Psych final

How does the Held and Hein (1963) study with kitten relate to prism adaptation?

In Kitten carousel, active and passive kittens got equal visual experience, but only the active kitty's visual experiences were tied to his actions. After released into light active kitty was normal, passive kitty had no depth perception. Supports that adaptation is active. Passive cat- open loop, Active cat - closed loop

How does the concept of affordances relate to the design of effective displays?

J.J. Gibson states that perception is for the purpose of action. Affordances are perceivable possibilities for action. "Affordances make the user's task easy" design stuff so it is easy to understand what stuff does without having to label everything

Provide examples of how each of the following limits relates to the design of a display. b Capacity limits

Limits in memorization/processing information are typically 7+- 2 items. With mult. object tracking typically around 4-5 objects can be tracked simultaneously. Parts of objects such as endpoints, are difficult to perceive relative to whole object.

What are the limits of perceptual adaptation? b. What adapts?

Local - only part of body that is active in virtual world/world you are perceiving will adapt. Active - Kitten Carousel Experiment, will only adapt if your visual experiences are a result of your actions. Smooth - can only handle/adapt to smooth distortions across visual field. Changes dont need to be linear, but cant be jagged.

What is photogrammetry? How does it create realistic 3D graphics?

Making measurements from photographs. Take pictures of object from every angle. Then, plug into software (Photoscan) which uses an algorithm to compile or "stitch" the pictures into a highly detailed 3D structure. Makes graphics more photorealistic reducing uncanny valley with textures. Allows for better gamer emersion in the game

Outside of entertainment, describe three current applications of virtual reality.

Medicine: surgery on VR cadavers, could perform robotic surgery from anywhere to avoid risk of exposure. Architecture: Allow simulated walkthrough before expensive construction Military: avoid exposure to hazard, operate vehicles remotely.

Describe an experiment showing the sensory identification is limited to 7 plus or minus 2 levels.

Memory capacity = 7+-2 Task of matching length of line to previous viewed lines, participants were successful for 4 lines, but success dropped at 8 lines.

Describe the differences between the Oculus Rift and Google Glass

Oculus Rift: -Virtual Reality -Field of View: 90 degree horizontal/eye, 110 degree full field -Requires good emulation of reality through depth cues to create convincing experience Google Glass: -Augmented Reality -Field of View 55 degrees horizontally -Images are projected onto eye rather than perceived by eyes on a screen -Does not need to utilize depth cues to function.

Describe the difference between 2D, 2.5D and 3D representations. How can Escher's paintings be explained in terms of this difference?

Perception is 2.5D, interpretation is 3D. We automatically process the 3D structure in a 2D image and have difficulty accessing the 2D image. We make assumptions about 3D from what we believe to be true in 2D; if two lines come together in 2D, they converge in 3D; if two lines parallel in 2D, parallel in 3D. Escher painted 2D images that have local 2.5 D cues, but there is no 3D solution to them. It's difficult to make sense of the 3D solution.

What is the relationship between prototypes and face recognition? What did Posner and Keele show?

Posner and Keele's study showed that memory is better for the prototype than the actual pattern. Dot-pattern experiment, subjects recognized prototype even though never shown (was usually the mean which all patterns generated off of). - We tend to recognize objects based on how they vary from a prototype. We tend to morph facial descriptions into an average "prototype" and recognize/remember faces by how far they vary from this prototype.

Semantic priming

Quicker word recognition or response when target word follows a semantically related word; prior context exposure allows faster cognition (fish -> water)

Describe the basic components of Google Glass. Briefly describe the perceptual experience.

- Augmented Reality - Glasses - A projector that bounces image off curved prism to put it on the eye at the right optical distance/overlay reality - Source of data or position tracking or whatever, depends on what you are doing. -small camera takes input from environment - Presents image on top right of visual field - FOV: 30 X 17.5 degrees

Provide 3 examples of biometrics and 2 issues regarding privacy

- Identifications of people for legal implications (face recognition in surveillance systems) - Iris recognition - Identification via phones and laptops based on owner's walking strides Problems: o Privacy - being watched o These techniques can make mistakes because a database is used, and that database can have prejudices. For example, a person may be wrongly accused because he has the same features as the perpetrator merely because they are the same race, and the computer can't tell the difference.

If you were to take a vacation using current virtual reality software, what aspects would be missing? What aspects are likely to change in the next 10 years?

- No force upon body (someone throws a basketball) -no gravity - cant interact with environment (feel sun, lay on beach chair swim in pool) - No smell -No touch and texture -To change - force feedback, resolution will improve, data available for occulus rift (right now it is google street view), interaction

What does the Kunst-Wilson study say about the possibility of subliminal perception? What did they find?

- Presented 8 sided polygons for 1 msec - Then show polygons and asked which was present and which one they liked more -higher incidence in preferring the 'correct' polygon to actually recognising or guessing it. ~60% -study suggests that affect (feeling) occurs quicker than cognition (processing) subliminal perception- we can be emotionally affected without overt recognition

Describe four things that you learned from the Ware text regarding techniques that produce more effective displays.

- To minimize cost of visual search, make display as compact as possible. - Place symbols for related info close together - To show relationships, link representations with lines. - Anti-alias whenever possible, especially with patterns and lines

Describe the basic components of Occulus Rift. Briefly describe the perceptual experience.

- Virtual reality - Helmet contains lens that magnifies a screen to be at optical infinity - Track head position with infrared dots - computer to give you information that changes as you turn your head -FOV 7 in screen with optics, 90 degrees horizontal/eye, 110 degrees full field, 10.7 pixels/degree resolution. -You are immersed in the virtual environment

What is meant by O'Regan's comment that the world has its own memory? How is that relevant to change blindness?

- we see world as detailed because we can gain detail by focusing on something. Because we are unaware of the jerky eye movements by which we explore the world and are only aware of our immediate environment through working memory, we are susceptible to change blindness. - change blindness- because we remember so little, it is possible to make large changes in a display between one view and the next and people will generally not notice unless the change is to something they have recently attended. If changes are made mid-eye movement, mid-blink, then the change will generally not be seen.

Describe two experiments with priming that provide insights into object recognition.

-Implicit Memory (Bar and Biederman) Pictures flashed. Then follow brief image exposure with random pattern to remove target from visual store. Perform at chance reporting what was seen. But 15 min later the unperceived exposure substantially increased the chance of recognition. So PRIMING IS IMAGE DEPENDENT, NOT BASED ON SEMANTICS - (Lawson et. al.) Subjects identify objects in series of briefly shown pics. Recognition easier if subjects were primed with visually similar images (not semantically related). The concluded objects are recognized based on a high level 3D structural model that can only be explained by image-based storage.

What is negative priming? What does it say about the way attention works?

-memory effect wherein prior exposure to a stimulus negatively affects recognition of or reaction to the stimulus when repeated - ex. adjacent seq. of letters with the next letter overlapping the current one - Attention - unattended stimulus is specifically suppressed, we aren't focusing our attention on one thing but rather "not" focusing it on everything else.

How does the identification of an object based on a single feature differ from the identification based on a conjunction of features?

-single feature (color, orientation, size, temporal frequency, direction of motion) of target stimulus differs, quick parallel search. -Conjunction of features is much slower have to do serial search.

Provide two examples of art that demonstrate the relationship between spatial resolution and color perception.

1) Isadora Ducan #29 2) In The Lime Kiln: Even though the colors fade into the interior of each surface, the surface of the roof appears homogeneously colored. Cells in Color system are fewer with larger receptive fields than cells in Where system. So, color perception is coarse. This is exploited by painters who apply color in looser, blurrier ways than high contrast outlines of real world.

Recognition of a face appears to have a number of stages. Explain. Provide one line of evidence for each stage?

1) Recognizing the face as a face Fusiform Face Area - area of brain potentially specialized in face detection. (People are very quick at pointing out that it is a face) 2) Recognizing the face as familiar (familiarity decisions are faster than identity decisions (Young 1986)("have you seen this face before?")) 3) Retrieving stored biographical knowledge • person identity knowledge is accessed before the stage of name information. ( We react faster to"is this an actor?" vs. is this "John Malkovitch") • oh yeah they were in my class 4) retrieiving the name of the person Evidence = reaction time

Describe two advantages of using animated images over static images

1. Expressing causality- animation with good timing will allow a causal relationship to be perceived more effectively than static images. 2. Animation can convey human characteristics through motion (A movie of two triangles and a circle was used to show that people perceived certain motion as a particular shape being angry or chasing another). (pixar animations)

Provide 4 examples that demonstrate that the visual system is making assumptions about what is likely in the environment. Include examples on the relation between 2D and 3D structure.

1. If two line or edges come together in 2D, then they converge in 3D 2. If two lines parallel in 2D, then they are parallel in 3D. 3. Assume 90 degree angles whenever possible (with respect to corners) 4. Gestalt Laws 5. Castle bricks so big

Give 3 examples of how the concept of affordances relate to the design of effective displays

1. LIght switch placement corresponding to light placement (first switch-front lights, middle switch-middle lights, last switch-back lights) 2.Door knobs the whole push pull thing 3. Do not enter signs that are in the median between two roads

Describe four "rules of design" (according to Donald Norman).

1. Visibility and feedback - you should be able to tell the state of the system and also have it be obvious what it is supposed to be used for or how it is changing 2. Natural mapping- designs should follow intuitive flow. Rule of Thumb: if you need a sign, bad design 3. Constraints- design in such a way that limits incorrect usage 4. Design for error - make errors recoverable, or in a way that limits incorrect use/interpretation. Be preventative

Provide two examples of identification (capacity) when viewing a display device.

1. overwhelming the observer (#buttons, symbols, colors etc) 2. where's waldo

Provide two examples of discrimination when viewing a display device.

1. protonopia 2. deuteranopia cant discern the colors

Provide two examples of technology that allow the blind to see.

1. vOICe turns visual data into audio signals that play through headphones - produce lo-res version of vis surroundings. - people born blind do not like 2. Artificial eyes - Cortical implants. Connect ~200 electrodes per eye in vis cortex which process signal to brain from a computer. Takes in world through camera. Left lens has ultrasonic distance gauge which signals to the computer. Comp processes signal through electrodes to visual cortex to signal sight. Artificial Retinas - patients with photoreceptor degeneration can have 1500 electrodes surgically implanted in back of eye, resolution is about 30X50 or 1 pixel/degree

Provide two examples of Limitations in detection (visibility) when viewing a display device.

1.Text is too small (literally cant see/read) 2.Night conditions, can't pick up color differences

Provide examples of how each of the following limits relates to the design of a display. b Conjunction limits

3 problems with conjunction are search, segregation, and illusory conjunction. Fast search occurs when a set of objects only differ along a single feature. Slow search occurs when target differs by a conjunction of features.

According to Wade, what is the optimal size for object recognition?

4-6 degrees of visual angle. (Good rule of thumb for size of rapid presentation so we can see all patterns in image)

What is "anchoring". Is this an example of subliminal perception?

A cognitive bias in decision making caused by a relevant or irrelevant source of information (the anchor). This is a kind of subliminal perception; we may or may not recognize a stimulus, but it can affect us According to classical defn of subliminal perception - no

Provide examples of how each of the following limits relates to the design of a display. a. The window of visibility

Acuity - best at fovea (100 pixels/degree) which reduces in the periphery, Color - we can perceive color in the 400-700 nm range Flicker - perceive up to 50 Hz (static) Motion - High/low threshold for motion Visual field - 180X120 degrees Brightness - perception changes in photopic/scotopic conditions

How should one define subliminal perception?

Better/more realistic definition: P(cognitive/emotional effect) > P(recognition). Studies have shown without detection of a stimulus, we don't even process it and thus it can't have an effect.

What is synesthesia? Describe one line of evidence that synesthesia is a "real" perceptual phenomenon.

Blending of senses where stimulation of one sense produces sensation in a different sense. - hear coors, feel sounds, taste shapes Evidence: Synesthesists are faster at finding 2's in a field of 5's where all numbers are achromatic than 'normal' person is because see the two numbers as different colors.

Provide examples of how each of the following limits relates to the design of a display. b Non-linear relationships

Brightness or loudness (like car that has speedometer based on luminance) Can't use non-linear relationships to represent linear ones

Relate the evolution of color vision with the 'evolution' of color television.

Color vision - "what" system had to be compatible with pre-existing, achromatic "where" system, and primates still needed to see b+w images (night vision from rods). "What" system added 2 color difference signals to existing luminance signal. Color TV - TV can tolerate less info in 2 color-difference signals than luminance signal b/c color part of our What system has a lower resolution than the form part of Where system, so a low-res color signal doesn't look as bad as low-res luminance signal. We can tolerate extra low res in blue-difference b/c our b-y res in lower than our r-g since 1% cones are blue.

What are the limits in getting force feedback in Virtual reality

Could make interaction feel more real, but cannot give the feeling or texture of object.

Briefly describe the contributions of Frank Rosenblatt

Developed first artificial neuron-based computer (Perceptron). 500 Neuron, single layer neural network attached to 400-photocell optical array. The single layer could take input and output it linearly to isolate an area for grouping similar objects. Neural networks: • Learn by subtle adjustments to connection strengths • Capable of learning from a large number of low probability relationships • Two layer feed forward nets: Universal function approximators • Allows a high dimensional probabilistic solution • Difficult to interpret how it arrived at the solution

What are the limits of perceptual adaptation? a. To what sorts of changes can we adapt?

Distortions! In VR: change distance between eyes and magnify movements. In telepresence: feel like to are present, appear as present, or have an effect in some other location. Artificial limbs: Attach to nerves. Also in orientation, spatial frequency, light, color, motion

What is the evidence that subliminal perception exists? What are the conditions under which it might be possible? Under what conditions is it unlikely?

Evidence - polygon experiment, small effect but very replicable, mostly about familiarity, semantic priming study (Marcel) Cognitive effects without detection → not possible cognitive effects without recognition→ possible, but under the following conditions: 1) Precise timing required for flashed stimuli 2) effective unattended stimuli are easily recognized when attended 3) little evidence that subliminal effects are more effective than supraliminial stimuli

How does one generate a caricature? How is this relevant to prototypes?

Exaggerate proportions to make face more distinct and recognizable. The further from average prototype, the more recognizable.

Provide examples of how each of the following limits relates to the design of a display. b Discrimination limits

False color techniques are used in displays by replacing small luminance variations with color, exaggerating color differences by increasing saturation, and letting color represent non visual information.

Describe 3 forms of synesthesia. Provide one line of evidence that this is a real perceptual phenomenon.

Grapheme-color - letters or numbers have their own colors Personification - numbers have their own personality Lexical- gustatory - words have a specific taste Evidence: Boy's ability to memorize and repeat 5 hours worth of numbers. He says each number has its own feel. Evidence: synesthetic sensations are highly consistent, so it is a real perceptual phenomenon

What would happen if you designed a speedometer on a car that used luminance to tell velocity?

HELLA speeding tix. We respond non-linearly to intensity, would get increasingly less sensitive at higher speeds, very sens. at lower speeds. PLUS capacity limit of remembering only like 7 things so would have a really hard time remembering what speed each intensity corresponded to.

Describe the RSVP method. What does it tell us about the speed of processing?

Rapid serial visual presentation method - Experimental, takes advantage of people recognizing objects presented rapidly. -subjects usually can detect the presence, or absence, or a particular kind of image when asked later. - The maximum rate of ability to detect common objects in images is about 10 images per second. - Is there dog in that pic?

What is "life logging"? Why is search a problem?

Recording video and audio data during every waking moment of a person's lifetime. Mini camera embedded in eyeglasses whose data is stored. (Google glass) • Search is a problem because we cannot replay a full year to find an event. Even if you could locate the event, seeing a video replay is not the same as remembering (experiences/sensations can't be replicated through video/audio) - thus one may need to watch weeks of videos leading up to that to understand it.

In terms of visual resolution, how close is the Oculus Rift to visual reality?

Resolution - 70 - 100 pixels/degree -Currently, the latest RDK supports 960/90 degrees = 10.7 pixels/degree, roughly 1/10 x needed)

Described the similarities and differences between color television and pointillism.

S: -Use 3 primary colors to generate all colors -spatially: individual px are too small to be resolved by photoreceptor spacing in our retinas. Also with pointillism (if cant resolve the individual dots). -Chromatically - visual system blends colors b/c our perception of colors depends on ratio of activity in our 3 cone types- we see the various shades of the primaries represented and all colors inbetween D: - temporally (interlacing by illuminating rows of pixels alternately and not sequentially) Don't see scan pattern of TV (3 electron beams) or fact that image presented at rate of 30 frames per second. - TV uses tiny colored lights called pixels, pointillism uses tiny dots of colored ink

Stroop effect

Saying the color of the word, instead of the word itself. Our instinct is just to read the word.

Corteen and Wood experiment

Shadowing experiment, subjects were shocked when heard city names amongst other words. They then followed a 600 word Steinbeck passage in one ear, and names and city names presented in the other year. Galvanic skin response (GSR) measured during shadowing correlated to city names, even those not heard in training set -> some sort of subliminal processing occurring

Prism adaptation is smooth, and local, and active. Explain.

Smooth: visual system can adapt to contraction, expansion, left/right distortion, and even curved functions- just cant be jagged Active = you have to move around and make mistakes in responses to interact with environment and adapt. Local = Adapt to a specific body part if you only use that body part when wearing prisms.

Describe the basics of Biederman's "geon theory" (W)

Structural object perception. • Hierarchical set of processing stages leads to object recognition. • Decomposed to: first edges, then component axes, blobs and vertices, then geons (cones, cylinders, boxes). Then structure is extracted to specify how geons interact, and then object recognition is achieved.

Briefly describe the contributions of E.B. Titchener.

Structuralist psychology- the idea we can understand perception by breaking things down to most basic components. Tried to use this notion to map units of sensation in the human body.

What is the TVSS? Briefly describe Guarniero's experience with it.

Tactile Vision Substitution System - array of vibrating pins used to transmit image picked up by TV camera onto skin of back - somatosensory cortex interprets sensory input from device. Guarniero- at first felt stimulus on back, soon appeared to him in 2D space. At first could only tell if object was moving or still; had to learn to differentiate between his own head movement and object movement. At first only recognized objects after looking at all of it, then learned to judge by distinct features. Never developed correlation between how objects looked and felt. Developed basic hand-eye (camera-hand) coordination

What is so remarkable about the boy that "clicks" video? What skills did he have?

The boy makes clicking sounds that allow him to identify objects as well as locate the objects by sensing the sound wave reflections from the objects. From auditory system, using part of visual system to interpret the world. Echolocation.

You have been asked to design a display to monitor racecars on a race track. The display should provide an aerial view of the track and allow the observer to quickly identify each of the 8 racecars, provide a cue as to the amount of fuel left and warn the observer when the fuel in any of the cars is critically low. Discuss the perceptual problems involved in designing such a display and a possible solution.

Users can typically only retain 7 +- 2 pieces of information in visual field at given time, and more like 5 for moving objects. Allowing users to toggle between display of racecars and the particular racecar and the other screens. Put table on side with fuel levels, big warning indicator when car low on fuel. Display must be v. fast, and really anything you make will suck. Conjunction search - make things differ by same components to avoid this. Who is low on fuel and who is not.

Describe an example of a 'visual thinking algorithm'.

Visual thinking algorithm - perceptual and cognitive actions that are integrated in a process with a visualization of the data. - sometimes computer-based computation is part of the algorithm, although guided by the epistemic action of the user. • Example: Visual Queries: -problem components are identified that have solutions based on visual pattern discovery - A pattern is cognitively specified that if found, will contribute to the solution. - Depends on if target is preattentively distinct. The whole display is simultaneously analyzed to determine target, and an eye movement confirms target.

Can conjunctions of two stimulus parameters provide more information to an observer than just one? Does it provide twice the information? Explain.

can handle 7+-2 from one stimulus parameter, but with introduction of new stimulus parameter, can remember/distinguish more information, but not twice as much, more like half of info gained from previous parameter.

cocktail party effect

hearing your name in a room at a crowded party; The effect is the ability to be selective in auditory stimuli, but evidence suggests we have subliminal detection, and perhaps recognition, of familiar stimuli which we would otherwise tune out. (dat gud kush example in class)

Illusory conjunctions

participants switch features of objects, combining multiple stimulus parameters across stimuli in rapid exposure settings -> need attention to bind together so with brief presentation only pick up the stimuli/features and dont bind them

shadowing

subject is asked to repeat an attended stimulus from one ear, ensuring they filter out the stimulus from the other ear, then are asked about the unattended stimulus

What are epistemic actions and how do they relate to perception?

• Epistemic actions are intended to help in information discovery • Lowest cost = eye movements. Info acquired in this way will be integrated readily with other information from the same space. - Ideal visualization is one where all info for visualization is available on a single high res screen - we only need to move our eyes. • Technique such as virtual walking through an environment is slower and cognitively more demanding.

What is FACS theory and how does this relate to Avatars.

• Facial Action Coding System - measures and defines groups of facial muscles and their effect on facial expressions. • Helps us define 6 universal expressions: anger, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness, and surprise. - Eyebrows, mouth, and eyes significant in signaling emotion • Avatars that convey human emotion - Correct emotional expressions may make virtual sales people more convincing, or in online instruction a face could be used to reward or discourage

Describe the experiment by Ramachandran (1999) using a fake hand (similar to the demonstration in class). What does it demonstrate?

• He hid a subject's hand behind a barrier and showed them a fake halloween hand. Then, he stroked both real and fake hands together, and the subject started to perceive the fake hand as their own. Then he hit it with a hammer. Subjects would show spike in galvanic skin response = physical sense of shock (stroking was necessary) • Shows that even with mismatch of position of fake hand and real hang, a strong sense of identification can occur. V IMPORTANT FOR VR INTERACTIONS

What is scene gist? How long does it take to recognize the gist?

• The brain rapidly classifies the scene (within 100ms of new image appearing). - Brain also primes for activities expected within that particular scene (eg a Tennis scene would prime your eyes for quick object tracking). • Gist of familiar displays is processed just as fast as gist of natural scenes - argument for consistency of representation for common visualizations.

What is 'inattentional blindness'?

• When people fixate on something, if another pattern is presented, they may not even see it. However, when asked they start to always look for unexpected patterns. - This is applicable to real world situations too.

Describe the role of canonical views in object recognition.

• canonical views are the views from which an object is most easily identified. • This tells us that perhaps we recognize objects by matching visual info with internally stored prototypes • Would allow recognition despite simple geometric distortions • Simple images cannot be used to represent many categories of objects. (eg how to represent all pets)