Psych Chapter 1
Socrates
"Know thyself" Introspection - is important to learn who you are Famous student = Plato Famous student of Plato = Aristotle
Birth of Psychology as a Science
1500s through 1700s saw science explain many aspects of physical world. People who thought about human behavior and mental processes in the 1800s realized that theories needed to be proven by scientific evidence. 1879 Wilhelm Wundt established the first modern psychology laboratory in Leipzig, Germany.
Placebo
A fake drug that appears to be real. Used as a control.
Pseudopsychology
A false and unscientific system of beliefs and practices that is offered as an explanation of behavior.
Introspection
A main component of Wilhelm Wundt's approach to understanding how humans experience sensations, images, and feeling is to engage in introspection, or "looking inward" to probe his reactions to various stimuli.
Theory
A map of knowledge. Good ones summarize observations, explain them, and guide further research. A system of ideas designed to interrelate concepts and facts in a way that summarizes existing data and predicts future observations.
Representative sample
A small group that accurately reflects your target population. The idea is to say your survey results also would be the same if you talked to everyone.
Standard deviation
A statistic that essentially relates the average distance any score is from the mean
Research methods
A systematic approach to answering scientific questions.
Hypothesis
A tentative statement about, or explanation of, an event or relationship. It is a TESTABLE hunch or educated guess about behavior.
Variable
A variable is any condition that can change and that might affect the outcome of an experiment
Random assignment
Allows for experimental subjects to have an equal chance of being assigned to either the experimental group or the control group. This balances differences between them and is a way to help control for extraneous variables.
Critical thinking
An ability to reflect on, evaluate, compare, analyze, critique, and synthesize information. It is an important skill for psychologists to have because they should always be questioning assumptions and long-held beliefs.
Counselor
An advisor who helps solve problems with marriage, career, school, work, etc.
Population
An entire group of people (or animals) belonging to a particular category.
Control & Confounding variables
An experiment has proper control if all variables but the one the independent variable is held constant. Confounding variables are those that the researcher should eliminate because they may have unwanted influence on the dependent variable. If a study design does not contain adequate controls to alleviate the effect of confounding variables, the results will be flawed.
Behavior
Any action other people can observe or measure.
Psychiatric social workers
Apply social science principles to help patients in clinic and hospitals. They often work with psychologists and/or psychiatrists as a team.
Associationism
Associating current experiences with similar experiences of past. Behind theories of how organisms learn, even now.
Aristotle
Associationism
Histogram
Bar graph but not touching
Psychoanalysis
Based on consultations with hundreds of patients, Freud concluded that we have conflicting impulses, urges and wishes that we are not aware of He thought that these internal conflicts and unconscious motives drove human behavior Believed that dreams were the window to the unconscious.
Scientific observation
Based on gathering empirical evidence
B.F. Skinner
Behaviorist. Reinforcement. When animals are reinforced, or rewarded, for performing an action, it is more likely to perform that action again in the future - it learns that if it does something, it will get a reward Demonstrated by inventing what is now known as a "Skinner box".
John Watson
Behaviorist. Thought it was impossible to scientifically study thought processes and motivations He thought since only behavior can be observed and measured, psychology could only be the study of observable behavior. Little Albert experiment.
Reliable research
Can be replicated. It is consistent. Quality research should be both this AND valid/
Extraneous variable
Can throw off the results of an experiment if they are not controlled.
Placebo effect
Changes in behavior caused by belief that one has taken a drug.
Mental processes
Cognitive activities, brain activity that only is perceptible to the person doing it. Can't observe the mental processes, but we can observe the behaviors associated with the mental processes i.e. tossing and turning in sleep, talking in sleep, looking out my window
Operational definitions
Defining a scientific concept by stating the specific actions or procedures used to measure it. For example, "hunger" might be defined as "the number of hours of food deprivation."
Psychodynamic view
Directed by forces in personality that are hidden or unconscious.
Ethics
Ethical guidelines and regulations exist for psychologists' use in treating patients and conducting research. Scientists must accurately report their results, minimize participant discomfort, and prevent any long-term negative effects. Human participants must be fully informed about their participation before a given study and must be debriefed when the research is concluded. The obligation of psychologists to protect participants' welfare also extends to animals.
Experimental research vs. Non-experimental research
Experimental research is a formal trial undertaken to support or disprove a hypothesis about the cause of behavior. Non-experimental methods are not formal trials - examples are the correlational method, the case study method, and naturalistic observation. While non-experimental research methods can provide strong direction for further research, they do not determine the cause of behavior like experimental research can.
Independent variable vs. Dependent Variable vs. Confounding (aka Extraneous) variable
Experiments allow researchers to manipulate or control one variable to observe the effect of that manipulation on another variable, while holding all other variables constant. In an experiment, the variable manipulated or controlled by the researcher is called the independent variable. The measurement of the consequences is called the dependent variable. Flaws in experimental control can reduce the validity of an experiment. Confounding variables are uncontrolled factors that might have affected the dependent variable and confused interpretation of the experimental data.
Experimental group vs. Control group
Experiments have at least two groups of subjects: the experimental group and the control group. The control group receives no treatment, thus providing a baseline against which to compare the experimental group. The experimental group experiences the independent variable. Any difference in the dependent variable between the control and experimental groups is caused by the independent variable.
Control group
Exposed to everything the members of the experimental group are except with regard to the independent variable. In other words, the exact same thing is done to them except the independent variable.
Experimental group
Exposed to the independent variable (or the independent variable has been changed for them).
Hippocrates
Father of modern medicine. While most ancient Greeks thought that confusion and madness were caused by the gods, Hippocrates thought they were abnormalities of the brain.
Scientific method
Form of critical thinking based on careful collection of evidence, accurate description and measurement, precise definition, controlled observation, and repeatable results.
Humanistic view
Guided by one's self-image, by subjective perceptions of the world, and by needs for personal growth.
Positive correlation
Higher scores in one measure are matched by higher scores in the other (and vice versa).
Negative correlation
Higher scores in one measure are matched by lower score in the other (and vice versa).
Frequency distribution
How many times something happened once, twice, etc.
Statistically significant
If the gap in the values for the dependent variable for the two groups is statistically significant, they are big enough to know that it isn't due to chance. This is driven mostly by the size of the gap and the number of experimental subjects.
Animal models
In research, an animal whose behavior is used to derive principles that may apply to human behavior.
Evolutionary perspective
Influence of evolution on behavior and mental processes.
Empirical evidence
Information gained from direct observation in a systematic way.
Behaviorism
Later psychologists challenged these two early schools of thought, thinking that they were too subjective. Instead, they focused on behaviors because they could be objectively measured.
Max Wertheimer
Max Wertheimer was the first proponent of the Gestalt school of psychology. This emphasizes the study of thinking, learning, and perception in whole units, not by analysis of parts. They came up with the slogan "The whole is greater than the sum of its parts."
Gestalt
Max Wertheimer was the first proponent of the Gestalt school of psychology. This emphasizes the study of thinking, learning, and perception in whole units, not by analysis of parts. They came up with the slogan "The whole is greater than the sum of its parts." Adding the sum of its parts can give two different answers • Some people are more likely to see one picture, some are more likely to see the other • "The whole is greater than the sum of its parts"
Dependent variable
Measures the results of the experiment. They reveal the effects that independent variables have on behavior.
Valid research
Measures what the research set out to measure. It is accurate.
Measures of Central tendency
Mode, mean, median
Middle ages
Most Europeans believed those suffering from mental disorders were possessed by demons. "Tested" to see if they were possessed or not. Example: Water-float test • Float - must be possessed; executed • Sink - not possessed
Rejected hypothesis/theory
New theories are developed
Normal curve aka Bell curve truths
No matter if its narrow or flat, statisticians have proven the following is true for a dataset that can be described by a normal curve: • About 68% of all measurements will be one standard deviation or less from the mean • About 95% of all measurements will be two standard deviations or less from the mean • About 99% of all measurements will be three standard deviations or less from the mean
Eclectic
Previously, loyalty to each school of thought was fierce, and clashes were common. Today, many psychologists' approaches are more eclectic, or made up of parts from various sources, because they realize that a single perspective is unlikely to fully explain complex human behavior.
Psychologist vs. psychiatrist
Psychiatrists are medical doctors that can prescribe drugs. Only a very few psychologists can do that, but this may be changing. Both must meet rigorous educational and legal requirements and must have an appropriate license.
Sigmund Freud
Psychoanalysis
Theory vs. Hypothesis
Psychologists investigate phenomena they are curious about by formulating hypotheses, which are testable propositions. A theory is an integrated set of tentative explanations of behavior and mental processes. The results of testing hypotheses are used to build or evaluate theories, which in turn create new hypotheses to be studied. As a result, theories are constantly being formulated, evaluated, revised, and evaluated again. A theory is a system of ideas designed to interrelate concepts and facts in a way that summarizes existing data and predicts future observations. A hypothesis is a tentative statement about, or explanation of, an event or relationship. It is a testable hunch or educated guess about behavior. A hypothesis attempts to answer questions by putting forth a plausible explanation that has yet to be tested. A theory, however, has already undergone extensive testing by various scientists and is generally accepted as being an accurate explanation of an observation.
1879
Psychology is a very young science. Its history as a true science dates only about 130 years, to the year 1879.
Goals
Psychology's ultimate goal is benefiting humanity. Specific goals that psychologists have are to describe, understand, predict, and control behavior.
Behaviorist view
Shaped and controlled by one's environment.
Psychoanalytic
Sigmund Freud developed the psychoanalytic school of psychology. It emphasizes exploring the depths of a person's unconscious to find the source of emotional problems.
Sociocultural perspective
Stresses the very strong impact that society and culture have on our behavior.
Biased sample
Survey results will not accurately reflect your target
Correlation coefficient
The correlation coefficient is a mathematical calculation that describes the direction and strength of the relationship between two variables. Correlations, even very strong ones, do not necessarily reflect cause-effect relationships between variables. The sign (+ or -) of r describes a correlation's direction. A positive correlation (where the sign is +) describes a relationship in which two variables change in the same direction: as x increases, so does y (and vice versa). A negative correlation (where the sign is -) describes a relationship in which two variables change in opposite directions: as x increases, y decreases (and vice versa). A correlation's numerical value (r) can vary from -1.00 to +1.00. The larger the absolute value of r (whether + or -), the stronger the relationship. In a perfect correlation, r = +1.00 or -1.00; knowing the value of one variable allows the exact prediction of the other variable.
Wilhelm Wundt
The first person to study human behavior and thought processes in a scientific manner. Because of that, he is usually considered "The Father of Psychology." Used scientific methods to study what he considered the two elements of consciousness - objective sensations and subjective feelings. Introspection.
Functionalism
The focus on how the mind functions to help us adapt to the environment. Instead of focusing on elements of consciousness (the "whats") he focused on the purposes/functions of behaviors and mental processes - the "whys". Repeat behaviors that are good, avoid behaviors that are bad.
Experiments
The most powerful way to uncover the causes of behavior because they allow us to control conditions and make cause-and-effect relationships more apparent.
Psychology
The scientific study of behavior and mental processes.
Accepted hypothesis/theory
The study is repeated to make sure the results are replicated
Clinical method
The study of psychological problems and therapies in clinical settings.
Barnum effect
The tendency to consider personal descriptions accurate if generally described.
Fallacy of positive instances
The tendency to remember or notice information that fits our expectations while ignoring information that doesn't fit.
Uncritical acceptance
The tendency we have to believe generally positive or flattering descriptions of oneself.
Psychological constructs
Things that exist in theory that enable one to discuss something that cannot be seen, touched, or measured directly. Ex: IQ is a psychological construct that measures intelligence
Case study
This is when a researcher focuses in-depth on one subject. This is a good way to study rare events.
Humanistic
This perspective focuses on subjective human experience, specifically human potential, ideals, and problems. They believe that people can freely choose to live more creative, meaningful, and satisfying lives.
Psychological perspective
This perspective takes the view that behavior is shaped by the mental processes within each person. This includes humanism, cognitive behaviorism, cognitive psychology, and the psychodynamic view.
Biological perspective
Those approaching the field from this direction seek to explain behavior in terms of brain processes, evolution, and genetics.
Observer bias
Those looking at and recording experimental subject behavior may only notice what they expect to see and/or record only selected details.
Cognitive view
Understood in terms of the mental processing of information.
Descriptive statistics
Used to describe data
Meta-analysis
Used to summarize and synthesize multiple, but similar, psychological studies.
Independent variable
Variable changed by the experimenter. Those designing the study suspect they cause differences in behavior.
Researcher bias
When changes in participant behavior are caused by the unintended influence of a researcher.
Research participant-bias
When experimental subjects' behavior is affected by expectations. For example, just giving participants small bits of information about what the study is about can affect the results.
Anthropomorphic error
When the researcher attributes human thoughts, feelings, or motives to animals, especially when trying to explain their behavior.
The Normal curve aka Bell curve
When you take a large number of measurements of something the distribution tends to cluster around the mean and the mean, median, and mode tend to be the same, or at least very similar. Some narrow, some flat, difference is standard deviation
Double-blind experiment
Where both the experimental subjects AND the researchers don't know who is in the experimental group vs. the control group.
Correlational method
Where researchers make measurements to discover the degree of the relationship between two or more events, measures, or variables.
Survey method
Where researchers use questionnaires to poll large groups of people.
Naturalistic observations
Where scientists observe behavior as it unfolds in natural settings. A benefit of this method is that the results will not be influenced artificial, contrived surroundings and can be an excellent starting point for the research process. A limitation of this method is the observer effect - a subject's behavior may change just because of he/she knows he/she is being watched.
Single-blind experiment
Where the experimental subjects are not told whether they are in the experimental group or the control group and/or not told if they are receiving the real drug or the placebo.
Random sample
Will help survey results be more accurate
William James
William James broadened the field of psychology in the 1890s to include topics such as animal behavior, religious experiences, abnormal behavior, to name a few. His theories were defined as functionalism because he focused on how the mind functions to help us adapt to the environment. He is also credited with writing the first psychology textbook.
Structuralism
Wundt's approach was labeled structuralism when brought to the US because he tried to analyze the structure of mental life into basic "elements" or "building blocks."
