Psych exam 2

Working models

(Bowlby, 1979), are the "conscious and unconscious schematic elements that guide perception and trigger characteristic emotions, as well as defensive mechanisms, or rules for regulating emotion and for processing or failing to process certain kinds of attachment relevant information"- Explanation for why attachment styles are stable (into adulthood, although can be changed w/ diff kinds of rs)

defensive pessimists

. Rather than predicting the best about their future (for example, performance on an upcoming exam) tend to set low goals ("Iam not going to do very well") and think through alternative plans and outcomes in anticipation of failure. Setting low expectations works well for these people because it motivates them to work hard, all the while protecting themselves against the possibility of disappointment

Affect matching

10 week old babies match facial expression: Mothers taught to express smile, sadness, and anger facially • Their voice was to match the facial expression of happy, sad, or angry • Told to say "You make me so happy (sad or mad)" while turned away, then turn to face the baby, maintain the expression, not react to the baby's responses • Each mother presented 5-s episodes of each of the three expressions. This provides evident of emotional recognition as it is required to match the facial expression (should not infer empathy necessarily or affect contagion).

Sex specific rival oriented mechanism

A theory presented in understanding sexual jealousy for homosexuals based on evolutionary theory of jealousy- concerning which traits are seen most threatening in rivals. Theory says gay people will show behavior like a same-sex heterosexual. A pre-programmed sensitivity to sex specific rival characteristics, as a function of one's biological sex. Therefore men are jealous of dominance in a rival, women are jealous of attractiveness, regardless of orientation. One study found that rivals framed in terms of dominance elicited more jealousy in gay men, and those framed in terms of attractiveness elicited more jealousy in gay women (same as straight men and women) providing support of this theory.

Partner oriented mechanism

A theory presented in understanding sexual jealousy for homosexuals based on evolutionary theory of jealousy- concerning which traits are seen most threatening in rivals. Theory says that gay people will show a sensitivity to what one's partner finds attractive in a mate, when determining what traits make one more sexually jealous. Therefore straight men will be jealous of dominance, and straight women of attractiveness, and this will be reversed for gay men and women. One study found that gay men were more jealous of emotional infidelity that sexual infidelity (vs straight men more jealous of sexual) and gay women were more jealous of sexual infidelity than emotional infidelity (vs straight women more jealous of emotional). Reversed pattern based on sexual orientation, supports this theory.

Positivity effect

Aging is associated with a decline in cognitive performance, in particular in attention and memory. However, this decrement is not as general as you might think. Research suggests that late adulthood is associated with increasing attention to and recall of pleasant versus unpleasant information. THIS apparent n the use of visual attention, for example: old people tend to pay more attention to positive than to negative information, as illustrated in the figure Compared to young adults who tend to have better recall for negative information, older adults also recall more positive than negative memories. It appears that, as people age, they become more aware of the limitation of their time left in life. Such awareness leads them to expose themselves to positive information more than negative (motivated) it is possible to interfere with the strategic nature of the positivity effect by interfering with the motivated preference to focus on the positive and avoid the negative.

homologus

Besides identifying possible adaptive functions of the muscle movements involved in facial expressions, we can also compare expressions across species. Of course, it is difficult to know what an animal is feeling since it cannot tell us, but comparative psychologists and ethologists can identify which contexts and stimuli cause certain nonverbal displays and then consider whether the animals' displays are THIS (similar in evolutionary origin) to humans' expressions and behavior in similar types of contexts. As an example, during play, chimpanzees "smile" with relaxed, open mouths and produce a rhythmic panting that is possibly THIS to human laughter, just as humans laugh and smile when playing and having fun.

Malicious envy

Bitterness, ill will, and the desire to engage in destructive behavior towards the envied person. In one study looking at autobiographical accounts, hostility is predicted by perceptions of inferiority. feelings of hostility are due to the belief that the envied person had an unfair advantage in life associated with a sense of injustice and frustration, and desire to degrade or hurt envied person. Does not seem to help goal striving

Secure

Caretaker is a reliable source of support. Infant is able to explore new situations. Infant is easily calmed by the caretaker after separation. (60-70% universally, other 2 % vary culturally)

Anxious

Caretaker is inconsistent. Infant is thus careful around strangers and new situations. Infant cries a lot when separated from the caretaker and difficult to calm upon reunion.

Avoidant

Caretaker is rejecting and critical. The infant is thus (too) independent and indifferent to separations and reunions with the caretaker

Social comparison

Cognition necessary to experience self concious emotions, arises after forming a self-concept THIS emerges much later than two years of age, children evaluate how attractive, shy, intelligent, or poor they are by contrast to the appearance, personality, intelligence, or wealth of other people. Social comparison is a process that almost all people use to figure out how they feel about themselves, their abilities, and their outcomes.

What are emotional expressions for?

Communication- Transmitting emotions and needs/intentions to others. Recognition- Transmitting information back to the self.

Brain areas for facial expressions

Control of facial movement is more distributed than control of other skeletal muscles in body. Reveal unique functions of the face in several processes. Voluntary and spontaneous expressions have different origins Facial motor nucleus (7) in brainstem receives input from: motor cortex (especially for voluntary movements) subcortical areas associated with affect and reflex: amygdala, brainstem, hypothalamus

Double shot hypothesis

Critique against the evolutionary theory of jealousy. And the study that supports it, where participants are ask whether they'd be more jealous of sexual infidelity or emotional infidelity. Problem with only 2 options as answers. Women assume emotional infidelity implies sexual infidelity, so the "emotional infidelity" option twice as distressing as sexual infidelity alone Men do not hold such a belief In fact, these divergent beliefs, more so than participants' sex, accounts for differences in jealous

Facial mimicry

Dimberg et al., 2000 showed using EMG that within 500 ms subjects mimic facial expressions, even if the expressions are presented subliminally (i.e., they could not fully see the face). Blocking facial mimicry via botox reduces activation in amygdala regions (Hennenlotter et al, Max Planck, Leipzig). No feedback yields poor recognition: Adolphs, Damasio, Tranel, Cooper, and Damasio (2000)•Subjects with lesions in right somatosensory cortex (red areas below) produce deficits•Deficits in visual categorization of another person's facial expression. Preventing this inhibits: Detection of transition between happy and sad facial expressions (Niedenthal, Brauer, Halberstadt, & Innes-Ker, 2001) • Recognition of happy and disgust expressions (Oberman, Winkielman, & Ramachandran, 2007) • Speed of recognizing facial expressions (Stel & Knippenberg, 2008) Long term implications: Over years of mutual (facial) imitation, married couples' facial morphology converges, yielding similarity in appearance. After 25 years, the happier the pair the greater the resemblance, and experimentally ruled out other explanations. tudies have found that people are more likely to mimic the facial expressions of liked, powerful, and/or socially close interaction partners. Facial and bodily mimicry, in turn, increases affiliation and liking

Behavioral ecology view

Facial expressions evolved to communicate the expresser's social motives in a particular social situation Facial expressions signal what the expresser intends to do and what the expresser wants others to do. For example, a smile signals the expresser's intention to affiliate, whereas a sad face signals request for assistance and comfort. Likewise, a jealous person may put up a sad face in front of the partner in order to avoid disapproval and anger and to elicit empathy and concern. The behavioral ecology view contends that facial expressions are usually displayed in interactive situations and that they are more or less intense depending on the real or imagined presence of others. As an example, Kraut and Johnston (1979) found that bowlers smiled more when facing their co-players than when facing the bowling pins, independent of how well they scored. Another researcher filmed participants' facial expressions while they listened to stories about close calls—dramatic consequences that almost happened—in vary-ingly social contexts. Participants heard the stories either on a tape recording, over the phone, from a confederate in the same room but visually separated by a partition, or in a face-to-face interaction. Displays of sympathetic distress, such as gasps, grimaces, and wincing, were more frequent the more social the context. Differences across social context can change how expressive people are, including the familiarity between the expresser and the audience, the valence of the emotional situation, and the intensity of the emotion elicitors. This view also emphasizes that expressions of emotion are only a small percent of the complete repertoire of facial gestures people produce in daily life. For instance, people emphasize, reenact, and alter the meaning of what they are saying using facial muscle movements that are not typically classified as "emotion" expressions.

Brain sends motor signals to the face

Facial motor nucleus in brainstem sends motor output via Facial nerve (VII), which controls most muscles involved in expression (left image) •Occulomotor Nerve (III) controls lifting of eyelid, pupil dilation, and movements of eyeball •Trigeminal Nerve (V) muscles of jaw, also sends sensory information back from face

Facial feedback hypothesis

Feedback from the facial muscles, skin, and blood vessels can activate on-going emotional experience (i.e., the other components of emotion), especially the subjective experience of emotion (feelings). Facial expressions contribute to our own emotional states through feedback from the face to the brain. The face sends sensory signals to the brain from tactile receptors in the skin called mechanoreceptors (rather than muscles via proprioceptors) 2 forms: Modulation (weak) and intimation (strong) hypothesis. Why? Expressive feedback and emotion recognition. People mimic facial expressions automatically • Mimicry (facial expression) is related to feeling something in the self •Feeling something in the self helps us understand facial expression

Trigeminal nerve

Fifth cranial nerve, muscles of jaw, used for chewing and clenching also sends sensory information back from face to the brain.

negative emotion development

Generalized distress: Newborns — hunger, pain, overstimulation. Anger and/or sadness 2 months — visible facial expression matches situation. Fear and/or distress: 6-7 months to 2 years- stranger wariness. 7 to 12 months —fear of novel toys, noises, sudden movements. 8 to 15 months — separation anxiety (requires object permanence)

gratitidue

Gratitude•A state marked by a sense of wonder, thankfulness, and appreciation for life that can be expressed toward other people, as well as toward impersonal (nature) or nonhuman entities (God) •Regular experience and expression of gratitude increases happiness and contentedness•Listing 5 things they were grateful for every day increased participants' psychological, social, and physical well-being. •Negativity bias: it's evolutionarily adaptive that we focus more on negative events than positive events (Baumeister et al., 2001)•It's also adaptive that we continue to seek more and more rather than contentedly enjoying what we have and settling; brain's dopamanergic seeking system ensures we never settle•However, assuming your basic needs are met, these tendencies are maladaptive. •Expressing gratitude requires focusing on the positive and slows the urge to seek new rewards People asked to list five good things that occurred each week reported not only better mood, but increased alertness, energy, enthusiasm, and more optimism for the future. Social well-being also improved, with people in the gratitude group feeling more helpful and more connected to others. Finally, physical well-being improved, with people in the gratitude group reporting both fewer physical complaints (headaches, stomachache, congestion) and increased exercise as compared to the control groups

Facial expressions as functional

If emotion expressions are evolved adaptations, what is their function? • For many expressions, links between action tendency/ function of emotion and facial movements of expression. For instance: Anger: action tendency=attack; facial movement protect eyes. Disgust: need to avoid or expel toxic substances; facial movement closes nasal passages and pushes objects out of mouth. Fear: need to detect threats in environment and signal fear to group members; wide eyes increase visual field; flared nostrils increase air capacity

vocal expressions as origins for facial expressions

In answering if facial expressions are innate: •Many mammals rely more on body and ear posture and vocalizations than face for emotion communication •Some facial expressions could be exaggerated versions of the facial movements used to produce vocalizations •Ex: smiling raises the pitch and intensity of vocalizations, making the organism sound friendly and playful. It has therefore been proposed that in species that do look to the face for emotion information (like many primates), facial expressions are just exaggerated, ritualized versions of the facial movements needed to produce the vocalizations associated with emotions. For instance, smiling alters the shape of the mouth and vocal tract, which raises the pitch and increases the loudness of speech or vocalizations . Higher-pitched vocalizations are considered submissive, friendly, and less threatening, whereas lower pitches across species often accompany aggression (probably because it creates the illusion that the vocalizing animal is larger and has the body to support low pitches). The facial movement required to produce high-pitched, nonthreatening sounds could then become a signal of positive emotion in itself, even in the absence of audible vocalizations.

self conscious emotions

In contrast to the basic emotions, THESE emotions 1) emerge later in development because they rely on mental abilities that are not fully in place until after about two years of age; 2) do not have distinct facial expressions, although some have universally recognizable gestures that involve the face and the body and 3) most likely evolved for the management of social relationships rather than for individual survival. The management of social relationships, for both humans and many animals, typically includes the tasks of creating and nurturing social bonds ("getting along") and acquiring social status ("getting ahead"). THESE are cognition-dependent emotions. The name conveys the idea that these emotions do not occur fully until certain cognitive capacities have developed. Requires that an individual is capable of distinguishing the self as physically distinct from others (self concept- develops around 2) Two other cognitive achievements arise from a child's self-concept: self-evaluation and selfcomparison

optimism bias

In general people make unrealistically optimistic predictions about the future, especially their own future. seems to protect people from becoming depressed. sometimes results in bad decision making. These include engaging in risky behaviors such as smoking and speeding, and also the failure to plan for the future such as getting vaccinations and saving for retirement. In other words, assuming that everything is rosy sometimes prevents people from preparing appropriately or from paying attention to relevant statistics

Emerging emotional expression

Infants experience only two general emotions pleasure and distress. This will rapidly change and more discrete emotions will develop, by 9 months infants are thought to experience all basic emotions.

Separation anxiety

Intense fear or anxiety that occurs when a parent or caregiver leaves the child This typically develops around the same time as object permanence and is universal across cultures. Infants' growing cognitive skills allow them to ask questions with no readily apparent answers "Why is my mother leaving?" "Where is she going?" "Will she come back?". Variability in individuals, but generally by 4 months can compare visual input (know difference in faces), looks sober by 8 months (predicting event of separation) and shows distress by 11 months. Across cultures: same trend for Chinese and Euro-American children, increases distress and then peaks at about 15 months and decreases by 20.

Self conscious emotions

Jealousy, shame, guilt, envy, embarrassment, pride, hubris•Emerge later in development than so-called "basic" emotions because rely on mental abilities that do not develop until at least 2 yrs of age•Do not necessarily have distinct expressions•Most likely evolved for the management of social relationships: maintaining social bonds and acquiring social status. Cognitive achievements underlying THESE: More than "basic" emotions, they are cognition-dependent •Require a self-concept; around age of 2 •This allows for the emerging ability of self-evaluation. Internalize standards and norms Judge own behavior Engage in social comparison.

Labeling

Language for emotions emerges after age 2 (Bretherton et al, 1985)By age 3 children have the ability to • Produce verbal labels for facial expressions • Match a pictorial and verbal representation of an emotion. Emotion recognition in the elderly: Labelling emotions (DV): Rapid perceptual processing of valence. Decision-making process: which label is best (IV)Likely that decision-making process loads working memory. Phillips et al. (2007): tested role of working memory in emotion in elderly: perception using dual task methodology. Different emotional label tasks, while doing a single (label) task, vs. while dual task (math+label), found for elderly for effects on labeling discrimination: Decrements in elderly: Labelling: effect size = .28, Discrimination: effect size = .33 (no large effect on difference of task)• Age differences in emotion perception not caused by working memory demands of task• Meta-analysis suggests caused by neuropsychological changes —frontal and temporal volume, and/or changes in neurotransmitters (Ruffman et al., 2008) Similarly: Language for emotions emerges after age 2 (Bretherton et al,1985)By age 3 children have the ability to Produce verbal labels for facial expressions• Match a pictorial and verbal representation of an emotion. As their cognitive and language skills continue to grow, children begin to understand why people feel as they do. Example: a kindergarten child knows that unpleasant eventsoften make a person sad or angry (Levine, 1995)\•They can understand that remembering a past sad event can make a person unhappy (Lagattuta, 1997).

The human face

Maximizing emotional expression clarity. •Expressions produced by coordinated muscle groups •Alters sensory orifices of face and changes visible features •Facial muscles anchored to skin, unlike other skeletal muscles •Minimal facial hair, noticeable eyebrows and lips

Empathetic responding

Measured development in experiments. Empathetic cry considered a very early precursor to this (other explanations ruled out by controls). Responses to simulated distress of a stranger and of their parent, at home and in the laboratory, between the ages of 14 and 36 months. • Measures of THIS: concern (e.g., sad look,"I'm sorry") hypothesis testing (e.g., "What happened?") prosocial behavior (e.g., hugs, "Are you ok?") precursors to empathy such as personal distress.

Shame

More distressing than guilt; self is worthless, powerless and small, marked bu hopelessness. Appraisal: I have failed/violated social norm, due to aspect of self I can't control. Action Tendency: Escape situation, hide, become smaller. Expression: Hang head/shoulders, gaze downward (across cultures and in congenitally blind people). Precipitating events often threats to one's social esteem, status, or acceptance (public failure, rejection, invasion of privacy) Arises when we focus on the entire self as the cause. Experiencing THIS tends to heighten individual's sense of responsibility for actions Therefore facilitate development of self-control. THIS leads to less empathy and complete self-focus; self-preservation. Tends to lead to a reduction in punitive behavior from others and greater forgiveness. Arises more from situations that threaten one's social esteem, social status, or social acceptance, such as public failure, social rejection, and exposure or invasion of personal privacy. In contrast to guilt, THIS is linked to a tendency to exhibit less empathy and perspective taking than usual. THIS functions to protect people from further loss of esteem and continued social threat.

prosody

Our voices reveal our feelings through nonverbal vocalizations—such as a sigh or a laugh—and while we are speaking, via the nonlinguistic aspects of our voices called THIS.

Guilt

Own action has hurt someone else or fallen short of standards. Appraisal: I was in control of and responsible for the situation; it is possible to fix the behavior. Action Tendency: Desire to make amends (also reaffirm moral beliefs; seek forgiveness). Precipitating events often moral transgressions that harm another (lying, cheating, infidelity, etc) Arises when we focus on the unacceptable behavior as the cause. Function: Experiencing THIS tends to heighten individual's sense of responsibility for actions Therefore facilitate development of self-control. THIS leads to reparative action: makes people more generous towards those they have wronged; experience heightened empathy. Has no specific expression. Arises from specific moral transgressions that have harmed someone, failures evoke this in some individuals.

Categorization

Requires ability for visual discrimination. Ignore natural variation in one category, and still treat two slightly different members of a category as the "same". By 5 months • Good visual acuity • Integrate features into wholes • Categorize other things such as animals- use different dimensions to form categorizing. (In facial expression paradigms- use identity of person in photo AND expression)

Ethology

Roots of attachment theory. Studies adaptive or survival value of a behavior. Observes animal behavior in natural habitat. Examines instinctive (unlearned) behavior as 'hardwired'. Ex. Konrad Lorenz and imprinting in ducks, as a relationship baby animals have with their caretaker (not nec. parent) during one year period, in which they follow around and constantly seek, especially when vunerable-> attachment theory.

Adult attachment styles

Secure: happy, friendly, confident, accepts partner with his/her faults. Avoidant: fear of intimacy, jealous, retreats when stressed, denies negative emotions. Anxious: obsessed by the partner, desire for a lot of contact, "emotional highs and lows", sexual jealousy. How do you recall your mother (primary caretaker)? Avoidant (compared to secures) ✦ demanding ✦ disrespectful ✦ critical Anxious (compared to secures) ✦ unfair ✦ inconsistent ✦ symbiotic

mechanoreceptors

Sensory feedback from face comes from skin rather than muscles themselves, via this. Send stronger signals to the brain when skin is moving, provides info about changes in position and warping of skin on the face. Muscles not anchored to the bone, but the skin, allows one to change the shape and surface of the face to express emotion. Allows for facial expressions to be visible to others rather than under the surface of the skin, such as muscles that move joints.

Visual discrimination

Show that perceive that one thing is different than another. Required for categorization. By 6 weeks or so: • Habituate babies to a smiling face (reduced looking) • Present smiling and fearful faces • Babies look longer at fear face (recognize novel stimuli= dishabituate)

Attachment and Emotion regulation

Simpson et al. (1992)✦ Couples in which the woman was secure or avoidant. (also measured man's attachment style) ✦ Show the couple a scary room "for a later part of the experiment" ✦ Insinuated to half that the situation was very stressful ✦ The two wait in a waiting room in which they are discretely video-taped. Hypotheses: Women Secure: when stressed will seek partner support; Avoidant: under stress they will avoid contact with partner. Men: Secure: when partner is stressed they will support. Avoidant: when they perceive that their partner is stressed they will avoid them. Women's behavior: For secures stress associated with support seeking, for avoidants stress is associated with avoidance of interaction (effect increase from lo to hi stress condition). Men's behavior: For secure (men): Support for partner increases when she is stressed. For avoidant (men): support for partner decreases when she is stressed

positive emotion development

Smiles: First month reflex response (often while sleeping- not certain what purpose), By 6 weeks the social smile appears, By 7 months smiles toward people (important in r w/ mother); encourages interaction and bonding (diff functional use) Laughing: By 3 to 4 months during activities (i.e., playing), By 1 year response to unexpected events, By 2 years response to own behavior or attempting to make others laugh (more voluntary control than reflex)

Hubris

Smug satisfaction with the self in general (positive equivalent of global self-evaluation of shame; a.k.a. hubristic pride). "I am great". Behaviors and outcomes: can lead to aggression and hostility (due to righteous indignation from narcissistic injuries) Associated with variable self-esteem due to momentary social feedback Arrogance and egoism

Initiation hypothesis.

Strong form of facial feedback hypothesis. Facial expressions elicit specific emotions (due to hard-wired connections between components). Support from Flack, 2006. Instructions for producing facial expressions. Anger. Push your eyebrows together and down. Clench your teeth tightly, and push your lips together.Sadness. Relax your eyebrows, so that they drop down toward your cheeks. With your mouth closed, push your lower lip up lightly.Fear. Raise your eyebrows, and open your eyes as widely as possible. Move your whole head back, so that your chin is tucked in a little. Let your mouth relax and hang open a little. Happiness. Draw the corners of your mouth up and back, letting your mouth open a little. Rating these and other emotions on scales. Results: Making a specific facial expression lead to stronger ratings of feeling the emotion expressed. Strongest for anger, followed by sadness, then happiness, and finally afraid. Disgust lead to no significant emotion rating, and surprise linked to afraid (significantly- and more than the expression of fear). In second study: Participants were told that the purpose of the study was to examine the effects of different kinds of muscle movements on physiological responses Happiness. Draw the corners of your mouth up and back, letting your mouth open a little. Instructions for producing bodily posturesAnger. Put your feet flat on the floor, directly below your knees, and put your forearms and elbows on the arms of the chair. Now clench your fists tightly, and lean your upper body slightly forward.Sadness. Sit back in your chair, resting your back comfortably against the back of the chair, and draw your feet loosely in under the chair. You should feel no tension in your legs or feet. Now fold your hands in your lap, just loosely cupping one hand in the other. Drop your head, letting your rib cage fall, and letting the rest of your body go limp. You should feel just a slight tension up the back of your neck and across your shoulder blades.Fear. Scoot to the front edge of your chair, and draw your feet together and underneath the chair. Now turn your upper body toward the right, twisting a little at the waist, but keeping your head facing forward. Now dip your right shoulder a bit, and lean your upper body slightly backward. Raise your hands to about mouth level, arms bent at the elbows, and palms facing forward.Happy. Sit up as straight as you can. Put your hands at the ends of the armrests, and make sure that your legs are straight in front of you, with your knees bent, and feet right below your knees. Results: Rated emotion related to bodily expression of that emotion. Strongest for sadness, then anger, then surprise (r to fear), then happiness, then fear. No significant r for disgust. Other findings consistent w/ this hx: Manipulated facial expressions produce differences in recall of sad versus happy memories (e.g., Schnall & Laird, 2003) •Slumped positions associated with greater feelings of depression, expansive with pride (e.g., Dijkstra, Kschak, & Zwaan, 2007) •Feedback from voice also alters emotion.

Attachment security

THIS is associated with: ✦ Positive beliefs about relationships ✦ Greater relationship satisfaction ✦ Higher intimacy and involvement ✦ Positive patterns of communication ✦ Effective support seeking during stress ✦ More accurate recognition of facial expression

Development pattern of attachment

The Asocial Phase (0-6 weeks): Social and nonsocial stimuli produce positive reactions (infant w/ Krewpie effect, reflex smiles) ✦ The Phase of Indiscriminate Attachments: (6 weeks - 6/7 months) Favor people, but any person is OK (due to lack of visual discrimination abilities) ✦ The Specific Attachments Phase (7-9 months) 1st true attachment; favor one person (start of stranger wariness for others and separation anxiety) ✦ The Phase of Multiple Attachments (9-18 months) Attachment to other people Additional family members, regular babysitter (ability to discriminate multiple faces)

Attachment

The drive to form affectionate relationships with certain individuals

Stranger wariness

The emotion of fear is fully developed by 9 months and is expressed in two ways: Stranger wariness Separation anxiety. THIS is the distress that young children experience when they are exposed to people who are unfamiliar to them. When a stranger approaches, a typical 6-month-old looks away and begins to fuss. This begins somewhere between 8-9 months of age reaching its peak at 12-15 months. At this time infants begin to realize that all people are not the same, and that the relationship they have with their primary caregivers is special. The degree of anxiety an infant feels around strangers depends on a number of factors. Infants tend to be less fearful of strangers: When the environment is familiar If infants are given time to "warm up" to the strangers Who are female than those who are male (probably b/c more similar to mother). THIS is adaptive because it emerges at the same time that the child is being to master crawling. THIS provides a natural restraint and makes the infant less likely to wander away from familiar caregivers. THIS gradually declines as infants learn to interpret facial expressions (ability to social reference to regulate behavior)

Evolutionary theory of jealousy

The theory holds that jealousy is a mechanism that has evolved to monitor and motivate behavior to maintain a relationship that entails parental investment. The theory makes at least two testable hypotheses about sex differences in jealousy that have been subject to intense empirical study: one that differentiates sexual and emotional infidelity, and one that focuses on the mate value of potential partners.

Self evaluation maintenance model

Theory for understanding jealousy. Maintaining a positive evaluation of the self is played out in social interaction with similar others. Accomplished in 2 ways:Reflective processes: close someone superior to us in a way that does not threaten our self-concept; good for self-esteemComparison processes: achievements of close other in a domain relevant to our self-concept, we compare to them and feel bad. Need to recover self-evaluation. Distance self from the other person, negatively distort perceptions of other, sabotage. Therefore, the level of jealousy is thought to be due to how self-relevant the rival's achievements are, rather than to how much the object of jealousy likes the person or what attributes of the rival are attractive to the third personE.g., if being good at math is important for my self concept, and my boyfriend Mark starts talking to Jessica, I will be more jealous if Jessica is really good at math than if she is really good at tennis

Social motivation

Theory for what facial expressions communicate to others. Facial expressions signal what you intend to do and what you want others to do •Originates from behavioral ecology perspective •Facial expressions occur primarily in social contexts •Smiles=desire to affiliate, sadness expression=need for comfort

Emotion readout

Theory for what facial expressions communicate to others. •Facial expressions show feelings, close relationship between emotion and expression •This relationship is due to innate affect program. In the program for each of the basic emotions, it is the facial muscles that, so to speak, externalize the internal feelings •Can learn to suppress or mask expressions, but they sometimes "leak out" in micro-expressions •Smiles=joy, sadness expression=sad

Control over expressions

There are both automatic and intentional expressions and they are controlled by partly different neural circuits • Some patients with neurological damage respond spontaneously but cannot produce voluntary expressions, others can make voluntary but not automatic expressions. • Neuroimaging studies (fMRI) also show different areas of brain involved in automatic and voluntary expressions. Research from diff theories accommodate. Ex. Behavioral ecological view for voluntary expressions, emotional expression theory for automatic facial expressions.

social comparison emotions

These emotions, envy and jealousy, largely involve comparisons of the self to qualities, possessions, and outcomes of other individuals.

self evaluative emotions

These emotions, which include guilt, shame, embarrassment, pride, and hubris, are largely related to evaluations of the self, and are based on comparisons to personal standards, as well as moral values (what is right and wrong) derive from the ability to make good/bad judgments about the self. The emotions of shame, guilt, and embarrassment arise when the self or something about the self is evaluated negatively; pride and hubris arise when the self or something about the self is evaluated positively

Occulomotor nerve

Third cranial nerve, controls lifting of eyelid (like surprise), pupil dilation, and movements of eyeball

Embarassment

Triggered by negative self-exposure/ harm to presented self•Sense of fluster, self-focused mortification, and sense of foolishness •Unique and recognizable form of blushing. Universal expression: gaze aversion, contraction of muscles aimed at inhibiting smiling, then sheepish grin (non-duchenne smile), downturn of head, face touching (usually used to hide mouth or eyes). Causes: More trivial failures than shame or guilt •Disruptions in performance of socially-prescribed roles or scripts (Parrott, Sabini, Silver, 1988) •Seems to occur more in public contexts, when there is a potential for loss of esteem •Tends to result from more surprising or unexpected situations. Function: •Communicates appeasement: desire for forgiveness and reintegration into group •People feel need to express and if they are blocked, continue to feel flustered or mortified •Observers feel desire to help person experiencing THIS, often by communicating acceptance •Expressing THIS makes people more likeable. In one study with four conditions, saw video of a man toppling over a tower of TP and measured liking. Found that expressing both THIS and repairing situation liked best, followed by repair and THIS alone, but effect of THIS alone is the same on liking as repair alone. Exposure THIS emerges by the end of the 2nd year of life (requires self-concept), takes another year to show evaluative THIS, requires knowing social expectations- evaluative is more stressful according to cortisol levels.

Proprioceptors

Unlike most skeletal muscles, facial muscles seem to lack these, which normally tell brain about positioning of muscles in space

Counterfactual thinking

We can use THIS (mental undoing) to uncover which appraisal a person has made and therefore what emotion they are experiencing. When given a transgression, asked to make right by completing the proposition: If only.... (the answer will be seen as the cause). For 1st study: Found for mentally undoing different emotional induction stories by answering IF ONLY... IV= shame (prof) or guilt induction (pet sitting) DV: % of student's response to question (Change in self, or change in behavior. Found: more students responded with a change in self than a change in behavior for the shame scenario. and for the guilt scenario, more students responded with a change in behavior than self. (as predicted) For 2nd study: Scenario when friend invites you to party w/ them and their date. You end up flirting throughout the night and you give them your phone # The next day your friend raves about how much they like them. P's asked to mentally undo situation. IV= Filling in the stem: 1. If only I hadn't.... OR 2. If only I weren't.... DV= rated feelings of predicted guilt and shame in situation. Found: more IV of change in self, more ps reported more shame, for IV of change in behavior ps reported more guilt.

Modulation hypothesis

Weak form of facial feedback hypothesis. Amplification or de-amplification of emotions already elicited by appropriate stimuli. - Support from Lanzetta et al., 1976 Amplify or suppress facial expression while receiving mild electric shocks. Reveal condition showed highest skin conductance (indicator of autonomic arousal) and increased with shock level. Baseline in the middle, lowest at 0 and increase with shock level. Hide condition decreased from 0 to low and increased with high but lowest skin conductance overall. Further support by Strack, Martin and Steppler, 1988. Addressed the issue of demand characteristics by asking subjects to hold a pen either with their lips only or with only their teeth, while trying to keep it straight. Then asked to rate a cartoon on funniness (likert scale 1-7) Results: Those w/ pencil in lips thought it was least funny, followed by p's w/ pencil in non-dominate hand (control), those w/ pencil in teeth rated cartoons as funniest. Problem of non-replication in the effect of facial expression on emotional state in multilab study.

Self evaluation

a cognitive achievement required to experience self conscious emotions, arises from attained self-concept. THIS also develops after about two years of age, children begin to internalize standards and norms taught by caretakers and reinforced by society. a general function of these emotions is the development of self-control and the ability to refrain from committing immoral and self-incriminating acts, can cause heightened feelings of responsibility for one's actions.

Attachment style

a set of stable emotions and behaviors that emerge in relationships with close individuals. These are observed when the individual asks himself or herself the question "is there someone who will take care of me when I am in danger?" (yes, no, sometimes) Factors that influence: Quality of caregiving: ✦ Parents of securely attached infants are sensitive, responsive caregivers ✦Anxious infants have parents who are inconsistent in their caregiving ✦ Avoidant infants have parents who are impatient and rejecting, or overstimulating Other risk factors: Parents who were unloved, neglected or abused as children, clinically depressed or unplanned pregnancies.

Embodied simulation

a theory of emotion perception (recognizing the meaning underlying the emotion expressions of others). According to this theory, people can use their own brain and motor emotion systems to re-create, or simulate, the expressions of others, which gives them immediate access to the emotions underlying the perceived expressions. The simulation process takes place in the areas of the brain involved in the production of the perceived facial expression and sometimes involves the actual contraction of the perceiver's facial muscles, which is called facial mimicry. According to this approach (Niedenthal, 2007), facial mimicry reflects the embodied simulation of the observed facial expression and provides facial feedback, which, as we've learned, has been shown to influence individuals' emotional experience. Some evidence that this mimicry is then used in the recognition of facial expressions of emo-tions comes from studies where participants' facial expressions were temporarily disrupted, for example, by having them hold a pen sideways in the mouth, having them wear a mouth guard, or by temporarily paralyzing the facial muscle activity via a Botox injection. Blocking facial mimicry generally impairs emotion recognition accuracy as well as speed of recognition

interaction percpetive

about the innateness of facial expressions in which both the bio and social/cultural determinants of facial expressions are taken into account. Although ample evidence for a strong innate component in facial expressions of emotion rooted in mammalian evolution, also cultural rules for interpretation and display which influences facial expressions.

Attachment system

an innate system that essentially asks "is there someone who will take care of me when I am in danger?" (evoked under stress- ex. Strange situation)

Bodily expressions

are tightly linked with theorized action tendencies of specific emotions • People's ability to detect emotion information from bodies often involves stripping away extraneous information, such as in point light displays. • Evidence for high accuracy in recognizing emotion from these videos•Some researchers have identified common body gestures associated with emotions (cowering, clenching fists, etc) •Others have focused on features of movement as they relate to emotion, and these appear consistent across cultures e.g.: Size of bodily movements Direction of movements Regularity vs irregularity of movements Posture •Anger, for instance, is conveyed with big, rapid, forward/ down-moving, and erratic movements (imagine a child having a temper tantrum)

2 selves

argues that each of us is made up of two selves that track our quality of life and report on it when asked. Experiencing Self •being happy in your life •lives in the present- related to the feeling component of happiness (pos emos/ pleasure) Remembering Self •being happy about your life •keeps score •the storyteller of our life -Travel analogy- related to the cognitive component of happiness- Is yours a happy life? (meaning and satisfaction)

Pride

arises from positive assessment of the self when satisfied with meeting personal standards and goals (a.k.a. authentic pride). "Job well done" Behaviors and outcomes: leads to self-esteem, self-efficacy, and motivation More positive social behaviors, such as helping others and promoting the group Enhances productivity, altruism. Expressions: (expansive): Smile •Backward tilt of the head and lifting of chin •Arms resting on hips or raised above the head •Displayed spontaneously by 3 y.o. children, and by congenitally-blind adults and across cultures. Functions: Mechanism of communicating success, ensuring status within group and advertising resources•Similar body postures displayed by dominant chimpanzees•Participants made to feel THIS are subsequently perceived by group members and observers as behaving in ways that indicated higher status; also more likeable•While THIS facilitates attainment of status because it motivates the development of competence and self-confidence (prestige), hubris drives attainment of status via dominance and aggression

psychological wellbeing

being engaged with and able to manage life's challenges. related to coping and interest.

Developmental theory

both acknowledge that emotional development is partly preprogrammed in the organism and recognize that all aspects of emotion are responsive to the context in which the child is developing. That is, our emotions incorporate social experience, including cultural rules and norms. THESE, then, both nature (genes) and nurture (experience) make possible the full differentiation and elaboration of emotional life . THIS involves more than documenting the ages at which the components of emotion are first observed in infants and children and charting their course over the life cycle. THIS associates the unfolding of the components of emotion with that of many other skills and capacities. These include maturation of the visual and motor systems and the acquisition of complex cognitive capacities, such as the ability to represent the self as an object of thought. For example, the behavioral and physiological components of fear rely on having a body with response systems that are mature enough to detect danger and run away. Similarly, emotions such as envy and pride require the cognitive abilities of self-reflection and social comparison.

Facial nerve

controls most muscles involved in expression. Sends signals to the facial muscles from the cortex and subcortical areas of the brain via motor nerve cells originating in the brain stem. Facial muscles of the forehead, eyebrows and lips, most important in causing the contraction of muscles that makes many expressions.

in group advantage

cross culturally research about the universality of facial expressions have repeatedly found a bias that observers are more accurate when they judge expressions of members of their own culture. This an be partly explained by expression dialects: much as cultural differences evolve in speech dialects for a single language, different cultures might exhibit slight variants of innate expressions, sometimes due to norms about which emotions are appropriate to express in public. Interestingly, this advantage decreases with increased exposure to members of other cultures. In regards to the innateness of emotion, this is hard to reconcile w/ the strong position of innateness, as the magnitude of recognition accuracy varies across culture to some degree. EX. An extreme position might be to say that humans are born with the ability to produce six highly stereotyped and reflexive facial expressions and that every time they feel an emotion, they produce that expression. If they do not produce that expression when feeling the emotion, it is because they have learned to suppress or mask it. A more moderate position might argue that the structure of the human face, combined with certain adaptive and evolved action tendencies, such as the urge to attack when angered, combine to produce patterns of facial expression that are similar across people (because we have shared facial morphology and action tendencies) and yet vulnerable to being shaped by learning, context, and culture.

Optimism

defined by general-ized positive expectations for the future. Usually thought of as dispositional—that is, something that characterizes a person in a habitual way (like a personality trait). Similar to happiness, it appears to be associated in a causal way with positive outcomes. For example, compared to pessimism, optimism about the future is associated with better mood, fewer psy-chiatric symptoms, and better adjustment to life challenges including college transition, preg-nancy, cardiovascular health, and the stresses related to caregiving. There are contradictory findings on the rela-tionship between optimism and health (Segerstrom, 2005): sometimes optimism is associated with positive outcomes and sometimes more negative ones. One hypothesis, the disappointment hypothesis, suggests that optimism can make people vulnerable to substantial distress when faced with undeniable or uncontrollable negative outcomes (such as a diagnosis). Some research finds support for this idea (Sieber et al., 1992). Asecond hypothesis that has also received some empirical support is the engagement hypothesis (Segerstrom, 2001). This hypothesis says that when faced with a difficult situation, optimistic people keep trying to deal with it, whereas more pessimistic people give up. Sometimes it is not a bad idea to give up. Giving up can be physi-ologically protective because the negative effects of the difficult situation are avoided

Empathetic crying

evidence for the development of emotional recognition in others. Occurs, 18 to 72 hours following birth, newborns exposed to the sound of another infant crying displayed distress reactions (Martin & Clark 1982; Sagi & Hoffman 1976) • Responded more strongly to another infant's cry than to control stimuli, including silence, white noise, synthetic cry sounds, and even their own cry • Suggests that infant distress reactions to the cry of another infant are not a response to the aversive noise of the cry; may be a very early precursor to empathic responding.

Kewpie doll effect

feature of infants of many species (ex. big eyes/ forehead) seen as instinctively cute. Makes them appear lovable and elicits caretakers attention (reward function). Believe developed for that function.

emotional synchrony

having the physiology of your emotions sync up with someone else's, is a basis for feeling empathy with that person. Mothers and babies tend to catch each other's emotions. The achievement of THIS by mothers and infants has been observed in studies that tracked cardiovascular and hormonal indicators of emotion. How are emotions transferred from mother to baby and back? Facial expressions, touch, and emotional tone of voice all seem to be good candidates for emotional influence.

Happiness

is a summary of the prevalence of experience positive feelings in daily life. equated with subjective well-being. means having positive emotions that are linked to a feeling of doing well in the world. the sum of life satisfaction (the positive evaluation of one's life as a whole), plus positive affect (the experience of positive emotions within any given time period), minus negative affect (the experience of negative emotions within any given time period). "Feeling" component •What makes you feel happy? •pleasure & positive emotions •more immediate "Cognitive" component •Is yours a happy life? •meaning & satisfaction •more abstract - 50% of happiness predicted by genes (twin studies: twins who share all their genes have significantly more similar levels of happiness than twins who share half their genes)- "Happiness set points" - 10% predicted by demographics (SES, gender, location, religion) -40% predicted by the details of daily life

mindfulness

is the awareness that arises from paying attention to the present moment, on purpose and without judgment•By attending to the momentary experience, learn to see thoughts and emotions as mental events instead of facts•Widespread psychological, social, and health benefits of increasing mindfulness; effective tool for reducing depressive symptoms•Mindfulness practice is becoming common in workplaces like hospitals

Benign envy

longing, disappointment with self, and a desire to emulate the envied person. In one study looking at autobiographical accounts, disappointment is predicted by perceptions of inferiority. Leads to greater liking of envied person, frustration, and motivation to become more like the person. Results in enhanced performance and motivation on relevant tasks

Social Networks Framingham Heart Study

studied sociometric relations based on happiness. 4,739 people followed from 1983 to 2003 Repeatedly measured happiness via experience sampling. Clusters of happy and unhappy people are significantly greater than predicted by chance Happy people tend to be located in the center of their local social networks and in large clusters of other happy people. Conclusions: Whether an individual is happy depends on whether others, especially same-sex others, in the individual's social network are happy.

Savoring

the capacity to attend to the joys and pleasures of experience•Focused attention on a pleasurable experience can increase the pleasure derived from the experience•People told to focus on eating chocolate reported feeling more pleasure than people who were distracted

Cuckolded

unknowingly raising children to whom they are not genetically related. THIS human male risks investing time, energy, and other resources into offspring that do not assure the survival of his gene pool. This problem should lead to the evolution of anti THIS mechanisms, as apparent in other animals, and especially relevant for the human male because humans but greater investment in offspring after birth than any other mammal. Jealousy is suggested mechanism.

Facial motor nucleus

where the facial nerve originates in brainstem receives input from: motor cortex (especially for voluntary movements), then sends motor output via Facial nerve (VII), which controls most muscles involved in expression. Also receives indirect info from parts of the brain associated w/ emotion and more reflexive and homeostasis related behaviors like the amygdala, brain stem and hypothalamus.

eudaimonia

which is concerned with the realization of one's daimon, or true self. According to Aristo-tle, THIS is a state of self-realization that is nurtured by virtuous activities that express our values, personal expressiveness, fulfillment, and meaning. This state of self-realization is similar to the modern concept of psychological well-being

Secondary emotions

• Emotions such as guilt, shame, embarrassment, and pride • Emerge by the third year of life. Necessary Cognitive achievements: 1. Recognition of self as an object (Self-concept) • rouge test- found same across two cultures, emerges btw 21 and 24 months• use of "me", "I", and "mine". 2. Ability to see self as having good and bad qualities 3.Ability to make comparisons. ex. Differentiating btw pride and shame. 3-year olds: "easy" and "difficult": More pride if complete difficult task; more shame if fail easy task

Jealousy

• Involves three entities: usually people (can be though 2 people and an animal or NFL, etc) • Fear that a relationship is threatened by another individual. In one study where participants indicated what feeling state was consistent of, this emotion was associated with suspicion, rejection, hostility, anger at other, fear of loss, hurt, cheated, desire to get even, resentment, spite, malice and intensity. 2 theories about: 1. Evolutionary approach, about emo solving adaptive problems. should be different for males and females because females to their different investments in offspring. A cuckold will unknowingly waste resources if he helps raise someone else's offspring. Males should therefore be jealous of sexual infidelity. Females need to know that their mate will help raise the offspring, so should be jealous of emotional infidelity, otherwise they risk the male dividing up resources between two relationships or leaving all together. Additionally, Males have high mate value when they can provide resources and protection to mate and offspring •Females have high mate value if they are fertile and can produce healthy offspring •So, males should be jealous of other males with resources and physical strength; females should be jealous of attractive and young females 2. Self-Evaluation Maintenance Model (SEM model; Tesser, 1988): Maintaining a positive evaluation of the self is played out in social interaction with similar others. Accomplished in 2 ways:Reflective processes: close someone superior to us in a way that does not threaten our self-concept; good for self-esteemComparison processes: achievements of close other in a domain relevant to our self-concept, we compare to them and feel bad. Need to recover self-evaluation. Distance self from the other person, negatively distort perceptions of other, sabotage

Envy

• Involves two entities: usually people, people must share some similarity, because it shows shortcomings of personal relevance • Belief that other has something that you want; plus belief you will never have it. Smith study found participants indicate these feeling state are more characteristic: motivation to improve, wishful, longing, inferior, self aware, self critical, dissatisfied. Characterized by longing, dissatisfaction and the impression of inferiority. 2 types, benign and malicious.

Cultural display rules

• Not all expressions reflect activity of innate "motor programs" • "Display rules" are learned in the culture or social context • Learned habits about how and when to express emotion. For example: when watching a distressing movie alone, Japanese and American students show the same amount of emotion. When watching with an experimenter though, Japanese students show less emotion than American students.

Universality

•Longstanding debate about the degree to which emotions expressions are consistent and recognizable across human cultures, and homologous across species From an evolutionary perspective, facial expressions of emotions are innate expressions of specific emotional states. Because they can be traced back to animal behavior, they should be universal, that is, shared by humans of any age, gender, race, and culture. On the other hand, facial expressions could be the nonverbal equivalent of language, in that all human cultures have them but they are the result of cultural, rather than genetic, evolution. In this case we would expect to find little or no similarity in facial expressions across cultures. The origins of facial expressions can therefore be explored by a) testing hypotheses about the adaptive functions of specific expressions and comparing human facial expressions to nonhuman animal facial gestures, and b) comparing human expressions across various cultures.

cross cultural research

•Typically ask people in country A to complete emotion recognition task with a forced-choice response about the expressions of people from country B •Researchers often chose isolated populations as strong test of universality hypothesis (e.g., Fore of Papua New Guinea) •If accuracy is greater than chance, and this is documented across cultures, researchers conclude there is some degree of universality in emotion expression. •Conclusions from many studies: some degree of universality •Problems with research: Often language-based so requires that cultures have similar emotion concepts. Exposure to Western media may inflate cross-cultural similarity •Useful to look at studies in which actual emotions were induced in people from different cultures and analyze expressions.