Psych exam 3 Ch. 9, 10,13,14

dissasociative fugue

(fyoog) Type of dissociative amnesia involving sudden and unexpected travel away from home, extensive amnesia, and identity confusion.

psychotropic medications

(sy-ko-TRO-pick) Drugs that alter mental functions, alleviate psychological symptoms, and are used to treat psychological or mental disorders.

Major Stages of the Lifespan

-Prenatal (Conception to birth) -Infancy and toddlerhood (Birth to 2 years) -Early childhood (2 to 6 years) -Middle childhood (6 to 12 years) -Adolescence (12 to 18 years) -Emerging adulthood (18 to 25 years) -Young adulthood (25 to 40 years) -Middle adulthood (40 to 65 years) -Late adulthood (65 years to death)

Cattell's 16 Personality Factors

1 Reserved, unsociable ↔ Outgoing, sociable 2 Less intelligent, concrete ↔ More intelligent, abstract 3 Affected by feelings ↔ Emotionally stable 4 Submissive, humble ↔ Dominant, assertive 5 Serious ↔ Happy-go-lucky 6 Expedient ↔ Conscientious 7 Timid ↔ Venturesome 8 Tough-minded ↔ Sensitive 9 Trusting ↔ Suspicious 10 Practical ↔ Imaginative 11 Forthright ↔ Shrewd, calculating 12 Self-assured ↔ Apprehensive 13 Conservative ↔ Experimenting 14 Group-dependent ↔ Self-sufficient 15 Undisciplined ↔ Controlled 16 Relaxed ↔ Tense Raymond Cattell believed that personality could be described in terms of 16 source traits, or basic personality factors. Each factor represents a dimension that ranges between two extremes.

Kholberg's stages of moral development

1. Pre conventional-Obedience and punishment 2. Conventional- good boy/ nice girl 3. Post conventional- Social Contract I. Preconventional Level Moral reasoning is guided by external consequences. No internalization of values or rules. Stage 1: Punishment and Obedience "Right" is obeying the rules simply to avoid punishment because others have power over you and can punish you. Stage 2: Mutual Benefit "Right" is an even or fair exchange so that both parties benefit. Moral reasoning guided by a sense of "fair play." II. Conventional Level Moral reasoning is guided by conformity to social roles, rules, and expectations that the person has learned and internalized. Stage 3: Interpersonal Expectations "Right" is being a "good" person by conforming to social expectations, such as showing concern for others and following rules set by others so as to win their approval. Stage 4: Law and Order "Right" is helping maintain social order by doing one's duty, obeying laws simply because they are laws, and showing respect for authorities simply because they are authorities. III. Postconventional Level Moral reasoning is guided by internalized legal and moral principles that protect the rights of all members of society. Stage 5: Legal Principles "Right" is helping protect the basic rights of all members of society by upholding legalistic principles that promote the values of fairness, justice, equality, and democracy. Stage 6: Universal Moral Principles "Right" is determined by self-chosen ethical principles that reflect the person's respect for ideals such as nonviolence, equality, and human dignity. If these moral principles conflict with democratically determined laws, the person's self-chosen moral principles take precedence.

INFANT REFLEXES

1. grasping 2. startle (Moro) 3. rooting 4. stepping 5. sucking Touching the newborn's cheek triggers the rooting reflex—the infant turns toward the source of the touch and opens his mouth. Touching the newborn's lips evokes the sucking reflex. If you put a finger on each of the newborn's palms, he will respond with the grasping reflex—the baby will grip your fingers so tightly that he can be lifted upright. As motor areas of the infant's brain develop over the first year of life, the rooting, sucking, and grasping reflexes are replaced by voluntary behaviors.

Piaget's stages of cognitive development

1. sensorimotor 2. preoperational 3. concrete operational 4. formal operational Sensorimotor (0-2 years) Acquires understanding of object permanence. First understandings of cause-and-effect relationships. Development proceeds from reflexes to active use of sensory and motor skills to explore the environment. Preoperational (2-7 years) Symbolic thought emerges. Language development occurs (2-4 years). Thought and language both tend to be egocentric. Cannot solve conservation problems. Development proceeds from understanding simple cause-and-effect relationships to prelogical thought processes involving the use of imagination and symbols to represent objects, actions, and situations. Concrete operations (7-11 years) Reversibility attained. Can solve conservation problems. Logical thought develops and is applied to concrete problems. Cannot solve complex verbal problems and hypothetical problems. Development proceeds from prelogical thought to logical solutions to concrete problems. Formal operations (adolescence through adulthood) Logically solves all types of problems. Thinks scientifically. Solves complex verbal and hypothetical problems. Is able to think in abstract terms. Development proceeds from logical solving of concrete problems to logical solving of all classes of problems, including abstract problems.

Erikson's stages of psychosocial development

1. trust vs. mistrust 2. autonomy vs. shame and doubt 3. initiative vs. guilt 4. industry vs. inferiority 5. identity vs. role confusion 6. intimacy vs. isolation 7. generativity vs. stagnation 8. integrity vs. despair Life Stage Psychosocial Conflict Positive Resolution Negative Resolution Infancy (birth to 18 months) Trust vs. mistrust Reliance on consistent and warm caregivers produces a sense of predictability and trust in the environment. Physical and psychological neglect by caregivers leads to fear, anxiety, and mistrust of the environment. Toddlerhood (18 months to 3 years) Autonomy vs. doubt Caregivers encourage independence and self-sufficiency, promoting positive self-esteem. Overly restrictive caregiving leads to self-doubt in abilities and low self-esteem. Early childhood (3 to 6 years) Initiative vs. guilt The child learns to initiate activities and develops a sense of social responsibility concerning the rights of others; promotes self-confidence. Parental overcontrol stifles the child's spontaneity, sense of purpose, and social learning; promotes guilt and fear of punishment. Middle and late childhood (6 to 12 years) Industry vs. inferiority Through experiences with parents and "keeping up" with peers, the child develops a sense of pride and competence in schoolwork and home and social activities. Negative experiences with parents or failure to "keep up" with peers leads to pervasive feelings of inferiority and inadequacy. Adolescence Identity vs. role confusion Through experimentation with different roles, the adolescent develops an integrated and stable self-definition; forms commitments to future adult roles. An apathetic adolescent or one who experiences pressures and demands from others may feel confusion about his or her identity and role in society. Young adulthood Intimacy vs. isolation By establishing lasting and meaningful relationships, the young adult develops a sense of connectedness and intimacy with others. Because of fear of rejection or excessive self-preoccupation, the young adult is unable to form close, meaningful relationships and becomes psychologically isolated. Middle adulthood Generativity vs. stagnation Through child rearing, caring for others, productive work, and community involvement, the adult expresses unselfish concern for the welfare of the next generation. Self-indulgence, self-absorption, and a preoccupation with one's own needs lead to a sense of stagnation, boredom, and a lack of meaningful accomplishments. Late adulthood Ego integrity vs. despair In reviewing his or her life, the older adult experiences a strong sense of self-acceptance and meaningfulness in his or her accomplishments. In looking back on his or her life, the older adult experiences regret, dissatisfaction, and disappointment about his or her life and accomplishments.

DISSASSOCIATIVE EXPERIENCE

A break or disruption in consciousness during which awareness, memory, and personal identity become separated or divided.

interpersonal therapy

A brief psychodynamic psychotherapy that focuses on current relationships and is based on the assumption that symptoms are caused and maintained by interpersonal problems.

INDUCTION

A discipline technique that combines parental control with explaining why a behavior is prohibited.

Hallucinations

A false or distorted perception that seems vividly real to the person experiencing it.

delusion

A falsely held belief that persists despite compelling contradictory evidence.

MENARCHE

A female's first menstrual period, which occurs during puberty.

Autism Spectrum Disorder

A group of developmental disorders characterized by (1) difficulties communicating and interacting across a range of settings, and (2) a limited range of behaviors, interests, and activities.

Chromosomes

A long, thread-like structure composed of twisted parallel strands of DNA; found in the cell nucleus.

reciprocal determinism

A model proposed by Bandura that explains human functioning and personality as caused by the interaction of behavioral, cognitive, and environmental factors.

Lithium

A naturally occurring substance that is used in the treatment of bipolar disorder.

PYSCHOLOGICAL DISORDER

A pattern of behavioral and psychological symptoms that causes significant personal distress, impairs the ability to function in one or more important areas of life, or both.

PHOBIA

A persistent and irrational fear of a specific object, situation, or activity.

GENDER IDENTITY

A person's psychological sense of being male or female.

IDENTITY

A person's sense of self, including his or her memories, experiences, and the values and beliefs that guide his or her behavior.

Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

A projective personality test, developed by Henry Murray and colleagues, that involves creating stories about ambiguous scenes

Rorschach inkblot test

A projective test using inkblots, developed by Swiss psychiatrist Hermann Rorschach in 1921.

GRAPHOLOGY

A pseudoscience that claims to assess personality, social, and occupational attributes based on a person's distinctive handwriting, doodles, and drawing style.

aversive conditioning

A relatively ineffective type of behavior therapy that involves repeatedly pairing an aversive stimulus with the occurrence of undesirable behaviors or thoughts.

Trait

A relatively stable, enduring predisposition to consistently behave in a certain way.

Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)

A self-report inventory that assesses personality characteristics and psychological disorders; used to assess both normal and disturbed populations.

California Psychological Inventory (CPI)

A self-report inventory that assesses personality characteristics in normal populations.

panic attack

A sudden episode of extreme anxiety that rapidly escalates in intensity.

Manic episodes (in bipolar disorder)

A sudden, rapidly escalating emotional state characterized by extreme euphoria, excitement, physical energy, and rapid thoughts and speech.

PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS

A test that assesses a person's abilities, aptitudes, interests, or personality on the basis of a systematically obtained sample of behavior. Any psychological test is useful insofar as it achieves two basic goals: It accurately and consistently reflects a person's characteristics on some dimension. It predicts a person's future psychological functioning or behavior.

Trait Theory

A theory of personality that focuses on identifying, describing, and measuring individual differences in behavioral predispositions.

PERSONAILTY THEORY

A theory that attempts to describe and explain similarities and differences in people's patterns of thinking, feeling, and behaving.

Five Factor Model of Personality

A trait theory of personality that identifies extraversion, neuroticism, agreeableness, conscientiousness, and openness to experience as the fundamental building blocks of personality. Low Factor 1: Neuroticism ↔ High Calm Worrying Even-tempered, unemotional Temperamental, emotional Hardy Vulnerable Factor 2: Extraversion Reserved Affectionate Loner Joiner Quiet Talkative Factor 3: Openness to Experience Down-to-earth Imaginative Conventional, uncreative Original, creative Prefer routine Prefer variety Factor 4: Agreeableness Antagonistic Acquiescent Ruthless Softhearted Suspicious Trusting Factor 5: Conscientiousness Lazy Hardworking Aimless Ambitious Quitting Persevering Source: Research from McCrae & Costa (1990). This table shows the five major personality factors, according to Big Five theorists Robert McCrae and Paul Costa, Jr. Listed below each major personality factor are surface traits that are associated with it. Note that each factor represents a dimension or range between two extreme poles. Most people will fall somewhere in the middle between the two opposing poles.

transexual

A transgender person who undergoes surgery and hormone treatments to physically transform his or her body into the opposite sex.

projective tests: TAT & Rorschach

A type of personality test that involves a person's interpreting an ambiguous image; used to assess unconscious motives, conflicts, psychological defenses, and personality traits.

self-report inventories

A type of psychological test in which a person's responses to standardized questions are compared to established norms.

Psychoanalysis

A type of psychotherapy originated by Sigmund Freud in which free association and transference are used to explore repressed or unconscious impulses, anxieties, and internal conflicts.

DSM-5

Abbreviation for the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition; American Psychiatric Association publication describing disorders' symptoms and diagnostic guidelines.

Alfred Adler

Adler placed much more emphasis on the importance of conscious thought processes and social motives (West & Bubenzer, 2012). Eventually, Adler broke away from Freud to establish his own theory of personality. believed that the most fundamental human motive is striving for superiority—the desire to improve oneself, master challenges, and move toward self-perfection and self-realization. Striving toward superiority arises from universal feelings of inferiority that are experienced during infancy and childhood, when the child is helpless and dependent on others. These feelings motivate people to compensate for their real or imagined weaknesses by emphasizing their talents and abilities and by working hard to improve themselves (R. Watts, 2012). Hence, Adler (1933a) saw the universal human feelings of inferiority as ultimately constructive and valuable.

SPECIFIC PHOBIA

An excessive, intense, and irrational fear of a specific object, situation, or activity that is actively avoided or endured with marked anxiety.

PERSONALITY

An individual's unique and relatively consistent patterns of thinking, feeling, and behaving.

behavorial genetics

An interdisciplinary field that studies the effects of genes and heredity on behavior.

anxiety

An unpleasant emotional state characterized by physical arousal and feelings of tension, apprehension, and worry.

DIFFERENT EATING DISORDERS

Anorexia Nervosa Severe and extreme disturbance in eating habits and calorie intake Body weight that is significantly less than what would be considered normal for the person's age, height, and gender, and refusal to maintain a normal body weight Intense fear of gaining weight or becoming fat Distorted perceptions about the severity of weight loss and a distorted self-image, such that even an extremely emaciated person may perceive herself as fat Bulimia Nervosa Recurring episodes of binge eating, which is defined as an excessive amount of calories within a two-hour period The inability to control or stop the excessive eating behavior Recurrent episodes of purging, which is defined as using laxatives, diuretics, self-induced vomiting, or other methods to prevent weight gain Binge-Eating Disorder Recurring episodes of binge eating The inability to control or stop the excessive eating behavior Not associated with recurrent episodes of purging or other methods to prevent weight gain

Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD)

Anxiety disorder characterized by excessive, global, and persistent symptoms of anxiety; also called free-floating anxiety.

panic disorder

Anxiety disorder in which the person experiences frequent and unexpected panic attacks.

agoraphobia

Anxiety disorder involving extreme fear of experiencing a panic attack or other embarrassing or incapacitating symptoms in a public situation where escape is impossible and help is unavailable.

Social Anxiety Disorder (Social Phobia)

Anxiety disorder involving the extreme and irrational fear of being embarrassed, judged, or scrutinized by others in social situations.

Allele

As a general rule, your genotype contains two copies of each gene—one inherited from each biological parent. These genes may be identical or different. The range of potential alleles varies for individual genes. Some genes have just a few different versions, while other genes have 50 or more possible alleles. It is this unique combination of alleles that helps make your genotype—and you—unique.

SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY ALBERT BANDURA

Bandura's theory of personality, which emphasizes the importance of conscious cognitive processes, social experiences, self-efficacy beliefs, and reciprocal determinism.

counter conditioning (MARY COVER JONES)

Behavior therapy technique based on classical conditioning; involves modifying behavior by conditioning a new response that is incompatible with a previously learned response.

exposure therapy

Behavioral therapy for phobias, panic disorder, PTSD, or related anxiety disorders in which the person is repeatedly exposed to the disturbing object or situation under controlled conditions.

Mary Ainsworth

Best known for developing the Strange Situation procedure to measure attachment, Mary Ainsworth originated the concept of the secure base. She was also the first researcher in the United States to make extensive, systematic, naturalistic observations of mother-infant interactions in their own homes. Her findings often surprised contemporary psychologists. For example, Ainsworth provided the first evidence demonstrating the importance of the caregiver's responsiveness to the infant's needs

electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)

Biomedical therapy used primarily in the treatment of major depressive disorder that involves electrically inducing a brief brain seizure; also called electroshock therapy.

catatonia

Catatonia includes symptoms that reflect highly disturbed movements or actions. These may include bizarre postures or grimaces, complete immobility, no speech or very little speech, or extremely agitated behavior.

eating disorders

Category of mental disorders characterized by severe disturbances in eating behavior.

DISSASOCIATIVE DISORDERS

Category of psychological disorders in which extreme and frequent disruptions of awareness, memory, and personal identity impair the ability to function.

ANXIETY DISORDERS

Category of psychological disorders in which extreme anxiety is the main diagnostic feature and causes significant disruptions in the person's cognitive, behavioral, or interpersonal functioning.

selective seratonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs)

Class of antidepressant medications that increase the availability of serotonin in the brain and cause fewer side effects than earlier antidepressants; examples include Prozac, Paxil, and Zoloft.

COGNITIVE BIASES Cognitive Bias

Cognitive Bias (Error) Description Example Arbitrary inference Drawing a negative conclusion when there is little or no evidence to support it When Joan calls Jim to cancel their lunch date because she has an important meeting at work, Jim concludes that she is probably going out to lunch with another man. Selective abstraction Focusing on a single negative detail taken out of context and ignoring the more important aspects of the situation During Kaori's annual review, her manager praises her job performance but notes that she could be a little more confident when she deals with customers over the phone. Kaori leaves her manager's office thinking that he is on the verge of firing her because of her poor telephone skills. Overgeneralization Drawing a sweeping, global conclusion based on an isolated incident and applying that conclusion to other unrelated areas of life Tony spills coffee on his final exam. He apologizes to his instructor but can't stop thinking about the incident. He concludes that he is a klutz who will never be able to succeed in a professional career. Personalization Taking responsibility, blaming oneself, or applying external events to oneself when there is no basis or evidence for making the connection Andrei becomes extremely upset when his instructor warns the class about plagiarism. He thinks the instructor's warning was aimed at him, and he concludes that the instructor suspects him of plagiarizing parts of his term paper. Source: Information from Beck & others (1979). According to Aaron Beck, people with major depressive disorder perceive and interpret experiences in very negative terms. They are prone to systematic errors in logic, or cognitive biases, which shape their negative interpretation of events. This table shows some of the most common cognitive biases in major depressive disorder.

Transgender

Condition in which a person's psychological gender identity conflicts with his or her biological sex.

Major Ego Defense Mechanisms

Defense Description Example Repression The complete exclusion from consciousness of anxiety-producing thoughts, feelings, or impulses; the most basic defense mechanism Three years after being hospitalized for back surgery, a man can remember only vague details about the event. Displacement The redirection of emotional impulses toward a substitute person or object, usually one less threatening or dangerous than the original source of conflict Angered by a neighbor's hateful comment, a mother spanks her daughter for accidentally spilling her milk. Sublimation A form of displacement in which sexual urges are rechanneled into productive, nonsexual activities A graduate student works on her thesis 14 hours a day while her husband is on an extended business trip. Rationalization Justifying one's actions or feelings with socially acceptable explanations rather than consciously acknowledging one's true motives or desires After being rejected by a prestigious university, a student explains that he is glad because he would be happier at a smaller, less competitive college. Projection The attribution of one's own unacceptable urges or qualities to others A married woman who is sexually attracted to a co-worker accuses him of flirting with her. Reaction formation Thinking or behaving in a way that is the extreme opposite of unacceptable urges or impulses Threatened by his awakening sexual attraction to girls, an adolescent boy goes out of his way to tease and torment adolescent girls. Denial The failure to recognize or acknowledge the existence of anxiety-provoking information Despite having multiple drinks every night, a man says he is not an alcoholic because he never drinks before 5 P.M. Regression Retreating to a behavior pattern characteristic of an earlier stage of development After her parents' bitter divorce, a 10-year-old girl refuses to sleep alone in her room, crawling into bed with her mother.

OCD (Obsessive Compulsive Disorder)

Disorder characterized by intrusive, repetitive, and unwanted thoughts (obsessions) and repetitive behaviors or mental acts that an individual feels driven to perform (compulsions).

PTSD (Post Traumatic Stress Disorder)

Disorder triggered by extreme trauma that results in intrusive memories; avoidance of stimuli; negative changes in thoughts and emotions; and a persistent state of heightened physical arousal.

dissasociative identity disorder

Dissociative disorder involving extensive memory disruptions along with the presence of two or more distinct identities, or "personalities"; formerly called multiple personality disorder.

DISSASOCIATIVE AMNESIA

Dissociative disorder involving the partial or total inability to recall important personal information.

bulimia nervosa

Eating disorder characterized by binges of extreme overeating followed by self-induced vomiting, misuse of laxatives, or other methods to purge excess food and prevent weight gain.

anorexia nervosa

Eating disorder characterized by excessive weight loss, an irrational fear of gaining weight, and distorted body self-perception.

token economy

Form of behavior therapy in which the therapeutic environment is structured to reward desired behaviors with tokens or points that may eventually be exchanged for tangible rewards.

group therapy

Form of psychotherapy that involves one or more therapists working simultaneously with a small group of clients.

family therapy

Form of psychotherapy that is based on the assumption that the family is a system and that treats the family as a unit.

Psychoanalysis (Freud)

Freud's theory of personality emphasizing unconscious determinants of behavior, sexual and aggressive instinctual drives, and the effect of early childhood experiences on later personality development.

DISORDERS INTENSE ANXIETY

Generalized Anxiety Disorder Persistent, chronic, unreasonable worry and anxiety General symptoms of anxiety, including persistent physical arousal Panic Disorder Frequent and unexpected panic attacks, with no specific or identifiable trigger Phobias Intense anxiety or panic attack triggered by a specific object or situation Persistent avoidance of feared object or situation Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) Anxiety triggered by intrusive, recurrent memories of a highly traumatic experience Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD) Anxiety caused by uncontrollable, persistent, recurring thoughts (obsessions) and/or urges to perform certain actions (compulsions)

SEQUENCE OF PUBERTY

Girls Average Age Boys Average Age Ovaries increase production of estrogen and progesterone. 9 Testes increase production of testosterone. 10 Internal sex organs begin to grow larger. 9½ External sex organs begin to grow larger. 11 Breast development begins. 10 Production of sperm and first ejaculation 13 Peak height spurt 12 Peak height spurt 14 Peak muscle and organ growth, including widening of hips 12½ Peak muscle and organ growth, including broadening of shoulders 14½ Menarche (first menstrual period) 12½ Voice lowers. 15 First ovulation (release of fertile egg) 13½ Facial hair appears. 16

cognitive therapy

Group of psychotherapies based on the assumption that psychological problems are due to illogical patterns of thinking; techniques focus on recognizing and altering unhealthy thinking patterns.

Teratogens

Harmful agents or substances that can cause malformations or defects in an embryo or fetus. EX: Exposure to radiation Toxic chemicals and metals, such as mercury, PCBs, and lead Viruses and bacteria, such as German measles (rubella), genital herpes, and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) Prescription painkillers and other prescription and nonprescription drugs Addictive drugs, including heroin, sedatives, cocaine, amphetamines, and methamphetamine Maternal smoking and exposure to secondhand smoke Alcohol

Karen Horney

Horney stressed the importance of social relationships, especially the parent-child relationship, in the development of personality. She believed that disturbances in human relationships, not sexual conflicts, were the cause of psychological problems. Such problems arise from the attempt to deal with basic anxiety, which Horney (1945) described as "the feeling a child has of being isolated and helpless in a potentially hostile world." Horney also sharply disagreed with Freud's interpretation of female development, especially his notion that women suffer from penis envy. What women envy in men, Horney (1926) claimed, is not their penis, but their superior status in society. In fact, Horney contended that men often suffer womb envy, envying women's capacity to bear children. Neatly standing Freud's view of feminine psychology on its head, Horney argued that men compensate for their relatively minor role in reproduction by constantly striving to make creative achievements in their work (Gilman, 2001). Horney shared Jung's belief that people are not doomed to psychological conflict and problems. Also like Jung, Horney believed that the drive to grow psychologically and achieve one's potential is a basic human motive.

Carl Rogers

Humanisic; self-concept and unconditional positive regard drive personality These observations convinced Rogers that the most basic human motive is the actualizing tendency

ABRAHAM MASLOW

Humanistic psychologist known for his "Hierarchy of Needs" and the concept of "self-actualization" famous hierarchy of needs and his concept of self-actualization. Like Maslow, Rogers emphasized the tendency of human beings to strive to fulfill their potential and capabilities

UNCONCIOUS

In Freud's theory, a term used to describe thoughts, feelings, wishes, and drives that are operating below the level of conscious awareness.

ID

In Freud's theory, the completely unconscious, irrational component of personality that seeks immediate satisfaction of instinctual urges and drives; ruled by the pleasure principle.

EGO

In Freud's theory, the partly conscious rational component of personality that regulates thoughts and behavior, and is most in touch with the demands of the external world.

SUPEREGO

In Freud's theory, the partly conscious, self-evaluative, moralistic component of personality that is formed through the internalization of parental and societal rules.

collective unconscious (JUNG)

In Jung's theory, the hypothesized part of the unconscious mind that is inherited from previous generations and that contains universally shared ancestral experiences and ideas.

sensorimotor stage

In Piaget's theory, the first stage of cognitive development, from birth to about age 2; period during which infants acquire knowledge through sensing and manipulating objects.

FORMAL OPERATIONAL STAGE

In Piaget's theory, the fourth stage of cognitive development, from adolescence through adulthood; characterized by thinking logically about abstract principles and hypothetical situations. In contrast to the concrete operational child, the formal operational adolescent explains friendship by emphasizing more global and abstract characteristics, such as mutual trust, empathy, loyalty, consistency, and shared beliefs (Harter, 1990). But, like the development of cognitive abilities during infancy and childhood, formal operational thought emerges only gradually. Formal operational thought continues to increase in sophistication throughout adolescence and adulthood. Although an adolescent may deal effectively with abstract ideas in one domain of knowledge, his thinking may not reflect the same degree of sophistication in other areas. Piaget (1973) acknowledged that even among many adults, formal operational thinking is often limited to areas in which they have developed expertise or a special interest. Table 9.2 summarizes Piaget's stages of cognitive development.

irreveribility

In Piaget's theory, the inability to mentally reverse a sequence of events or logical operations.For example, the child doesn't understand that adding "3 plus 1" and adding "1 plus 3" refer to the same logical operation.

Egocentrism

In Piaget's theory, the inability to take another person's perspective or point of view. Piaget did not mean selfishness or conceit. Rather, egocentric children lack the ability to consider events from another person's point of view. Thus, the young child genuinely thinks that Grandma would like a new Lego set or a video game for her upcoming birthday because that's what he wants. Egocentric thought is also operating when the child silently nods his head in answer to Grandpa's question on the telephone.

preoperational stage

In Piaget's theory, the second stage of cognitive development, which lasts from about age 2 to age 7; characterized by increasing use of symbols and prelogical thought processes.

Centration

In Piaget's theory, the tendency to focus, or center, on only one aspect of a situation and ignore other important aspects of the situation. The classic demonstration of both irreversibility and centration involves a task devised by Piaget. When your author Sandy's daughter Laura was five, Sandy tried this task with her. First, Sandy showed her two identical glasses, each containing exactly the same amount of liquid. Laura easily recognized the two amounts of liquid as being the same.

concrete operational stage

In Piaget's theory, the third stage of cognitive development, which lasts from about age 7 to adolescence; characterized by the ability to think logically about concrete objects and situations. As the name of this stage implies, thinking and use of logic tend to be limited to concrete reality—to tangible objects and events. Children in the concrete operational stage often have difficulty thinking logically about hypothetical situations or abstract ideas. For example, an 8-year-old will explain the concept of friendship in very tangible terms, such as "Friendship is when someone plays with me." In effect, the concrete operational child's ability to deal with abstract ideas and hypothetical situations is limited to his or her personal experiences and actual events.

conservation

In Piaget's theory, the understanding that two equal quantities remain equal even though the form or appearance is rearranged, as long as nothing is added or subtracted. Because of centration, the child cannot simultaneously consider the height and the width of the liquid in the container. Instead, the child focuses on only one aspect of the situation, the height of the liquid. And because of irreversibility, the child cannot cognitively reverse the series of events, mentally returning the poured liquid to its original container. Thus, she fails to understand that the two amounts of liquid are still the same.

Actualizing Tendency (Rogers)

In Rogers's theory, the innate drive to maintain and enhance the human organism

uncondtional positive regard

In Rogers's theory, the sense that you will be valued and loved even if you don't conform to the standards and expectations of others; unconditional love or acceptance.

Conditional Positive Regard (Rogers)

In Rogers's theory, the sense that you will be valued and loved only if you behave in a way that is acceptable to others; conditional love or acceptance.

Vgostky's Zone of Proximal Development

In Vygotsky's theory of cognitive development, the difference between what children can accomplish on their own and what they can accomplish with the help of others who are more competent.

emerging adulthood JEFFREY JENSEN ARNETT

In industrialized countries, the stage from the late teens through the 20s; characterized by exploration and flexibility in social roles, vocational choices, and relationships.

Resistance

In psychoanalysis, the patient's unconscious attempts to block the revelation of repressed memories and conflicts.

Transference

In psychoanalysis, the process by which emotions and desires associated with a significant person in the patient's life, such as a parent, are unconsciously transferred onto the psychoanalyst.

negative symptoms

In schizophrenia, symptoms that reflect defects or deficits in normal functioning, including flat affect.

positive symptoms

In schizophrenia, symptoms that reflect excesses or distortions of normal functioning, including delusions, hallucinations, and disorganized thoughts and behavior.

temperment

Inborn predispositions to consistently behave and react in a certain way. High-reactive infants react intensely to new experiences, strangers, and novel objects. They tend to be tense, fearful, and inhibited. At the opposite pole are low-reactive infants, who tend to be calmer, uninhibited, and bolder. Sociable rather than shy, low-reactive infants are more likely to show interest than fear when exposed to new people, experiences, and objects.

PERSONALITY DISORDER

Inflexible, maladaptive, and stable patterns of thoughts, emotions, behavior, and interpersonal functioning that deviate from the expectations of the individual's culture.

irrational beliefs

It is a dire necessity for you to be loved or approved of by virtually everyone in your community. You must be thoroughly competent, adequate, and achieving in all possible respects if you are to consider yourself worthwhile. Certain people are bad, wicked, or villainous, and they should be severely blamed and punished for their villainy. You should become extremely upset over other people's wrongdoings. It is easier to avoid than to face difficulties and responsibilities. Avoiding difficulties whenever possible is more likely to lead to happiness than facing difficulties. You need to rely on someone stronger than yourself. Your past history is an all-important determinant of your present behavior. Because something once strongly affected your life, it should indefinitely have a similar effect. Source: Information from Ellis (1991). According to rational-emotive behavior therapy, unhappiness and psychological problems can often be traced to people's irrational beliefs. Becoming aware of these irrational beliefs is the first step toward replacing them with more rational alternatives. Some of the most common irrational beliefs are listed above.

Lawrenece Kohlberg

Kohlberg analyzed the responses of children, adolescents, and adults to such hypothetical moral dilemmas, focusing on the reasoning that they used to justify their answers rather than the answers themselves. He concluded that there are distinct stages of moral development. As with Piaget's stages of cognitive development, Kohlberg (1981) believed that moral development unfolded in an age-related, step-by-step fashion. Kohlberg proposed three distinct levels of moral reasoning: preconventional, conventional, and postconventional. Each level is based on the degree to which a person conforms to conventional standards of society. Furthermore, each level has two stages that represent different degrees of sophistication in moral reasoning. Table 9.5 describes the characteristics of the moral reasoning associated with each of Kohlberg's levels and stages.

EGO DEFENSE MECHANISMS

Largely unconscious distortions of thoughts or perceptions that act to reduce anxiety.

INFORMATION PROCESSING MODEL

Model that views cognitive development as a process that is continuous over the lifespan and that studies the development of basic mental processes such as attention, memory, and problem solving.

major depressive disorder

Mood disorder characterized by extreme and persistent feelings of despondency, worthlessness, and hopelessness, causing impaired emotional, cognitive, behavioral, and physical functioning

bipolar disorder

Mood disorder involving periods of incapacitating depression alternating with periods of extreme euphoria and excitement; formerly called manic depression.

Simulated MMPI-2 Items

Most people will use somewhat unfair means to gain profit or an advantage rather than lose it. I am often very tense on the job. The things that run through my head sometimes are horrible. Sometimes there is a feeling like something is pressing in on my head. Sometimes I think so fast I can't keep up. I am worried about sex. I believe I am being plotted against. I wish I could do over some of the things I have done. Source: MMPI-2®.

atypical antipsychotics

Newer antipsychotic medications that block dopamine receptors in brain regions associated with psychotic symptoms rather than more globally throughout the brain, decreasing side effects.

Most common obsessions and compulsions

Obsession Description Contamination Irrational fear of contamination by dirt, germs, or other toxic substances. Typically accompanied by cleaning or washing compulsion. Pathological doubt Feeling of uncertainty about having accomplished a simple task. Recurring fear that you have inadvertently harmed someone or violated a law. Typically accompanied by checking compulsion. Violent or sexual thoughts Fear that you have harmed or will harm another person or have engaged or will engage in some sort of unacceptable behavior. May take the form of intrusive mental images or impulses. Compulsion Description Washing Urge to repeatedly wash yourself or clean your surroundings. Cleaning or washing may involve an elaborate, lengthy ritual. Often linked with contamination obsession. Checking Checking repeatedly to make sure that a simple task has been accomplished. Typically occurs in association with pathological doubt. Checking rituals may take hours. Counting Need to engage in certain behaviors a specific number of times or to count to a certain number before performing some action or task. Symmetry and precision Need for objects or actions to be perfectly symmetrical or in an exact order or position. Need to do or undo certain actions in an exact fashion. Source: From Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 15, Rasmussen, Steven A.; & Eisen, Jane L., The epidemiology and clinical features of obsessive-compulsive disorder, 743-758, Copyright Elsevier (1992).

DIFFERENT PERSONALITY DISORDERS

Odd, Eccentric Cluster Dramatic, Emotional, Erratic Cluster Anxious, Fearful Cluster Paranoid Personality Disorder Pervasive but unwarranted distrust and suspiciousness; assumes that other people intend to deceive, exploit, or harm them. Antisocial Personality Disorder Blatantly disregards or violates the rights of others; impulsive, irresponsible, deceitful, manipulative, and lacking in guilt or remorse. Avoidant Personality Disorder Extreme social inhibition and social avoidance due to feelings of inadequacy, and hypersensitivity to criticism, rejection, or disapproval. Schizoid Personality Disorder Pervasive detachment from social relationships; emotionally cold and flat; indifferent to praise or criticism from others; preference for solitary activities; lacking in close friends. Borderline Personality Disorder Intense, unstable relationships, emotions, and self-image; impulsive; desperate efforts to avoid real or imagined abandonment; feelings of emptiness; self-destructive tendencies. Dependent Personality Disorder Excessive need to be taken care of, leading to submissive, clinging behaviors; fears of separation; and the inability to assume responsibility. Schizotypal Personality Disorder Odd thoughts, speech, emotional reactions, mannerisms, and appearance; impaired social and interpersonal functioning; often superstitious. Histrionic Personality Disorder Exaggerated, overly dramatic expression of emotions and attention-seeking behavior that often includes sexually seductive or provocative behaviors. Obsessive-Compulsive Personality Disorder Rigid preoccupation with orderliness, personal control, rules, or schedules that interferes with completing tasks; unreasonable perfectionism. Narcissistic Personality Disorder Grandiose sense of self-importance; exaggerates abilities and accomplishments; excessive need for admiration; boastful, pretentious; lacking in empathy. Source: Information from DSM-5 (2013).

authoritarian parenting

Parenting style in which parents are demanding and unresponsive toward their children's needs or wishes.

permissive parenting

Parenting style in which parents are extremely tolerant and not demanding; permissive-indulgent parents are responsive to their children, while permissive-indifferent parents are unresponsive.

authoritative parenting

Parenting style in which parents set clear standards for their children's behavior but are also responsive to their children's needs and wishes.

surface traits

Personality characteristics or attributes that can easily be inferred from observable behavior.

antisocial personality disorder

Personality disorder characterized by a pervasive pattern of disregarding and violating the rights of others; such individuals are also often referred to as psychopaths or sociopaths.

boderline personality disorder

Personality disorder characterized by instability of interpersonal relationships, self-image, and emotions, and marked impulsivity.

Major Perspectives in Psychology (PERSONAITY)

Perspective Key Theorists Key Themes and Ideas Psychoanalytic Sigmund Freud Influence of unconscious psychological processes; importance of sexual and aggressive instincts; lasting effects of early childhood experiences Carl Jung The collective unconscious, archetypes, and psychological wholeness Karen Horney Importance of parent-child relationship; defending against basic anxiety; womb envy Alfred Adler Striving for superiority, compensating for feelings of inferiority Humanistic Carl Rogers Emphasis on the self-concept, psychological growth, free will, and inherent goodness Abraham Maslow Behavior as motivated by hierarchy of needs and striving for self-actualization Social Cognitive Albert Bandura Reciprocal interaction of behavioral, cognitive, and environmental factors; emphasis on conscious thoughts, self-efficacy beliefs, self-regulation, and goal setting Trait Raymond Cattell Emphasis on measuring and describing individual differences; 16 source traits of personality Hans Eysenck Three basic dimensions of personality: introversion-extraversion, neuroticism-emotional stability, and psychoticism Robert McCrae, Paul Costa, Jr. Five-factor model, five basic dimensions of personality: neuroticism, extraversion, openness to experience, agreeableness, and conscientiousness

anti-anxiety drugs

Prescription drugs that are used to alleviate the symptoms of anxiety.

antipsychotic medications

Prescription drugs that are used to reduce psychotic symptoms; frequently used in the treatment of schizophrenia; also called neuroleptics.

Anti-depressants

Prescription drugs that are used to reduce the symptoms associated with major depressive disorder.

free association

Psychoanalytic technique in which the patient spontaneously reports all thoughts, feelings, and mental images that arise, revealing unconscious thoughts and emotions.

free association (psychoanalysis)

Psychoanalytic technique in which the patient spontaneously reports all thoughts, feelings, and mental images that arise, revealing unconscious thoughts and emotions.

INTERPRETATIONS

Psychoanalytic technique in which the psychoanalyst offers carefully timed explanations of the patient's dreams, feelings, or behaviors to help explore unconscious conflicts or motivations.

Schizophrenia

Psychological disorder in which the ability to function is impaired by severely distorted beliefs, perceptions, and thought processes.

COMPARING COGNITIVE THERAPIES

Rational-emotive behavior therapy (REBT) Albert Ellis Irrational beliefs Very directive: Identify, logically dispute, and challenge irrational beliefs. Surrender of irrational beliefs and absolutist demands Cognitive therapy (CT) Aaron T. Beck Unrealistic, distorted perceptions and interpretations of events due to cognitive biases Directive collaboration: Teach client to monitor automatic thoughts; test accuracy of conclusions; correct distorted thinking and perception. Accurate and realistic perception of self, others, and external events

OBSESSIONS

Repeated, intrusive, and uncontrollable irrational thoughts or mental images that cause extreme anxiety and distress.

COMPULSION

Repetitive behaviors or mental acts that a person feels driven to perform in order to prevent or reduce anxiety and distress or to prevent a dreaded event or situation.

humanistic psychology

School of psychology and theoretical viewpoint that emphasizes each person's unique potential for psychological growth and self-direction. In contrast to the behaviorist view that human and animal behavior is due largely to environmental reinforcement and punishment, the humanistic psychologists believed that people are motivated by the need to grow psychologically. They also doubted that laboratory research with rats and pigeons accurately reflected the essence of human nature, as the behaviorists claimed. Instead, humanistic psychologists contended that the most important factor in personality is the individual's conscious, subjective perception of his or her self

secondary sex characteristics

Sexual characteristics that develop during puberty and are not directly involved in reproduction but differentiate between the sexes, such as male facial hair and female breast development.

primary sex characteristics

Sexual organs that are directly involved in reproduction, such as the uterus, ovaries, penis, and testicles.

symbolic thought

The ability to use words, images, and symbols to represent the world. The child's increasing capacity for symbolic thought is also apparent in her use of fantasy and imagination while playing. A discarded box becomes a spaceship, a house, or a fort as children imaginatively take on the roles of different characters. Some children even create an imaginary companion (Taylor & others, 2009, 2013). Still, the preoperational child's understanding of symbols remains immature. A 2-year-old shown a picture of a flower, for example, may try to smell it. A young child may be puzzled by the notion that a map symbolizes an actual location—as in the cartoon. In short, preoperational children are still actively figuring out the relationship between symbols and the actual objects they represent

MORAL REASONING

The aspect of cognitive development that has to do with how an individual reasons about moral decisions.

possible selves

The aspect of the self-concept that includes images of the selves that you hope, fear, or expect to become in the future.

GENDER ROLE

The behaviors, attitudes, and personality traits that are designated as either masculine or feminine in a given culture.

Self-efficacy (Bandura)

The beliefs that people have about their ability to meet the demands of a specific situation; feelings of self-confidence.

Developmental Psychology ch. 9

The branch of psychology that studies how people change over the lifespan.the study of how people change physically, cognitively, and socially throughout the lifespan. Developmental psychologists investigate the influence of biological, environmental, social, cultural, and behavioral factors on development at every age and stage of life.

Mary Cover Jones

The caged rabbit was brought into Peter's view but kept far enough away to avoid eliciting fear (the original conditioned response). With the rabbit visible at a tolerable distance, Peter happily munched his favorite snack, milk and crackers. Peter's favorite food was used because, presumably, the enjoyment of eating would naturally elicit a positive response (the desired conditioned response). Such a positive response would be incompatible with the negative response of fear. Every day for almost two months, the rabbit was inched closer and closer to Peter as he ate his milk and crackers. As Peter's tolerance for the rabbit's presence gradually increased, he was eventually able to hold the rabbit in his lap, petting it with one hand while happily eating with his other hand (Jones, 1924a, 1924b). Not only was Peter's fear of the rabbit eliminated, but he also stopped being afraid of other furry objects

reality principle (ego)

The capacity to accommodate external demands by postponing gratification until the appropriate time or circumstances exist.

gender

The cultural, social, and psychological meanings that are associated with masculinity or femininity.

deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)

The double-stranded molecule that encodes genetic instructions; the chemical basis of heredity.

Displacement

The ego defense mechanism that involves unconsciously shifting the target of an emotional urge to a substitute target that is less threatening or dangerous. EX:For example, an employee angered by a supervisor's unfair treatment may displace his hostility onto family members when he comes home from work. The employee consciously experiences anger but directs it toward someone other than its true target, which remains unconscious.

Attachment (Mary Ainsworth)

The emotional bond that forms between an infant and caregiver(s), especially his or her parents. Mary Ainsworth (1979), attachment relationships serve important functions throughout infancy and, indeed, the lifespan. Ideally, the parent or caregiver functions as a secure base for the infant, providing a sense of comfort and security—a safe haven from which the infant can explore and learn about the environment. According to attachment theory, an infant's ability to thrive physically and psychologically depends in large part on the quality of attachment

Germinal Period (Zygote)

The first two weeks of prenatal development, the zygotic period, represents the first two weeks of prenatal development. During this time, the zygote undergoes rapid cell division before becoming implanted on the wall of the mother's uterus. By the end of the two-week germinal period, the single-celled zygote has developed into a cluster of cells called the embryo.

Genotype

The genetic makeup of an individual organism.

The Sequence of Fetal Brain Development

The human brain begins as a fluid-filled neural tube at about three weeks after conception. The hindbrain structures are the first to develop, followed by midbrain structures. The forebrain structures develop last, eventually coming to surround and envelop the hindbrain and midbrain structures.

source traits

The most fundamental dimensions of personality; the broad, basic traits that are hypothesized to be universal and relatively few in number.

PLEASURE PRINCIPLE

The motive to obtain pleasure and avoid tension or discomfort; the most fundamental human motive and the guiding principle of the id.

MENOPAUSE

The natural cessation of menstruation and the end of reproductive capacity in women.

Newborn's senses

The newborn's senses—vision, hearing, smell, and touch—are keenly attuned to people.

Phenotype

The observable traits or characteristics of an organism as determined by the interaction of genetics and environmental factors.

ADOLESCENT GROWTH SPURT

The period of accelerated growth during puberty, involving rapid increases in height and weight.

Personality Theories

The psychoanalytic perspective emphasizes the importance of unconscious processes and the influence of early childhood experience. The humanistic perspective represents an optimistic look at human nature, emphasizing the self and the fulfillment of a person's unique potential. The social cognitive perspective emphasizes learning and conscious cognitive processes, including the importance of beliefs about the self, goal setting, and self-regulation. The trait perspective emphasizes the description and measurement of specific personality differences among individuals.

activity theory of aging

The psychosocial theory that life satisfaction in late adulthood is highest when people maintain the level of activity they displayed earlier in life.

Psychopathology

The scientific study of the origins, symptoms, and development of psychological disorders.

embryonic period

The second period of prenatal development, extending from the third week through the eighth week. begins with week 3 and extends through week 8. During this time of rapid growth and intensive cell differentiation, the organs and major systems of the body form. Genes on the sex chromosomes and hormonal influences also trigger the initial development of the sex organs. Protectively housed in the fluid-filled amniotic sac, the embryo's lifeline is the umbilical cord. Extending from the placenta on the mother's uterine wall to the embryo's abdominal area, the umbilical cord delivers nourishment, oxygen, and water, and carries away carbon dioxide and other wastes. The placenta is actually a disk-shaped, vascular organ that acts as a filter, preventing the mother's blood from directly mingling with that of the developing embryo.

self-concept

The set of perceptions and beliefs that you hold about yourself.

Zygote

The single cell formed at conception from the union of the egg cell and sperm cell.

PUBERTY

The stage of adolescence in which an individual reaches sexual maturity and becomes physiologically capable of sexual reproduction.

prenatal stage

The stage of development before birth; divided into the germinal, embryonic, and fetal periods.

Epigenetics

The study of the cellular mechanisms that control gene expression and of the ways that gene expression impacts health and behavior.

Gender Schema Theory (Sandra Bem)

The theory that gender development is influenced by the formation of schemas, or mental representations, of masculinity and femininity.

SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY OF GENDER ROLE DEVELOPMENT

The theory that gender roles are acquired through the basic processes of learning, including reinforcement, punishment, and modeling.

fetal period

The third and longest period of prenatal development, extending from the ninth week until birth.

adolescence

The transitional stage between late childhood and the beginning of adulthood, during which sexual maturity is reached.

Repression

The unconscious exclusion of anxiety-provoking thoughts, feelings, and memories from conscious awareness; the most fundamental ego defense mechanism.

object permanence

The understanding that an object continues to exist even when it can no longer be seen.

COGNITIVE THERAPY AARON BECK

Therapy developed by Aaron T. Beck that focuses on changing the client's unrealistic and maladaptive beliefs.

cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT)

Therapy that integrates cognitive and behavioral techniques and that is based on the assumption that thoughts, moods, and behaviors are interrelated.

PSYCHOTHERAPY

Treatment of emotional, behavioral, and interpersonal problems through psychological techniques that promote understanding of problems and modify troubling feelings, behaviors, or relationships.

systematic desensitization

Type of behavior therapy reducing phobic responses by pairing relaxation with situations or mental images that the person finds progressively more fear-provoking; based on counterconditioning.

rational-emotive behavior therapy (REBT)

Type of cognitive therapy, developed by psychologist Albert Ellis, that focuses on changing the client's irrational beliefs. According to this model, when an Activating event (A) occurs, it is the person's Beliefs (B) about the event that cause emotional Consequences (C).

short-term dynamic therapies

Type of psychotherapy based on psychoanalytic theory but differing in that it is time-limited, has specific goals, and involves an active, rather than neutral, role for the therapist.

client-centered therapy (CARL ROGERS)

Type of psychotherapy in which the therapist is nondirective and reflective, and the client directs the focus of each therapy session; also called person-centered therapy.

behavior therapy

Type of psychotherapy that focuses on directly changing maladaptive behavior patterns by using basic learning principles and techniques; also called behavior modification.

STEM CELLS

Undifferentiated cells that can divide and give rise to cells that can develop into any one of the body's different cell types.

biomedical therapies

Use of medications, electroconvulsive therapy, or other medical treatments to treat the symptoms associated with psychological disorders.

GENDER DYSPHORIA

When extreme discomfort with one's assigned gender causes significant psychological dysfunction, the diagnosis of gender dysphoria may be made

Raymond Cattell

a psychologist interest in personality, who used factor analysis with hundreds of surface traits to identify which traits were related to each other. By this process, he identified sixteen source traits, and by factor analysis reduced fifteen of these into five global factors: extroversion, anxiety, receptivity, accommodation, and self-control Cattell was a strong advocate of the trait approach to personality. He believed that 16 personality factors represent the essential source traits of human personality.

Jean Piaget

believed that children actively try to make sense of their environment rather than passively soaking up information about the world. According to Piaget, children progress through four distinct cognitive stages: the sensorimotor stage, from birth to age 2; the preoperational stage, from age 2 to age 7; the concrete operational stage, from age 7 to age 11; and the formal operational stage, which begins during adolescence and continues into adulthood. As a child advances to a new stage, his thinking is qualitatively different from that of the previous stage. In other words, each new stage represents a fundamental shift in how the child thinks and understands the world. Piaget saw this progression of cognitive development as a continuous, gradual process. As a child develops and matures, she does not simply acquire more information. Rather, she develops a new understanding of the world in each progressive stage, building on the understandings acquired in the previous stage (Piaget, 1961). As the child assimilates new information and experiences, she eventually changes her way of thinking to accommodate new knowledge (Piaget, 1961). Piaget (1971) believed that these stages were biologically programmed to unfold at their respective ages. He also believed that children in every culture progressed through the same sequence of stages at roughly similar ages. However, Piaget also recognized that hereditary and environmental differences could influence the rate at which a given child progressed through the stages. For example, a "bright" child may progress through the stages faster than a child who is less intellectually capable. A child whose environment provides ample and varied opportunities for exploration is likely to progress faster than a child who has limited environmental opportunities. Thus, even though the sequence of stages is universal, there can be individual variation in the rate of cognitive development.

Nature vs. Nurture

important theme in developmental psychology is the interaction between heredity and environment. Although we are born with a specific genetic potential that we inherit from our biological parents, our environment influences how, when, and whether that potential is expressed. In turn, our genetic inheritance influences the ways in which we experience and interact with the environment

Carl Jung

neo-Freudian who created concept of "collective unconscious" and wrote books on dream interpretation Jung believed that people are motivated by a more general psychological energy that pushes them to achieve psychological growth, self-realization, and psychic wholeness and harmony. Jung (1963) also believed that personality continues to develop in significant ways throughout the lifespan.

OCEAN (Big 5)

openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism

ALBERT ELLIS

ou largely feel the way you think." Ellis was trained as both a clinical psychologist and a psychoanalyst. As a practicing psychoanalyst, Ellis became increasingly disappointed with the psychoanalytic approach to solving human problems. Psychoanalysis simply didn't seem to work: His patients would have insight after insight, yet never get any better. In the 1950s, Ellis began to take a more active, directive role in his therapy sessions. He developed rational-emotive therapy, now called rational-emotive behavior therapy, and abbreviated REBT. It was renamed to acknowledge that REBT addresses behavior to some degree as well as thoughts. The key premise of REBT is that people's difficulties are caused by their faulty expectations and irrational beliefs (Ellis, 1991; Ellis & Ellis, 2011). Rational-emotive behavior therapy focuses on changing the patterns of irrational thinking that are believed to be the primary cause of the client's emotional distress and psychological problems

Hans Eysenck

personality theorist; asserted that personality is largely determined by genes, used introversion/extroversion The first dimension is introversion-extraversion, which is the degree to which a person directs his energies outward toward the environment and other people versus inward toward his inner and self-focused experiences. A person who is high on the dimension of introversion might be quiet, solitary, and reserved, avoiding new experiences. A person high on the extraversion scale would be outgoing and sociable, enjoying new experiences and stimulating environments. Eysenck's second major dimension is neuroticism-emotional stability. Neuroticism refers to a person's predisposition to become emotionally upset, while stability reflects a person's predisposition to be emotionally even. Surface traits associated with neuroticism are anxiety, tension, depression, and guilt. At the opposite end, emotional stability is associated with the surface traits of being calm, relaxed, and even-tempered. Eysenck believed that by combining these two dimensions, people can be classified into four basic types: introverted-neurotic, introverted-stable, extraverted-neurotic, and extraverted-stable. Each basic type is associated with a different combination of surface traits, as shown in Figure 10.3. For example, the outgoing, joke-loving twins Jorge and William, whom you met in the chapter Prologue, would likely be classified as extraverted-stable. Carlos and Wilber, with their darker, serious moods, might be classified as introverted-neurotic. However, Carlos and Wilber were also known as "big flirts" who were easy to anger (Dominus, 2015). Could they actually be extraverted-neurotic?

Albert Bandura

pioneer in observational learning (AKA social learning), stated that people profit from the mistakes/successes of others; Studies: Bobo Dolls-adults demonstrated 'appropriate' play with dolls, children mimicked play SOCIAL COGNITIVE

Erik Erikson

proposed that each of eight stages of life is associated with a particular psychosocial conflict that can be resolved in either a positive or a negative direction (see Table 9.4). Relationships with others play an important role in determining the outcome of each conflict. According to Erikson, the key psychosocial conflict facing adolescents is identity versus role confusion.