Psych Module 26-30

Primary reinforcers

D: an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need O: Food, drink, and pleasure are the principal examples of primary reinforcers

Operant Conditioning

D: a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher O: positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, positive punishment and negative punishment

Classical Conditioning

D: a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events O: LINK STIMULI AND EVENTS

Coping

D: alleviating stress using emotional, cognitive, or behavioral methods. O: if someone in the family passed away, there are different ways to deal with what happened

Punishment

D: an event that tends to decrease the behavior that it follows O: DECREASE BEHAVIOR

Skinner box

D: (conditioning or operant chamber) in operant conditioning research, a chamber containing bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the animal's rate of bar pressing or key pecking O: used in the pigeon experiment

Reflex

D: Any response you have to a stimulus that is inherent (you are born with it) O: put your hand on hot stove and then jerk your hand away

Acquisition

D: In classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response. O: imagine that you are teaching a pigeon to peck a key whenever you ring a bell. Initially, you place some food on the key and sound a tone right before the pigeon pecks the key. After several trials, the pigeon begins to peck the key whenever he hears the tone, meaning he has acquired the behavior.

Omission training

D: Omission training is a method in behaviorism used to stop undesirable behaviors. Omission training is when something the subject (the person/animal being trained) enjoys is taken away as punishment for an action or behavior. This is done in hopes to prevent the action/behavior from occurring again. The omission of a reward or something pleasurable will decrease the likelihood of the undesirable behavior occurring again. O: if a high school student got a speeding ticket (undesirable behavior) their parents might take away their driving privileges. Not wanting to lose driving privileges again the student will drive slowly to avoid getting another ticket.

Systematic Desensitization

D: Systematic desensitization is a type of behavioral therapy based on the principle of classical conditioning. This therapy aims to remove the fear response of a phobia, and substitute a relaxation response to the conditional stimulus gradually using counter conditioning. O: Developed by Wolpe during the 1950s.

Learning

D: The process of acquiring new and relatively enduring information or behaviors O: to get new info

Latent Learning

D: The type of learning that occurs, but you don't really see it (it's not exhibited) until there is some reinforcement or incentive to demonstrate it. O: ride with someone and see the path they take, learn that path even though you aren't driving, then when you have to drive you take the same path because that's the path in your head

Law of Effect

D: Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely O: an animal can be taught to push a lever to receive a bite of food as a reward. When the animal receives a treat for its behavior, it becomes more willing to continue to perform the behavior. In this example, you can see the effect the reward has the animal's behavior.

Instinctive Drift

D: When one no longer performs the behaviors it has been taught, but goes back to behaviors that are in its nature. O: stop performing those behaviors in the way they learned and start reverting back to their NORMAL INSTINCT BEHAVIORS

Learned Taste Aversion

D: With taste aversion, the mind develops a resistance towards a certain food. In simpler terms, eating certain types of food can cause a bad reaction. O: I got sick the same weekend I had some taco bell, now i can't eat taco bell because i feel sick

Intrinsic Motivation

D: a desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake; originates from the individual. O: doing a task by motivating yourself to do it and no reward

Shaping

D: a method of training by which successive approximations toward a target behavior are reinforced O: John never does his math homework. You would like to have him complete his homework on a daily basis. You realize that if you wait for him to complete his homework before you reinforce him in some way, you may never (or infrequently) have the opportunity to administer a positive consequence. Therefore, you decide to break down the desired behavior into substeps that are progressively more demanding. These steps might be: 1. John will write his name at the top of the worksheet. 2. John will complete one problem of his choice. 3. John will complete five problems of his choice. 4. John will complete either all the odd numbered problems or all the even numbered problems. 5. John will complete all problems except one. 6. John will complete all problems. As John masters each step, you will tell him that he must now move on to the next objective to receive a reward. If the jump between two steps is too difficult, then you must break down the steps even further into smaller increments.

Higher-Order Conditioning

D: a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus; AKA second-order conditioning O: an animal that has learned that a tone predicts food might then learn that a light predicts the tone and begin responding to the light alone

Secondary reinforcers

D: are reinforcing only after the organism has been conditioned to find it reinforcing. Some stimulus that does not naturally provide reinforcement is paired with a primary reinforcer so that the organism begins to associate the secondary reinforcer with the primary reinforcer. O: Pavlov's dog case: the dog naturally salivated to the presence of meat powder. The meat powder serves as a primary reinforcer. But then pairing a sound with the meat powder over and over again, the sounds became reinforcing to the dog because it had been associated with the primary reinforcer (meat powder). Examples include money, grades in schools, and tokens

Emotion-Focused Coping

D: attempting to alleviate stress by avoiding or ignoring a stressor and attending to emotional needs related to one's stress reaction. O: if we cannot get along with that sibling we fought with, we may search for stress relief by reaching out to someone else

Problem Focused Coping

D: attempting to alleviate stress directly -> by changing the stressor or the way we interact with that stressor O: if we fight with a sibling, we go straight to that sibling to fix the fight

Extrinsic Motivation

D: behavior that is driven by external rewards such as money, fame, grades, and praise. O: Comes from outside the individual --> offering a kid candy if they finish their homework.

Respondent Behavior

D: behavioral process that happens in response to some stimuli, and is essential to an organism's survival. This behavior is characterized by involuntary action. O: sexual arousal and sweating while running; flickering of eyes in sunlight

Positive punishment

D: by presenting a negative consequence after an undesired behavior is exhibited, making the behavior less likely to happen in the future O: A child picks his nose during class and the teacher reprimands him in front of his classmates. ADDING

Mirror Neurons

D: frontal lobe neurons that some scientists believe fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. O: IMITATION AND EMPATHY

Conditioned Response (CR)

D: in classical conditioning, a learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS) O: The sound of a can opener or bag being opened can trigger excitement in pet. If your pet is accustomed to being fed after hearing the sound of a can or bag being opened, he or she might become very excited whenever they hear that sound. This behavior is a conditioned response.

Neutral Stimulus (NS)

D: in classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning O: Let's say you have to bring your child to the pediatrician for a shot. Prior to the shot, the pediatrician presses a buzzer to call her assistant to come in and help her administer the vaccine. In this case, the sound of the buzzer is the neutral stimulus because it doesn't produce any response from the child, but the child does notice it. Each time your child goes to the pediatrician to get a shot, the doctor presses the buzzer before the shot. Now, every time your child hears the buzzer, she cries. The first time she rang the buzzer to call the assistant, your child had no relevant response. The assistant came in and the pediatrician proceeded to give the shot, which caused your child to cry. After several visits where the doctor would always buzz to call her assistant and then administers the shot, your child began to associate the ringing of the buzzer with the shot. Now, as soon as the doctor rings the buzzer, your toddler starts to cry. The previously neutral stimulus of the buzzer has become what is called a conditioned stimulus, triggering a conditioned response (crying).

Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS/US)

D: in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally- naturally and automatically- triggers a response (UR) O: A feather tickling your nose causes you to sneeze. The feather tickling your nose is the unconditioned stimulus.

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

D: in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response (CR) O: suppose that the smell of food is an unconditioned stimulus and a feeling of hunger is the unconditioned response. Now, imagine that when you smelled your favorite food, you also heard the sound of a whistle. While the whistle is unrelated to the smell of the food, if the sound of the whistle was paired multiple times with the smell, the sound alone would eventually trigger the conditioned response. In this case, the sound of the whistle is the conditioned stimulus.

Unconditioned Response (UCR/UR)

D: in classical conditioning, an unlearned, naturally occurring response (such as salvation) to an unconditioned stimulus (US) (such as food on the mouth) O: Gasping in pain after being stung by a bee Jerking your hand back after touching a hot plate on the oven Jumping at the sound of a loud noise Twitching your leg in response to a doctor tapping on your knee Salivating in response to a sour taste Jumping back from a growling dog

Discrimination

D: in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus O: being able to tell the difference between the stimulis

Variable interval

D: in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforcers a response at unpredictable time intervals O: Carol gets praise from her parents every now and then. She never knows when she will get praised; she may wait a week or two months.

Fixed ratio

D: in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforcers a response only after a specified number of responses O: Elvis has figured out that every time he says "I love you" to his gf, his gf kisses him. This inspires Elvis to tell her that he loves her all the time.

Fixed interval

D: in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforcers a response only after a specified time has elapsed O: EX. getting paid $10 per hour

Variable ratio

D: in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses O: If little Amber is good at the store, her Dad might give her a lollipop. Sometimes she has to be good on two trips to the store and sometimes only one trip to receive her lollipop.

Reinforcer (Reinforcement)

D: in operant conditioning, any event that strengths the behavior it follows O: STRENGTHS BEHAVIOR

Positive reinforcement

D: increasing behaviors by presenting positive reinforces. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengths the response. O: A mother gives her son praise (positive stimulus) for doing homework (behavior). The little boy receives $5.00 (positive stimulus) for every A he earns on his report card (behavior).Feb 5, 2013

Negative reinforcement

D: increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response O: NOT A PUNISHMENT Before heading out for a day at the beach, you slather on sunscreen (the behavior) to avoid getting sunburned (removal of the aversive stimulus).

Premack Principle

D: is a principle of reinforcement which states that an opportunity to engage in more probable behaviors (or activities) will reinforce less probable behaviors (or activities); some behavior that happens reliably (or without interference by a researcher), can be used as a reinforcer for a behavior that occurs less reliably. O: most children like to watch television--this is a behavior that happens reliably (they learn to like TV all on their own and it is something they will do willingly without any interference from their parents)--and parents often use this behavior to reinforce something children like to do less such as washing dishes. So, some parents might condition children to wash dishes by rewarding dish washing with watching television.

Token economy

D: is a system of behavior modification based on the systematic reinforcement of target behavior. The reinforcers are symbols or "tokens" that can be exchanged for other reinforcers. O: A token economy is a form of behavior modification designed to increase desirable behavior and decrease undesirable behavior with the use of tokens. Individuals receive tokens immediately after displaying desirable behavior. The tokens are collected and later exchanged for a meaningful object or privilege.

Observational Learning (Modeling)

D: learning by observing others; also called social learning O: FOLLOWING A ROLE MODEL

Cognitive Map

D: mental representation of the layout of one's environment. O: YOU CREATE A MENTAL IMAGE OF THE PATH OF A ROUTE like project in class

Operant Behavior

D: refers to behavior that "operates" on the environment or is controllable by the individual. O: pavlov's dogs

Intermittent reinforcement effect

D: reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement O: For example, under continuous reinforcement, every time the rat hits the bar, it receives a food pellet. Under intermittent reinforcement, the rat might be required to hit the bar 50 times to get the pellet, or the rat might be reinforced only once every five minutes, or the rat might be reinforced only when you are in the room, or in accordance with some other pattern, but not every time. Any pattern of reinforcement other than continuous reinforcement is a form of intermittent reinforcement.

Continuous reinforcement

D: reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs O: Have you ever tried to teach your dog a new trick? How did you let him know you wanted him to continue doing a certain behavior? If you reinforced the behavior every time your dog rolled over, you were probably using continuous reinforcement to teach him the new trick. If you're using continuous reinforcement, every time he rolls over you'll want to reinforce that behavior by, say, giving him a treat. This will effectively establish a relationship between rolling over and getting a treat.

Negative punishment

D: taking away a certain desired item after the undesired behavior happens in order to decrease future responses. O: REMOVING After getting in a fight with his sister over who gets to play with a new toy, the mother simply takes the toy away.

Self-Control

D: the ability to control impulses and delay short-term gratification for greater long-term rewards. O: being able to tell the difference between wants and needs

Extinction

D: the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced. O: in pigeon experiment, the behavior was extinct so that they would stop associating it with the reinforcement (food)

Learned Helplessness

D: the hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events. O: the dogs with shock experiment: the dogs who couldn't figure out how to remove the shock experienced learned helplessness

External Locus of Control

D: the perception that chance or outside forces beyond our personal control determine our fate. O: DESTINY, FATH, AND LUCK

Internal Locus of Control

D: the perception that you control your own fate O: more independent, does better in school, felt less depressed

Spontaneous Recovery

D: the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response O: REAPPEARANCE

Generalization

D: the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses O: you generalize that similar stimuli elicit similar responses

Aversive Conditioning

D: the use of something unpleasant, or a punishment, to stop an unwanted behavior O: If a dog is learning to walk on a leash alongside his owner, an undesired behavior would be when the dog pulls on the leash. The owner may use a collar that delivers a shock when a dog pulls - eventually the dog associates pulling on the leash with getting a painful shock and stops pulling. As with all forms of punishment, it may work but is generally less effective than the use of reinforcement.

Insight Learning

D: type of learning or problem solving that happens all-of-a-sudden through understanding the relationships various parts of a problem. O: NOT TRIAL AND ERROR

Biofeedback

D: when one is presented with visual or auditory information about some internal, involuntary process. The information is actual feedback about the internal process that the person can use to increase control of the internal process. O: a person suffering from stress can be hooked up to a biofeedback machine that creates a sound whenever the person starts getting stressed. Then they could use relaxation methods to alleviate the stress.

B.F. Skinner

Time Period: 1920 Field: Learning Contributions: External influences (not internal thoughts and feelings) shape behavior; Operant Conditioning; Skinner believed that we do have such a thing as a mind, but that it is simply more productive to study observable behavior rather than internal mental events.

John Watson

Time Period: 1920s Area of Study: behaviorism Contribution: emphasis on external behaviors of people and their reactions on a given situation; famous for Little Albert study in which baby was taught to fear a white rat

Wolfgang Kohler

Time Period: 1920s-1930s Area of Study: Learning Contribution: first demonstrated insight through his chimpanzee experiments. He noticed the solution process wasn't slow, but sudden and reflective.

John Garcia

Time Period: 1950s ish Field: psychologist Contributions: studied taste aversion in rats; led to knowledge that sickness and taste preferences can be conditioned

Robert Koelling

Time Period: 1960s Area of Study: Learning Contribution: performed a famous experiment illustrating how rats more readily learned to make certain associations than others

Albert Bandura

Time Period: 1970 ish Field: Learning Contributions: Social Learning Theory; behavior is learned from the environment through the process of observational learning; humans are active information processors and think about the relationship between their behavior and its consequences

Edward Thorndike

Time Period: Early 1900 ish Field: Learning Contributions: Law of effect- behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely

Ivan Pavlov

Time Period: early 1900s Field: behaviorist Contributions: experimented with applying stimuli to dogs was able to make the animals salivate whether they were in the presence of food or not; a phenomenon he called the conditioned reflex. His process became known as Classic Conditioning.

Edward Tolman

Time Period: early 1900s Field: cognitive psychologist/purposive behaviorism Contributions: researched rats' use of "cognitive maps"