Test Review~

Pupil

Adjustable opening through which light enters the eye

Pitch perception

Adults hear sound waves between 15 & 20,000 Hz; Perceived pitch depends partly on detected frequency

Frequency

# of vibrations or cycles of sound wave per second —> hertz (Hz) (Short waves -> higher frequency)

Steps for Smell

1. Airborne molecules of fragrance reach receptors at top of nose 2. Sniffing swirls air up to your receptors, enhancing the aroma 3. Receptor cells send messages to the olfactory nerve and then to the brain's olfactory bulb & then onwards to temporal lobe's primary smell cortex 4. Messages are also sent to the limbic system involved w/ memory & emotion

Conduction Deafness (Hearing Loss)

3 bones in the ear don't transmit sound waves properly to the cochlea Cause - something blocks bones from moving Treatment - surgery needed to remove the obstruction *but people can hear their own voices since skull bones are involved, not eardrums

Opponent-process theory (Hering)

4 primary colors: red, green, blue & yellow (red-green, yellow-blue, white-black) States that color is perceived not in terms of separate categories, but as a system of paired opposites Reasons for seeing afterimages; occurs cuz the cells that increased activity in presence of a specific color get fatigue, decreasing their response for that 1st color, while the other color was decreased during that period; Brain interprets the decrease in the 1st color as the 2nd color Color perception depends on cerebral cortex not just the retina Negative afterimages - experiencing a color after the removal of another; results from alternating stimulation & inhibition of visual system neurons (Bipolar neuron that responds to yellow is inhibited by blue; Stare at red object, & see green after-image when you stop)

Taste Categories

4 tastes - sweet, sour, salty, & bitter Researchers believe monosodium glutamate (MSG), may represent 5th type (umami) On edge of tongue in adults; they react to chemicals dissolved in saliva; taste buds don't indicate where are you taste something; when tongue touch receptors are stimulated, brain has the taste perception as coming from wherever it feels touch (taste happens in the brain, we can only detect the temp & texture no area where it is being tasted)

Perceptual adaptation

Ability to adjust to changed sensory input like artificially displace, inverted, or shifted visual fields Ex: To adjust to distortions that come from goggles or glasses & in turn function as if the visual field was normal

Phantom limb phenomenon

After amputation, the corresponding portion of somatosensory cortex stops receiving normal input; • Axons from neighboring cortical areas form branches that excite silenced areas of cortex • When these cortical areas receive new input, they react in old way, producing phantom sensation • Sensations originate from neural activity in the somatosensory cortex near the area dedicated to the missing limb • Neurons of the face area are adjacent to the hand area • Face neurons may produce a feeling of a phantom hand • They stimulate the area that once only registered sensations of the hand

Intensity

Amount of energy in a light wave or sound wave which influences what we perceive as brightness or loudness; determined by wavelength's amplitude Higher amplitude -> higher intensity (brighter/louder)

texture gradient (monocular cue)

At greater distances, objects appear to come closer; "packed" together appearance of objects; helps estimate the distance Clusters of objects seem more densely packed the farther away they are Ex: like telephone poles

Stroboscopic Movement

Brain perceives continuous movement in a rapid series of slightly varying images Ex: animated movies, flip books, motion pictures

Localization of sounds (How do we determine the source of a sound?)

By comparing messages received by both ears to estimate location of a sound's origin Sounds from front -> arrive at both ears at the same time & intensity Sounds from left -> arrived at left ear first w/ higher intensity Timing -> important for locating low-frequency sounds Intensity -> important for locating high-frequency sounds Sound's distance - estimated from loudness & pitch Growing louder = approaching Higher the frequency, the closer the sound; Increasing pitch = approaching • Absolute distance - cued by amount of reverberation (echos) experienced

Sensory receptors

Cells that turn environmental sensations into signals for the nervous system to detect; Specialized cells that convert physical stimuli into signals in nervous system

Fovea

Center of visual field, most detailed vision; focal point/center of retina, high density of cones; region of greatest visual acuity

Color Vision

Colors - specific corresponding wavelengths of electromagnetic energy - 3 types of cones (respond to different wavelengths) - Cells in visual pathway process info from cones in terms of opposites Opposite pairings: Red vs. green Yellow vs. blue White vs. black To create color - Cortical cells integrate inputs from the all over the visual field

Motion parallax

Concept where close objects are seen as moving faster than distant objects; when the viewer's head is moving; difference in speed of movement of images across retina as one travels Ex: driving, trees seem fast but mountains are slow

Transduction

Conversion of neural stimulus energy to action potentials (electrical potential across the membrane of a receptor cell)

Sensation

Converts physical stimuli into patterns of nervous system responses; Experience of/detecting stimuli from surroundings thru one's senses Perception - interprets those nervous responses from stimuli

Ear (steps of sound travel)

Converts weak sound waves into pressure waves transported by sensory neurons & interpreted by the brain Hearing receptors are in the cochlea—spiral-shaped organ w/ fluid-filled canals 1. Sound waves strike tympanic membrane, or eardrum 2. Vibrations cause 3 bones (malleus, incus, & stapes—hammer, anvil & stirrup) to make the sound waves into strong signals. 3. Stirrup causes cochlea to vibrate, which displaces hair cells along the basilar membrane 4. Hair cells connect to neurons of auditory nerve, which transmits the impulses from cochlea to cerebral auditory cortex in temporal lobe

Sensorineural Hearing Loss (nerve deafness)

Damage to structures that receive/transmit impulses - cochlea, hair cells, or auditory nerve Cause - disease, genetics & exposure to loud sounds Treatment - Hearing aid - (unless it's severe) modern types amplify one set of frequencies & not others since people w/ damaged cochleas can have trouble hearing only high or medium frequencies Cochlear implant - changes neural impulses

Sensory adaptation

Decrease in sensitivity to a constant level of stimulation; allows you to focus on new stimulus Ex: annoying fan in the room but later you don't notice it

Astigmatism

Defective curvature of cornea/lens of eye; doesn't focus properly; cornea shaped irregularly or curvature of lens; very common (need glasses); causes blurriness; cornea shaped like football; (bending light in weird ways, when there's too much light, it can't compensate)

Synesthesia

Describing one kind of sensation in terms of another ("a loud color", "a sweet sound") condition in which a sensory stimulus elicits a perception for a different one Ex: a sound wave would produce a color or taste One in 500 people reports experiences of synesthesia although the condition may be underreported • confirms that the world we experience is based in interpretations made by our brains

Hue

Dimension of color determined by the wavelength of light (what we know as colors such as blue etc.)

Wavelength

Distance from peak of 1 light or sound wave to the next

Neurotransmitters & pain (Decrease pain)

Distractions & some medicines (endorphins); inducing pain capsaicin Substance P released during intense pain Endorphins - (chemically identical to opiates) released in response to substance P; decrease pain sensations; their release may be induced by sensory experiences Pleasant experiences Decrease Pain: Listening to music Capsaicin - chemical present in hot peppers; stimulates receptors that respond to painful heat; Causes release of substance P & depletes nervous system's supply; releases pain transmitters quicker than neurons can we generate Creams use capsaicin to relieve muscle pain

How can Gestalt principles & feature detectors be combined explain hearing & visual perception?

Feature detectors gather information & make it one whole entity that allows for visual constancy to perceive objects of having the same size, shape, & color despite distortions in the real pattern arriving at the retina

Lens

Flexible, varies in thickness, allows eye to accommodate or adjust focus for different distances; directs light thru vitreous humor to back of eye Close focus -> eye muscles tighten (curve up) Far focus -> eye muscles loosen (flatten)

Pitch

Frequency perception • High-frequency soundwave -> high-pitched • Low-frequency wave -> low-pitched (Psychological experience - their perception doesn't depend on frequency alone)

Shadows (monocular cue)

Helps estimate sizes & locations of objects; darker objects appear farther

Place Theory

Highest frequency sounds vibrate hair cells near stirrup & low-frequency sounds 100 to 200 Hz vibrates hair cells farther along the basilar membrane; (at high freq.) only 1 point on the basilar membrane vibrates Used for hearing above 4,000 Hz; • At 100-4000 Hz, hearing results from combined effects of the volley & place principles Location of cells stimulated by the sound waves depends on their frequency

Grouping (Gestalt Principles)

Idea that humans perceive objects as organize patterns & objects; organizing/categorizing stimuli into groups w/ meaning

Vestibular sense

Identify as the tilt/angle & acceleration & orientation of head in regards to gravity; Important for maintaining equilibrium & posture/balance Responsible for motion sickness; allows eyes to focus on a target while head moves Vestibule - structure in inner ears; Changes in its position cause simulation receptors Structure of vestibular system: • Semicircular canals - oriented in 3 different directions; hair-lined canals contain a jellylike substance -Acceleration moves the jellylike substance & the hair cells, stimulating them • Otolith organs (2) - contained in hair cells; calcium carbonate particles that stimulate different sets of hair cells, depending on which way the head tilts (So we know "which way is up")

Phi Phenomenon

Illusion of apparent movement; sensation of true movement separate of any other characteristics of the stimulus; results when stationary stimuli lights/pictures appear/flash rapidly after one another & are sometimes in slightly different positions -> they appear to move Ex: light blinking, loading symbol

Myopia (nearsightedness)

Impaired ability to focus on objects far away (can see near); Elongated eyeball

Presbyopia

Impaired focus on objects close by; lens loses flexibility; age-related, middle-aged individuals have it; lens becomes more rigid/less flexible (close objects blurry)

Hyperopia (farsightedness)

Inability to focus on close objects (can see far); Flattened/compressed shape

Accommodation

Length of eye change the shape to focus on objects close by; brain detects the change & info is the distance towards an object; lens is bold in length and horizontally; works best for objects within 25 feet

Cataracts

Lens become cloudy; age-related;n(blocks part of visual field) For treatment, the actual lens is replaced w/ contact lens, possible surgery

Retina

Light-sensitive, contains visual receptors—photoreceptors (rods & cones) that covers back of eyeball; where light hits after vitreous humor

6. What is the non-medication solution to a broken heart?

Looking at an image of a loved one can lessen the physical pain. Hence, love can act as a natural painkiller since it stimulates the same areas of the brain triggered by morphine and cocaine. To overcome the physical and emotional pain, moving on from the lost lover quicker, will lessen one's suffering from a broken heart, shortening the duration.

Gate Theory of Pain

Pain sensation is reduced when other somatosensory signals are present Seeking/believing in treatment can cause a reduction of symptoms -Placebo effectiveness in reducing pain is confirmed by experiments - Pain messages must pass thru a "gate," in spinal cord; the gate can block & facilitate messages

3. Describe the main idea of the brain activity that emerged from the first stage of the heartbreak part of the study.

Overall, the brain is still acting as if the former lover is still there, stimulating the same areas, but unable to satisfy the motivation and effects that were once produced. The brain activity indicated that the reward system in the midbrain still acted like the individual was in love. There are no rewards from love to arrive since the relationship is over, but the neurons continue to expect a reward (flood of dopamine). The nucleus caudate reacted to the person's former lover like they were still in love, so the motivation for it is still present. Also, it was found that some parts of the brain were trying to overcome others in which the orbital frontal cortex was activated, used in learning from emotions and controlling behavior. Brain areas that are usually stimulated when a person craves drugs were still firing, demonstrating that they were still addicted to the effects (dopamine) that love evokes.

Pain

Pain receptors - simple nerve endings that travel to spinal cord Pain perception - complex mixture of sensation & perception mediated by emotion 2 different areas of brain govern sensory & emotional interpretations (Thus some people can be distracted or use self-hypnosis to manage pain) Nociceptor cells = pain cells

Color constancy

Perceiving an object to appear the same color, even under different lighting that alters wavelengths reflected by the object; Tendency for a color to look the same under various lighting conditions Ex: Tree leaves appear orange even in the morning, afternoon, night

Perceptual constancy

Phenomenon where an object & its properties (size, shape, color) appear the same regardless of differences in the stimuli or external conditions/factors of observation (like orientation, brightness level, angle perspective, distance) (brightness constancy, color constancy, shape constancy, size constancy) Ex: car driving away objects don't change the way you see them changes

Stimuli

Physical energies or things in the environment that activate our sense receptors & affect what we do

Blind spot

Point where optic nerve leaves eye, creating a "blind" spot since no photoreceptors located there

Accommodation

Process in which lens changes shape to focus near or far objects on the retina; at different distances Close objects-> eye muscles tighten, lens curve/thicken/rounder Far focus -> eye muscles loosen, lens flatten

Figure-ground (Gestalt Principles)

Process of distinguishing the object from the background; to identify the figure Organization of the visual field into objects (l figures) that stand out from their surroundings (ground)

Perception

Process of organizing & interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects & events Process of being aware of objects relationships & events using the senses which involve recognizing, observing & discriminating; allow us to organize/interpret stimuli that received into meaningful knowledge & act appropriately

Glaucoma

Results from increased pressure in the eyeball; optic nerve is damaged & peripheral vision impaired Causes blindness (starts w/ peripherals goes to center; slow vision loss; surgery needed

Cones

Retinal receptor cells used for color, daytime (well-lit conditions), & detailed vision Concentrated near center of retina (fovea); 5-10% of visual receptors in human retina

Rods

Retinal receptors responsible for night vision (dim light); located near the periphery; responds to point stimulation; detects black, white, & gray; necessary for peripheral & night vision; fainter stimulus (cylindrical, 90%-95% of all human eyes; found in all vertebrates—more rods in nocturnals & peripheral regions)

Detail (monoocular cue)

Seeing close objects in more detail than objects far away

Olfaction

Sense of smell; receptors located in mucous membranes at back of nasal air passages; detect airborne chemical molecules; Olfactory receptors axons form olfactory tract that runs all the way to olfactory bulb at base of brain (in temporal lobe) to primary smell cortex -Hundreds of types of human olfactory receptors -Other mammals have more receptors than us -Each type of smell receptor is specialized for detection of a particular group of related chemicals Smell is vital for food selection • Prefrontal cortical neurons receive both taste and smell input combined & producing the experience of flavor

Cutaneous Senses

Skin senses; combination of independent senses (pressure on skin, warmth/cold, pain, itch, vibration, movement & stretch of skin) which depends on different receptor types Noticeable in skin; receptors present in internal organs, allow us to feel internal pain, pressure, & temperature changes; senses comprise somatosensory system Primary somatosensory cortex - fingertips & lips contain more cutaneous receptors than other body regions Proportionally more parietal lobe tissue is given to processing their inputs (W/o impairment we're good at identifying objects by touch alone)

5. Describe what psychologists mean by 'social pain' and the role evolution has played.

Social pain is the stimulation or onset of pain in response to the loss of or threats to one's social connection. Our ancestors heavily relied on numbers for safety reasons in which any kind of exclusion meant death was near. For example, physical pain can indicate a life-threatening injury. Thus, physical pain and emotional pain have evolved to share the same pathways to make sure individuals are aware of the danger. In the 21st century, the social pain we experience exists to teach us, allowing us to pay attention to important social occurrences to learn, correct, avoid, and move on from it. If people ignore the pain, then they are risking their well-being since they're failing to draw attention to a possible crisis.

Frequency principle (Hearing different pitches)

Sound waves passing thru fluid in cochlea vibrates hair cells, which produces synchronized action potentials Used for hearing at low frequencies (up to 100 Hz) Ex: sound frequency of 50 Hz makes every hair cell send the brain 50 impulses per second

Feature detectors

Specialized neurons in visual cortex that respond selectively to very specific features of more complex stimuli; respond to the strength, angles, shapes, edges & movements of a visual stimulus; they don't explain perception; context determines our perception, not just feature detectors alone

Retinex Theory (Edwin Land)

States that cerebral cortex compares patterns of light coming from different parts of retina & creates a color perception for each area (wavelengths don't matter brain makes color) -We perceive color as the cerebral cortex compares various retinal patterns (retina + cortex = "Retinex") • Objects remain the same color across different lighting conditions (color constancy) (Trichromatic & Opponent-Process theories don't account for it)

Psychophysics

Study of relationships between physical characteristics of stimuli, like their intensity, & our psychological experience of them

Iris

Surrounds pupil; its muscles cause pupil to dilate or constrict; colored portion; controls the amount of light passing through

Taste

Taste receptors - tastebuds; located in folds on tongue surface, contain human taste receptors Sense of taste detects chemicals on tongue; controls & motivates eating/drinking • Taste attracted ancestors to energy (protein) that enabled survivors • Aversive tastes deterred them from new food that might be toxic (kids w/ veggies)

Proximity (Gestalt Principles)

Tendency to perceive objects that are close in distance as belonging to a group

Similarity

Tendency to perceive similar things as been a group

1. Describe the role of the caudate nucleus and its relation to love and other substances.

The caudate nucleus is stimulated with an increase in dopamine in which the structure is involved in motivation and goal-oriented behavior and the rewards system. This suggests that love is more of a goal-focused motivational state, instead of emotion. For instance, we can identify people's emotions easily using their facial expressions, but we can't identify individuals as "in love" using their facial expressions since it's not an emotion per se. The goal of love is to keep the object of our affections, and the release of dopamine feels good, so it makes people addicts for the constant effects of being in love.

Convergence

The degree/level which both eyes turn into focus on an object that's close (the closer the object the more tension present an eye muscles)

Retinal disparity

The difference in the position & object appears to be in, as seen by left & right retinas; uses both eyes

4. Describe the biological mechanisms at work that cause real physical pain during a breakup.

The physical pain that people experience comes from the fact that hundreds and thousands of neural circuits that specifically functioned and targeted the former lover needs to be reformed as a result of the person's absence. It's caused by the release of hormones from the sympathetic and parasympathetic system at the same time in which this produces an effect that is similar to the heart's accelerator and brakes being used all at once. These opposite effects lead to the sensation of heartbreak. More so, social rejection and physical pain were discovered to resonate in the exact same areas of the brain.

2. Describe what researchers did to study individuals in their first stage of heartbreak

The researchers wanted to observe the brain when anger and hurt feelings come into play, so they used a group of people in the first stages of heartbreak. All of the subjects reported that they thought about their ex around 85% of their waking hours and strongly desired to get back with him/her. Also, these individuals had signs of lack of emotion control regularly ever since the breakup, spanning over the course of weeks or months. The researchers put the subjects through fMRI machines, where they were asked to look at photographs of their beloved ("rejecter stimulus") and had them share their feelings and experiences at the same time

Trichromatic theory (Young-Helmholtz)

Theory of color vision, states that receptors respond to 3 primary colors/types of cones: red, blue, & green Color vision depends on relative rate of response by 3 types of cones Blue - sensitive to short wavelengths Green - sensitive to medium wavelengths Red - sensitive to long wave links White - all cones equally excited Color doesn't blend like paint, doesn't explain afterimages (Light that stimulates medium & long wavelength cones equally is perceived as yellow)

Subliminal perception

Thought/behavior influenced by stimuli that a person cannot consciously report perceiving; "below threshold"

Evidence for Retinex Theory

Types of brain damage can disrupt color constancy; Objects may appear orange in one level of light, & red, green, yellow, or even white under others

Volley Principle

Used for hearing medium soundwaves/frequencies at 100-4,000 Hz Fewer hair cells fire; response occurs in groups/volleys, producing action potentials; volleys predominate in transmission of speech & musi Each soundwave excites several hair cells & volleys/groups of them create an action potential as a response to each vibration - That's why a tone at 1,000 Hz produces 1,000 impulses per second even though no neurons fire that fast - Tones less than 100 Hz equally excited all hair cells (doubling the frequency won't make the pitch twice as high, it'll only make it an octave higher)

Soundwaves

Vibrations in air, water, or other medium; frequency & amplitude vary

Monocular cues

Visual cues used to judge depth & distance w/ only one eye; ways that a single eye helps process what you're looking at depth cues, such as interposition and linear perspective, available to either eye alone

(Detailed) Steps of Visual Pathway

Visual receptors send impulses toward center of eye Bipolar cells gather impulses from rods & cones Then make synaptic contacts w/ ganglion cells Combined axons of ganglion cells form optic nerve as they U-turn & exit the eye No photoreceptors exist where nerve leaves eye ("blind spot") - It's covered as info from each retina "fills in" the blind spot from the other; resulting view in the visual cortex is integrated At optic chiasm, half of each optic nerve crosses to other side of brain. Axons separate & send info thru the brain Impulse enter occipital lobe via thalamus information from retinas is integrated in visual cortex. Each cortical cell receives input from both retinas When the 2 retinas focus on same point, their input is easily integrated cuz the message from each is almost the same Neural activity of visual cortex crucial for vision; ppl w/ intact eyes, but a damaged visual cortex lose the ability to form imagery

Binocular cues

Visual/depth cues (like retinal disparity) that depend on using 2 eyes

Binocular rivalry

When images from each retina conflict; Cortical cells are alternately stimulated & inhibited while integrating them Competition btwn the 2 eyes for control of visual perception, (when completely different stimuli are presented to the 2 eyes)

Linear perspective

parallel lines appear to converge w/ distance

Interposition

if one object partially blocks our view of another, we perceive it as closer Ex: pencil in front of water bottle is closer

Color deficiency (color blindness)

inability to perceive certain colors; results from absence of 1 type of cone or when 1 type of cone is less responsive than the others Most common type - Red-green color blindness; more in males (only need to receive 1 affected X chromosome to express); sex-linked recessive trait; • Affected individuals have only the short wavelengths (blue) & either the long wavelength (red) or medium wavelength (green) cones Protanopia - lack of long-wavelength cones Deuteranopia - lack of medium-wavelength cones Trianopia - Yellow-blue deficiency (rare) (Color that stimulates affected cone type is seen as gray)

Absolute sensory threshold

intensity at which a given individual detects a stimulus 50% of the time Ex: for example blindfold a person in touch with a cotton ball to see when they detect it

Amplitude

intensity of sound waves; perceived as loudness Greater amplitude -> louder it sounds (Pitch & loudness are psychological experiences—their perception doesn't depend on frequency & amplitude alone) Ex: if someone speaks as fast as someone who speaks slowly, the faster speaker seems louder

Object Size

other things being equal, a nearby object produces a larger image than a distant one; only useful for objects of known size

Difference threshold

smallest detectable difference between 2 stimuli that can constantly/correctly detect on 50% of trials; minimum amount that something needs to change for a person to notice a difference Weber's Law - The more intense the stimulus, the greater the change that needs to happen for it to be noticed Smaller, less change for it to be noticed

Kinesthesia (Body position & movement)

system for sensing movement of individual body parts; movement sense

Closure

tendency to perceive a complete figure even when there are gaps in the image

Continuation

tendency to perceive continuous patterns

Bottom-up process

tiny elements combine to produce larger items (feature detectors present) Focuses on incoming sensory data

Cornea

transparent, rigid outer eye surface; directs light thru pupil (curved to bend light)

Top-down process

you apply your experience & expectations to interpret each item in context; perception driven by cognition

Steps of Visual Pathway

• Light enters cornea • Then, it passes through the pupil; iris controls the amount of light light in • Passes thru lens, which focuses light rays onto the retina • Light hits the retina (light-sensitive) at back of eye & the image is inverted; turns light into neural impulses - Rods & cones (visual receptors) send impulses away from brain (towards center of the eye) where fovea is concentrated w/ cones for detailed vision • Impulse reach bipolar cells, reactions occur in retina • Then reaches ganglion cells, reactions occur in retina • Ganglion cells' axons form optic nerve, exiting the eye • Impulses travel thru optic chiasm, crossing over to the opposite side of the brain • Travels thru thalamus—relay station of brain • Directed to primary visual cortex in occipital lobe for visual image processing (where images are created)

Steps of Sound Travel

• Sound waves travel through external auditory canal (outer ear) • It reaches the eardrum and causes it to vibrate (middle year) • This vibrates 3 small bones (hammer, anvil & stirrup) • Vibrations passed from stirrup travel through semi circular canals • From here, vibrations enter the cochlea • Vibrations move the hair cells against the basilar membrane • Cells convert vibrations into electrical nerve impulses • Impulses travel through axons forming the auditory nerve • After passing through the nerve, impulses are sent to the auditory cortex (in the temporal lobe) to complete the hearing process (Resulting pressure changes in the cochlear fluid & causes the basilar membrane to ripple, bending the hair cells on the surface; hair cell movements trigger impulses at the base of the nerve cells, whose fibers converge to make the auditory nerve, which sends neural impulses to the Thalamus and then to the auditory cortex)