Psych Chapter 1

Socrates

"Know thyself" Introspection - is important to learn who you are Famous student = Plato Famous student of Plato = Aristotle

Birth of Psychology as a Science

1500s through 1700s saw science explain many aspects of physical world. People who thought about human behavior and mental processes in the 1800s realized that theories needed to be proven by scientific evidence. 1879 Wilhelm Wundt established the first modern psychology laboratory in Leipzig, Germany.

Placebo

A fake drug that appears to be real. Used as a control.

Pseudopsychology

A false and unscientific system of beliefs and practices that is offered as an explanation of behavior.

Introspection

A main component of Wilhelm Wundt's approach to understanding how humans experience sensations, images, and feeling is to engage in introspection, or "looking inward" to probe his reactions to various stimuli.

Theory

A map of knowledge. Good ones summarize observations, explain them, and guide further research. A system of ideas designed to interrelate concepts and facts in a way that summarizes existing data and predicts future observations.

Representative sample

A small group that accurately reflects your target population. The idea is to say your survey results also would be the same if you talked to everyone.

Standard deviation

A statistic that essentially relates the average distance any score is from the mean

Research methods

A systematic approach to answering scientific questions.

Hypothesis

A tentative statement about, or explanation of, an event or relationship. It is a TESTABLE hunch or educated guess about behavior.

Variable

A variable is any condition that can change and that might affect the outcome of an experiment

Random assignment

Allows for experimental subjects to have an equal chance of being assigned to either the experimental group or the control group. This balances differences between them and is a way to help control for extraneous variables.

Critical thinking

An ability to reflect on, evaluate, compare, analyze, critique, and synthesize information. It is an important skill for psychologists to have because they should always be questioning assumptions and long-held beliefs.

Counselor

An advisor who helps solve problems with marriage, career, school, work, etc.

Population

An entire group of people (or animals) belonging to a particular category.

Control & Confounding variables

An experiment has proper control if all variables but the one the independent variable is held constant. Confounding variables are those that the researcher should eliminate because they may have unwanted influence on the dependent variable. If a study design does not contain adequate controls to alleviate the effect of confounding variables, the results will be flawed.

Behavior

Any action other people can observe or measure.

Psychiatric social workers

Apply social science principles to help patients in clinic and hospitals. They often work with psychologists and/or psychiatrists as a team.

Associationism

Associating current experiences with similar experiences of past. Behind theories of how organisms learn, even now.

Aristotle

Associationism

Histogram

Bar graph but not touching

Psychoanalysis

Based on consultations with hundreds of patients, Freud concluded that we have conflicting impulses, urges and wishes that we are not aware of He thought that these internal conflicts and unconscious motives drove human behavior Believed that dreams were the window to the unconscious.

Scientific observation

Based on gathering empirical evidence

B.F. Skinner

Behaviorist. Reinforcement. When animals are reinforced, or rewarded, for performing an action, it is more likely to perform that action again in the future - it learns that if it does something, it will get a reward Demonstrated by inventing what is now known as a "Skinner box".

John Watson

Behaviorist. Thought it was impossible to scientifically study thought processes and motivations He thought since only behavior can be observed and measured, psychology could only be the study of observable behavior. Little Albert experiment.

Reliable research

Can be replicated. It is consistent. Quality research should be both this AND valid/

Extraneous variable

Can throw off the results of an experiment if they are not controlled.

Placebo effect

Changes in behavior caused by belief that one has taken a drug.

Mental processes

Cognitive activities, brain activity that only is perceptible to the person doing it. Can't observe the mental processes, but we can observe the behaviors associated with the mental processes i.e. tossing and turning in sleep, talking in sleep, looking out my window

Operational definitions

Defining a scientific concept by stating the specific actions or procedures used to measure it. For example, "hunger" might be defined as "the number of hours of food deprivation."

Psychodynamic view

Directed by forces in personality that are hidden or unconscious.

Ethics

Ethical guidelines and regulations exist for psychologists' use in treating patients and conducting research. Scientists must accurately report their results, minimize participant discomfort, and prevent any long-term negative effects. Human participants must be fully informed about their participation before a given study and must be debriefed when the research is concluded. The obligation of psychologists to protect participants' welfare also extends to animals.

Experimental research vs. Non-experimental research

Experimental research is a formal trial undertaken to support or disprove a hypothesis about the cause of behavior. Non-experimental methods are not formal trials - examples are the correlational method, the case study method, and naturalistic observation. While non-experimental research methods can provide strong direction for further research, they do not determine the cause of behavior like experimental research can.

Independent variable vs. Dependent Variable vs. Confounding (aka Extraneous) variable

Experiments allow researchers to manipulate or control one variable to observe the effect of that manipulation on another variable, while holding all other variables constant. In an experiment, the variable manipulated or controlled by the researcher is called the independent variable. The measurement of the consequences is called the dependent variable. Flaws in experimental control can reduce the validity of an experiment. Confounding variables are uncontrolled factors that might have affected the dependent variable and confused interpretation of the experimental data.

Experimental group vs. Control group

Experiments have at least two groups of subjects: the experimental group and the control group. The control group receives no treatment, thus providing a baseline against which to compare the experimental group. The experimental group experiences the independent variable. Any difference in the dependent variable between the control and experimental groups is caused by the independent variable.

Control group

Exposed to everything the members of the experimental group are except with regard to the independent variable. In other words, the exact same thing is done to them except the independent variable.

Experimental group

Exposed to the independent variable (or the independent variable has been changed for them).

Hippocrates

Father of modern medicine. While most ancient Greeks thought that confusion and madness were caused by the gods, Hippocrates thought they were abnormalities of the brain.

Scientific method

Form of critical thinking based on careful collection of evidence, accurate description and measurement, precise definition, controlled observation, and repeatable results.

Humanistic view

Guided by one's self-image, by subjective perceptions of the world, and by needs for personal growth.

Positive correlation

Higher scores in one measure are matched by higher scores in the other (and vice versa).

Negative correlation

Higher scores in one measure are matched by lower score in the other (and vice versa).

Frequency distribution

How many times something happened once, twice, etc.

Statistically significant

If the gap in the values for the dependent variable for the two groups is statistically significant, they are big enough to know that it isn't due to chance. This is driven mostly by the size of the gap and the number of experimental subjects.

Animal models

In research, an animal whose behavior is used to derive principles that may apply to human behavior.

Evolutionary perspective

Influence of evolution on behavior and mental processes.

Empirical evidence

Information gained from direct observation in a systematic way.

Behaviorism

Later psychologists challenged these two early schools of thought, thinking that they were too subjective. Instead, they focused on behaviors because they could be objectively measured.

Max Wertheimer

Max Wertheimer was the first proponent of the Gestalt school of psychology. This emphasizes the study of thinking, learning, and perception in whole units, not by analysis of parts. They came up with the slogan "The whole is greater than the sum of its parts."

Gestalt

Max Wertheimer was the first proponent of the Gestalt school of psychology. This emphasizes the study of thinking, learning, and perception in whole units, not by analysis of parts. They came up with the slogan "The whole is greater than the sum of its parts." Adding the sum of its parts can give two different answers • Some people are more likely to see one picture, some are more likely to see the other • "The whole is greater than the sum of its parts"

Dependent variable

Measures the results of the experiment. They reveal the effects that independent variables have on behavior.

Valid research

Measures what the research set out to measure. It is accurate.

Measures of Central tendency

Mode, mean, median

Middle ages

Most Europeans believed those suffering from mental disorders were possessed by demons. "Tested" to see if they were possessed or not. Example: Water-float test • Float - must be possessed; executed • Sink - not possessed

Rejected hypothesis/theory

New theories are developed

Normal curve aka Bell curve truths

No matter if its narrow or flat, statisticians have proven the following is true for a dataset that can be described by a normal curve: • About 68% of all measurements will be one standard deviation or less from the mean • About 95% of all measurements will be two standard deviations or less from the mean • About 99% of all measurements will be three standard deviations or less from the mean

Eclectic

Previously, loyalty to each school of thought was fierce, and clashes were common. Today, many psychologists' approaches are more eclectic, or made up of parts from various sources, because they realize that a single perspective is unlikely to fully explain complex human behavior.

Psychologist vs. psychiatrist

Psychiatrists are medical doctors that can prescribe drugs. Only a very few psychologists can do that, but this may be changing. Both must meet rigorous educational and legal requirements and must have an appropriate license.

Sigmund Freud

Psychoanalysis

Theory vs. Hypothesis

Psychologists investigate phenomena they are curious about by formulating hypotheses, which are testable propositions. A theory is an integrated set of tentative explanations of behavior and mental processes. The results of testing hypotheses are used to build or evaluate theories, which in turn create new hypotheses to be studied. As a result, theories are constantly being formulated, evaluated, revised, and evaluated again. A theory is a system of ideas designed to interrelate concepts and facts in a way that summarizes existing data and predicts future observations. A hypothesis is a tentative statement about, or explanation of, an event or relationship. It is a testable hunch or educated guess about behavior. A hypothesis attempts to answer questions by putting forth a plausible explanation that has yet to be tested. A theory, however, has already undergone extensive testing by various scientists and is generally accepted as being an accurate explanation of an observation.

1879

Psychology is a very young science. Its history as a true science dates only about 130 years, to the year 1879.

Goals

Psychology's ultimate goal is benefiting humanity. Specific goals that psychologists have are to describe, understand, predict, and control behavior.

Behaviorist view

Shaped and controlled by one's environment.

Psychoanalytic

Sigmund Freud developed the psychoanalytic school of psychology. It emphasizes exploring the depths of a person's unconscious to find the source of emotional problems.

Sociocultural perspective

Stresses the very strong impact that society and culture have on our behavior.

Biased sample

Survey results will not accurately reflect your target

Correlation coefficient

The correlation coefficient is a mathematical calculation that describes the direction and strength of the relationship between two variables. Correlations, even very strong ones, do not necessarily reflect cause-effect relationships between variables. The sign (+ or -) of r describes a correlation's direction. A positive correlation (where the sign is +) describes a relationship in which two variables change in the same direction: as x increases, so does y (and vice versa). A negative correlation (where the sign is -) describes a relationship in which two variables change in opposite directions: as x increases, y decreases (and vice versa). A correlation's numerical value (r) can vary from -1.00 to +1.00. The larger the absolute value of r (whether + or -), the stronger the relationship. In a perfect correlation, r = +1.00 or -1.00; knowing the value of one variable allows the exact prediction of the other variable.

Wilhelm Wundt

The first person to study human behavior and thought processes in a scientific manner. Because of that, he is usually considered "The Father of Psychology." Used scientific methods to study what he considered the two elements of consciousness - objective sensations and subjective feelings. Introspection.

Functionalism

The focus on how the mind functions to help us adapt to the environment. Instead of focusing on elements of consciousness (the "whats") he focused on the purposes/functions of behaviors and mental processes - the "whys". Repeat behaviors that are good, avoid behaviors that are bad.

Experiments

The most powerful way to uncover the causes of behavior because they allow us to control conditions and make cause-and-effect relationships more apparent.

Psychology

The scientific study of behavior and mental processes.

Accepted hypothesis/theory

The study is repeated to make sure the results are replicated

Clinical method

The study of psychological problems and therapies in clinical settings.

Barnum effect

The tendency to consider personal descriptions accurate if generally described.

Fallacy of positive instances

The tendency to remember or notice information that fits our expectations while ignoring information that doesn't fit.

Uncritical acceptance

The tendency we have to believe generally positive or flattering descriptions of oneself.

Psychological constructs

Things that exist in theory that enable one to discuss something that cannot be seen, touched, or measured directly. Ex: IQ is a psychological construct that measures intelligence

Case study

This is when a researcher focuses in-depth on one subject. This is a good way to study rare events.

Humanistic

This perspective focuses on subjective human experience, specifically human potential, ideals, and problems. They believe that people can freely choose to live more creative, meaningful, and satisfying lives.

Psychological perspective

This perspective takes the view that behavior is shaped by the mental processes within each person. This includes humanism, cognitive behaviorism, cognitive psychology, and the psychodynamic view.

Biological perspective

Those approaching the field from this direction seek to explain behavior in terms of brain processes, evolution, and genetics.

Observer bias

Those looking at and recording experimental subject behavior may only notice what they expect to see and/or record only selected details.

Cognitive view

Understood in terms of the mental processing of information.

Descriptive statistics

Used to describe data

Meta-analysis

Used to summarize and synthesize multiple, but similar, psychological studies.

Independent variable

Variable changed by the experimenter. Those designing the study suspect they cause differences in behavior.

Researcher bias

When changes in participant behavior are caused by the unintended influence of a researcher.

Research participant-bias

When experimental subjects' behavior is affected by expectations. For example, just giving participants small bits of information about what the study is about can affect the results.

Anthropomorphic error

When the researcher attributes human thoughts, feelings, or motives to animals, especially when trying to explain their behavior.

The Normal curve aka Bell curve

When you take a large number of measurements of something the distribution tends to cluster around the mean and the mean, median, and mode tend to be the same, or at least very similar. Some narrow, some flat, difference is standard deviation

Double-blind experiment

Where both the experimental subjects AND the researchers don't know who is in the experimental group vs. the control group.

Correlational method

Where researchers make measurements to discover the degree of the relationship between two or more events, measures, or variables.

Survey method

Where researchers use questionnaires to poll large groups of people.

Naturalistic observations

Where scientists observe behavior as it unfolds in natural settings. A benefit of this method is that the results will not be influenced artificial, contrived surroundings and can be an excellent starting point for the research process. A limitation of this method is the observer effect - a subject's behavior may change just because of he/she knows he/she is being watched.

Single-blind experiment

Where the experimental subjects are not told whether they are in the experimental group or the control group and/or not told if they are receiving the real drug or the placebo.

Random sample

Will help survey results be more accurate

William James

William James broadened the field of psychology in the 1890s to include topics such as animal behavior, religious experiences, abnormal behavior, to name a few. His theories were defined as functionalism because he focused on how the mind functions to help us adapt to the environment. He is also credited with writing the first psychology textbook.

Structuralism

Wundt's approach was labeled structuralism when brought to the US because he tried to analyze the structure of mental life into basic "elements" or "building blocks."