Psych olo g
Retrograde amnesia
loss of events before trauma graded is worse for more recent disruption of systems consolidation by hebb
Clive Wearing
lost STM, only recognizes wife. Remembers the last 7 seconds encephalitis which is brain swelling amnesia or memory loss provides evidence that STM differ from LTM
Digit Span Task millars memory span test
measures the number of digits a person can keep in STM usually 7 + or - 2 from george miller
Implanted memories Hymann and colleagues
memories of events that never happened interview parents of childhood false event introduced control conditons "thinka bout this" imagery condition "imagine this"< makes them think about it 12/32 people after recalling memories recalled the punchbowl incident
Pegword Method
memorize a silly rhyme one is bun two is shoe etc. form an image linking each new item to the pegwords during recall go through cues think of images CAN BE USED FOR ORDER using well learned cues rhyming cues and mental imagery cues drawbacks are interference from other associations takes a long time
Keyword method
memorize that beurre= butter familiar word (keyword) sounds like foreign word ( beurre and bear) form an image by linking keyword to the meaning of foreign word a bear eating butter
Autobiographical memory
memory for a specific event includes episodic information with semantic information (like a gift you received
Mental Imagery Neisser's definitions
using same cognitive processes for perceiving when the stimulus is absent
Photographic or eidetic memories
"the human camera" can draw 180 degree scences Usually untrue
Proactive interference design
---- First Then Then Control .... learn AC test AC Exper Learn AB learn AC test Ac IF remember AB not AC then proactive
Basic Principles of encoding
-succeed if you pay attention ---incidental learning (implicit) ---intentional learning (trying to) rehearsal doesnt always get to LTM Elaborative rehearsal (meaningful) leads to higher recall than maintence rehearsal More exposures mean better memory if learning is spaced out orienting tasks can cause different results based on instructions.
Categories
2 dimensions vertical (abstraction) --superoridinate= general (animal) --basic (cat)= important level --subordinate= highly specific (russian blue) basic level gives biggest increase in information (people have more cognitive economy attributes for basic level) Horizontal level( typicality or family resemblence) --different kinds of birds, far away are more atypical
Familiarity tainting eyewitness Ross et al
2 groups watched a movie of either a male or female teacher reading the same story to students saw another movie showing female teacher getting robbed by a different man FT- 2 study exposures MT- 1 MR-1 Students tried to ID robber from 1-2 photospreads Male face was in both spreads where the robber was in 1 when robber wasnt present, teacher was mis-identified 3x more accurate to misidentify teacher when MR not here even present, teacher is mis 18% of time
Warrington and Weiskrantz Amneisa patients with healthy
3 different testing ways study a long list of words --recall (direct) --recognition (direct) --word fragment identification (indirect) amnesiacs performed terrible on direct and just as good as healthy on indirect tests
Capacity of STM
7 +- 2, different tricks and expand memory to technically do more, like chunking in meaningful ways
Treisman's Attenuation Model
Accounts for cocktail party effect Attenuating filter "turns down" volume of unattended message, but it still enters working memory
Retroactive interference design
After high school french and college german, go to france and speak german by mistake When memories of crime are modified by what you see afterwards (criminal line up)
Concept learning
Associationist- proposed by hull -----people learn concepts by simple associations Hypthesis testing view ---people engage in problem solving --form hyposthesis and test them ---feedback to learn from examples
Interference theory
Incoming information interferes with STM causing it to be lost rate of presentation shouldnt matter
Implicit memory in Korsakoff
Can still have implicit even though no LTM
Working memory model example
Central executive- the boss (tells other systems to perform with attention) Visuospatial Sketchpad-- visual info Phonological Loop-- 2 components ------Phonological store-- holds speech like info for 2 seconds ------Articulatory Control process-- translates visual into speech like coge and moves to store, refreshes memory of store
Chase and Simon Chess players
Chunking chess configurations after 20 moves chess board shown for 5 seconds and subjects had to reconstruct pieces experts better 16/24 novice 4/24 when randomly arranged, master and beginner are equal because it loses meaning
Views of categories
Classical view- simplest ---category can be summarized ---has necessary and sufficient features --features shared by all members ---sufficient to define a square -----------four sides, straight line Problems= disjunctive category ---no one set of necessary sufficient features (A or B) ---people have incomplete categories (is tomato a fruit) --not all chairs have four legs ---is a baby a bachelor? technically but no Probalistic view- --- can be summarized ---common features have high chance of occuring but not required (not all birds must fly) ---explains horizontol dimension --- solves strike problem accounts for typicality ---DOES NOT account for context account or ad hoc categories Exemplar view- best theory ---represent category by example rather than summaries ---examples from memory ---asses patterns by similarity in memory ---generate examples ---acount for ad hoc (things that fall out of head or birthday gifts) PROBLEM --doesnt account for what might be natural
Change detection task
Cohen- estimated memory span is only 4 things
Flashbulb vs Everyday memories Talarico and Rubin
Compared 9/11 to everyday memories equally good but worsened over time more confident in the 9/11
Narrative rehearsal
Confabulation- supplying details that are not part of original sotry Flashbulbs are rehearsed which leads to more confabulations Flashbulbs deteriorate but confidence stays high
Zenon Pylyshyn
Critic of mental imagery effects many image effects can be explained as representing things in a list
Problems with levels of processing
Deeper isnt always better depends how memory was retrieved Craik and tulvigs was replaced by tulving for encoding specificity theory
Subliminal Perception
Direct: what did u hear (nothing) Indirect: was the tone you didnt hear high or low can be gramatical indirect performance on correctness is better subliminal information gets through YOU like things that are more familliar
Waugh and Norman Intervening object task
Distinguish between decay and interference hear a list of 16 numbers, last one is a probe digit which was already in the list report the number after the previous probe digit in the list Changing presentation rate should have no effect.
Evidence of Loop Irrelevant Speech Effect
Dont study with music memory best learned in a quiet setting without background noise working memory model explains this because acoustic goes directly to phonological store
Broadbent's Filter Model
Early-selection model Filters message before incoming information is analyzed for meaning
Thinking about LTM
Encoding- learning declaritive knowledge instead of procedural
Memory errors
Forgetting -fail encode or retrieve Distortions --transform encoded details -add new details (confabulate)
Retrograde Amneisa
Forgetting what was learned before the event causing amnesia --forgetting who you are after bumping your head
Partial report procedure
George sperling look a fixation cross. Percieve a que which is a high medium or low tone Perception can take in all 12 letters, but only for such a brief period of time able to report more accurately because only looking for 4 distinct out of the 12
Another encoding specificity test Mantyla
Give a list of 600 nouns to study write 3 associated words for each surprise recall group 1- cued with the words they generated was 90% correct group 2- cued with someone elses 3 cues= 55%
SF from Ericsoon with Falloon subject
Giving a lot of digits could repeat back 81 digits after hearing once chunk into results of a race like 47 min 50m sec organizing into meaningful ways
Semantic networks
Heirarchal model- nodes connected by links (collin and quillian) network of meaningful things attatched to each node are properties (is a shark a feesh>?) takes more time to go to further nodes which are more generalized. Didnt account for typicality spreading activation model- once a concept is activated, this concept spreds to all linked concepts. Shorter links are stronger associations More links mean less activation through each Activation dissapears over time
Distortions after encoding and before retrieval Loftus and Palmer
How fast cars when Smashed how fast cars when collided how fast cars when hit cars going different speeds based on leading question words a week later asked about seeing broken glass smashed 32%
Whole Report Procedure
How much information to take in at once Flash letters on a screen for a brief time (50 ms) only 3 or 4 letters out of 12
Postexposure field
using dark screen, colored screen, squiggled screen can overwrite visual storage to mess up memory
Subjective feelings
Imagine a bedroom you had when you were 10, how many windows. SEEMs legit Cant take a feeling as evidence
Memory kinds
Implicit- priming and procedural ex= driving on the right hand side of road or how to type or play soccer (how to do actions or operations) Explicit- facts (semantic) and events (episodic) ex= recall test ,retrieval, fill in blank etc. Occurs in the hippocampus or the medial temporal lobe Semantic is just meaningful information Episodic is remember that time you ran out of gas or the when the exam is
Unconcious Processing
In battle, Hunches prove to be valuable -able to look out for roadside bomb attacks -- having a gut feeling
More evidece for loop
Interference is selective and depends on how items are coded visuo interferes visuo acoustic interferes acoustic
Schemas
Knowledge of structures represent attirubutes allow inferences useful and powerful can lead to mismembering like stereotypes (alien at a restaurant)
Context dependent memory Godden and Baddely
Learn on land then test in water or land learn in water then test in land or water More words recalled when study conditions were matched
Savings in relearned Herman Ebbinghaus
Learned a list of nonsense syllables rehearse until he can recite wait and retest\ remember more each time Savings in relearning is the MOST SENSITIVE ANSWER
Flashbulb memory Brown and Kulik for JFK assassination
Likes photos. Highly detailed and accurate of surprising or important events. unusually detailed their method was flawed didnt check memories against the facts Not like photos because they arent as accurate even though they are more CONFIDENT
Barbara Tversky Does the way you study affect
LoP state that youll always do better if you prep studying for a recall test recall recog recall 62% 40% recog 67% 87% preparing for tests based on the kind of tests are important
MOST ORDINARY FAILURES OF MEMORY ARE FAILURES OF RETRIEVAL
MOST ORDINARY FAILURES OF MEMORY ARE FAILURES OF RETRIEVAL
Why you forget
Maybe you never encoded it Memories DO NOT DECAY maybe not the right retrieval cue Maybe you ahve interference
Hyde and Jenkis
Meaningful helps encoding Craik and Lock created the levels of processing theory
Basic notes from STM
Memory capacity varies on material working memory is for holding and thinking STM coding is acoustic but can be visual or semantic Baddley- working memory is several differnt kinds
More levels of processing theory
Memory depends on encoding and retreival Depth makes difference ==graphemic ==acoustic ==semantic ==personally meaningful superficial are faster than meaningful
Decay theory predicts an interaction
Mermory gets worse with intervening memory gets much worse with slow intervening memory gets slightly worse with quick items
Network models
Nodes- abstract unit that represents elements such as features letters and words Links- connections between nodes Activation- excitation or inhibition that spreads from one node to another (limited)
Overflowing the visual field
Patient MGS-epilepsy image overflowed at greater distance and visual field was reduced post surgery picture a horse, walk towards it until it fills visual field before surgery, could get to 15 feet before after could get to 35 feet before
Evidence for existence of STM/LTM distinction
Physiological-- ----Hiipocamp damage=amnesia ----HM (epilepsy) ----Korsakoff--- cant learn new things from alcohol Psychological evidence-- ----Capacity restrictions of STM vs ----Serial Position effect (rundus)
Other manifestations of implicit processing
Priming- facilitation from prior info reading doctor then flashing nurse tip of tongue effect subliminal perception- when things are too breifly grammatical and phonological knowledge- cant summarize how much knowledge of a language judgments of liking- when you judge things naive physics- how objects behave
Associative priming
Processing something related
Rajaram and Roediger] indirect tests
Read words and rate pleasantness then word fragment completion different set has word stem completion different set has word identification (flashed) different set has anagram completion Dissociation shows that unconscious processing is distinct from conscious
Recap
Recall isnt necessarily harder than recognition (tversky) cued recall can be easier than recognition (light carter and tulvig) recall can be easier than cued recall (tulvig)
Measuring forgetting
Recall-- essay questions (least sensitive) Cued recall-- fill in questions recognition- multiple choice (more sensitive) sensitivity means if there is any memory in there, this technique will find it
Baddeley and Hitch Working memory Model
STM holds info for brief period ---single storage component Working memory- both in info in the STM and the manipulation of this info ------has control processes in central executive (self control or effort_ ------Phonological loop which is where rehearsal takes place ------visual spatial sketch pad where visual info is kept in STM different parts of working memory can be done at the same time
schema-based distortions brewer
Schemas generalize & skip over detail --> can lead to mistakes and inaccuracies looking at an office picture and only remembering common things
Modal Memory model
Sensory memory- intial stage with raw unprocessed info for short time that decays STM- stage holding 4-7 items for 30 seconds, holds current thoughts, lost by interference LTM- unlimited info for unlimited time
Procedural memory definition
Skills, ability to do actions or operations knowing how to drive/walk/type Dissociation: even when explicit memory is badly impaired, procedural memory may remain intact after brain damage
Interference and similarity
Something is less likely to be lost in STM if it is dissimilar its easier to report dissimilar items like a number in a list of letters
Goals influence categories
Sometimes ad hoc --makeshift categories --- --adult cereal boxes
Priming Meyer
Spreading activation doctor activates word nurse doctor primes word nurse Ease of dealing with things already dealt with before Lexical decision task- two words flashed, yes if both are words. associated words are faster
Difference of STM and LTM
Stm fades after 20-30s Ltm is Unlimited Stm holds 4-7 things, LTM is unlimited
The Testing Effect
Studying helps immedietly Testing yourself is much better over time able to learn more in much less time than by going over and over
Hebb Consolidation
Synaptic= structural change in the connection between two neurons at the level of the synapse (long term potentiation) systems= (gradual formation of neural circuit that corresponds to the trace of something in LTM
Fixing eyewitness testimony
Tell witness suspect might not be in line Use fillers who look similar to suspect use sequential show ups not line ups person administering is blind to suspect remove suggestive language
Perception input
continuous, output is categorical
Spatial representation
continuous, spatial, analog (varying gradual)
Wickens Born and Allen Proactive interference with variability
Used peterson hear 3 items, then 3 digits, then count backwards by 3 interval recall 3 items varied the kinds of items being recalled if the three items are fruits harder to remember than fruits into different professions == release from proactive interference
Classical view problem wittgenstein
What is game? ---has competition --has winner -provides amusement (soliataire or ring around the rosy compete this) what function does this afford?
systems consolidation
a consolidation process that involves the gradual reorganization of circuits within brain regions and takes place on a long time scale, lasting weeks, months, or even years cortical connections strengthen memory formation is disrupted if consolidation is disrupted
Source monitoring
determining the origins of our memories confuse whats imagine from whats scene (reality monitoring) Cryptomnesia- unconscious plagiarism. Read something, forgot you read it, and then thought you came up with it
bottle neck theory
a theory that attempts to explain how people select information when some information-processing stage becomes overloaded with too much information the elements song with daniel radcliffe
Neissar and Harsh Challenger explosion flashbulb memory
asked questions right after the event, re-interviewed 3 years later based on flashbulb memoried High confidence, low accuracy. Just as accurate as every day events
Repetition primng
benefiting from second time priming
Procedural memory
brain damage people can remember it
Short term memory
bring information from LTM or the world into the current thtought
Turning implicit into an explicit
change instructions "Complete this stem word"-imp "Complete this stem word with something from earlier studies"-exp
Vividness effect
concrete words are easily imagined than abstract (dog vs justice)
Paivio and Yuille Vividness effect
concrete words more memorable Juggler-dress, letter-effort- quality-necessity two concrete is better than one concrete one abstract
Evidence of loop Phonological Similarity effect
confusion of letters or words that sound familiar --trying to remember and F is visually seen and rehearsed auditorily, more likely to confuse with X or S because they sound similar rather than E which looks similar
Categorical perception
different handwritings can have letters and words categorized babies can notice more vocal differences voicing: voice onset time "bad or pad" effortless categorize ambiguous things "ga and ka"
Mental imagery controversy
different ways to represent ideas- can perform operations based on representing some representations are better for solving certain problems Writing out directions= propositional drawing a map= spatial
propositional representation
discrete- word like- made of parts elephant has ears, grey, baggy skin
visuospatial sketchpad mental rotation task : shepard
do images match when you look at the two is it done by point by point or turning the larger the rotational difference the longer it takes-- 180 degrees
Confound
dont know what is causing an effect delay and additional incoming information
Encoding specificity cont
ecoding tasks dont lie on continuum (there are no levels) context is important
Flashbulb memories cont
emotional events so they are more distinct and easy to retrieve (makes people more confident) emotions can be retrieved accurately but not details about event Undergo NARRATIVE REHEARSAL
Long term memory
encoding is how it gets into memory retrievel is how to remove thought of as a network
Long term potentiation
enhanced firing of neurons after repeated stim activation of one neuron by another is believed to strength then connection between the tow (HEBBIAN LEARNING) repeated stim= stronger= greater chance of firing
Tip of tongue state Brown and McNeill
explained with a network model and spreading activation definition of an uncommon word tries to produce word "on tip of my tonie" Ask what subject knows about the word-- can get a lot about it but not the word
Rats
fear conditioning in rats so they no longer have fear by injection
reason for catagory Natural categories
features that naturally occur together
Weapons focus
focusing on weapon instead of subject source monitoring error with eyewitnesses
Mnemonic characteristics
forced to think about material involve using some scheme for organizing material
Keyword method Raugh and anderson
forgeign words with keyword or no most people get correct with keyword
anterograde amnesia
forgetting what was experienced after an event (no new long term memories) --clive wearing had hippocampus destroyed ---HM had hippocampus destroyed
Sensory memory
front porch of perception early stage that retains info from the world for a short time
Concept learning task
go throiugh examples that go in same category feel they havent learned it but are able to judge new examples hard to learn new categories without negative examples seeing a bunch of faces
Loftus again with 14 year old boy
had older brother tell a story abotu getting lost at a mall and a a man lead him aorund two weeks later- the kid elaborated a story about the event
Similarity
hard to definee which is more similar (china and russia or vietnam and poland) which is more dissimilar( same examples) people choose A to both questions
Serial position effect Rundus 1971
list of words, rehearse as go along Primacy effect- recall more first words than middle (more rehearsal) more likely to go LTM if most rehearsed Recency effect- recall last few words most (still in STM) 30 seconds delay can kill recency effect Recency is better than Primacy
Connectionist model or PDP
hidden units starts win incorrect connections representation is spread over multiple units damage doesnt disrupt processing completely based on learning
Duration
how long info is held
Capacity
how much info is held
Eyewitness dissagreements
hypnosis is not good memory is not based on violence debate on repressed memories from implantation later
LTM loss
if information retrieval cues are lost, the memories are lost
Amnesia
impaired memory from brain damage
Evidence for sensory memory
in the auditory and visual, auditory is better because it is longer -- being able to read off letters from a visual icon
Forgetting from STM
intervening objects result in forgetting but time plays no role Forgetting is mostly from interference Information in STM doesnt just decay over time
Evidence of Loop Articulatory Suppression Effect
irrelevant words repeated during retention cause interference (saying the under your breath as trying to remember things you are reading)
Decay theory
items in STM fade over time time is confound presentation rate matters, more forgetting at slower rates
Why categories
kind of concept provides taxonomy of things top down processing without categories life is chaotic
More explicit memory
knowledge that you are conscious of what you know that you know Uses direct memory tests
Scanning mental distances Kosslyn Ball and Reiser
learn a map takes longer to traverse mental image
Interference paradigm
learned french early, went to germany and spoke french-- proactive proactive has at least 2 associations for the same que
Savings in relearning by NELSON not ebbinghaus
learned pair associaited several wrong on test 2 weeks later new learning trials easier to relearn same pairs than different
Short term memory duration
longer duration and sensory steeps down to 10 percent
RECAP for memory
memory is constructive
DIfferences between mental and perceptual
mental images arent pictures Not tied to visual modality less crisp not fully instantiated
Cognition in animals
might be different as shown in the chimp number screen
Why do mnemonics work
more processing provide structure and cues try encoding difference between things
basic level
most inclusive, cognitive economy fastest to name children learn early short and common words strong priming effect
Kossyln high assoc vs low assoc
mouse-whisker cobra-fang one group told to form image one group not Groups with mental images found low assoc easier and faster
Light and Carter when is recall better than cued recall Encoding Specificity
much more accurate and latent if studied with word given cued recall with given word is easy cued recall with different word is hard recall regularly is medium
rehersal
needs effort, attention, serial process not parallel keeps things going in STM shorter things are easier more rehearsal is more rememberance
Verbal based strategies
nonimagery rhymes also yse acronyms --initial leters used Roy G Biv
Modal model example
numbers on screen Sensory info floods eyes> attention and recognition pass desired info into STM> rehearsal maintains digits in the STM> encoding processes move info to LTM> info can be copied back to STM
Graceful degredation
occur in connectionist model. if break one part then the model still functions
Change blindness
office flash- overwriting changes with a flash cause blindness
Learning lists Bower et al
organize into heirarchies 19% as lists 65% as correct
typicality
people are faster to name typical things (sparrow instead of ostrich for birds) better prototypes more common cause priming learn by children
Implications of mental imagery for memory
people confuse something imagined with something experienced reality monitoring- how people dissociate their memories for real events from their memories of imagined events. using cues to distinguish reality from imagination (uses source monitoring).
1980s
people noticed dissociation between explicit memory and procedural knowledge people learn to play video games even though they forgot theyve seen these games before
Pictures more memorable than words Shephard
people view pictures remember things hours or weeks later words are significantly less odd pictures are remembered better
Keppel and Underwood
proactive interference-- go back and check to make sure you locked your door because you do it so often every day that you forget if youve already done it retroctive is what we are doing right now trials interfere with more trials worse as more trials go earlier experiences interfere with new
Encoding specificity theory
probability of recall depends on similiarity of test conditions to encoding conditions not just a matter of how deep a cue but which deep que encoding context provides cues for later retrieval
Consolidation theory
process that transforms memories from a fragile state to permanent required for LTM
Memory
process where we encode, retain, retrieve and use information
Studying tips
quality studies meta cognition errors when not knowing how an exam went elaborate and enrich relate to already knowing anticipate forgetting by many different cues
Exceptional memory Luria studying S
recall an entire matrix 16 years later Could have imagery, loci, or synthesisa= experiencing with different ques couldnt understand meaning in language
Reality monitoring breaks down
recovery of lost memories of childhood sexual abuse --controversial topic --sometimes real but not not difficult to create false memories --hypnosis or guided imagery --mental rehearsal --repeated suggestion
Spatial imagery
remember a number on a keypad
Priming LTM
repetition priming- remember something from repeating conceptual priming- talking about a doctor, easier to relay if its similar to the word
Visual persistence
retaining previous frames in visual store or visual icon to smoothly blend into a continuous image
Retroactive vs proactive
retro- later items interfere with earlier pro- earlier interfere with later
3 types of interference
retroactive, proactive, and Fan Fan has multiple things connected Angelina Jolie and Mother Teresa slower to call angelina a humanitarian because it is spread out
reason for catagory cognitive economy
same category is similary gives tradeoffs between similarities and differences\ optimal balance bewteen informative and distictive
Neurons
same neurons for perceiving and imaging
Short term memory Peterson and peterson
see 3 letters you must remember now count back from a difficult number like 819 by 3's light goes on and must report letters "overwriting memory" if rehearsal is prevented, info is gone after 20 seconds RETROACTIVE INTERFERENCE
More results from proactive interference
semantic similarity leads to PI changing category midway releases from PI Info in STM is encoded acoustically(or visually) and Semantically
Evidence of Loop Word Length Effect
short words are remembered better than long words
Levels of Processing Craik and Tulving
shown 18 questions (yes or no) then after the fact, incidental learning occurs when asked to recall which 18 words were presented fitting in a sentence is meaning full rhyming is less meaningful is it capital or not is superficial Deciding if something does fit is more remembered
False memory
something implanted or recalled from suggestiveness we often reconstruct memories rather than recalling them
Forgetting
sometimes you cant recall something but you can recognize it takes less time to relearn things
Mental image and perceptual image similarities
spatial processing analog (continuous) have shape and color hard to discriminate when similar size share some neural circuits can be manipulated produce sim reaction times brain injury leads to deficit in both
Visual neglect
standing in a street, could only see whats on the right side of the street. Walking the other side still neglects the left left neglect effect
word superiority effect
start at the feature level which pull put sounds which turn to letter and finally to words words are top down, sensory input is bottom up letters are recognized fastest in words than just a letter at a time
state dependent learning
study happy or sad test happy or sad much larger effect on learning also done with marijuana
Is cued recall better than recognition Tulving and Thompson for encoding specificity
study list with weak associates (bath and need) Free associate with strong for new list do a recognition test to pick the words from the first list only 25% can recognize the first word then cued recall test with original list 63% correct
Illusions of learning
studying over and over leads to false confidence Familiarity effect of making something seem familiar May do shallow prcessing
Implicit memory testing
tested with indirect tests like stem completion-- seemingly unrelated tasks with you using information from earlier explicit has awareness implicit has no awareness
transfer-appropriate processing
the idea that memory is likely to transfer from one situation to another when the encoding and retrieval contexts of the situations match maximize similarity by predicting how it will be tested study in rhymes for a rhyming test
Mental imagery and perception
the smaller the thing that youre searching for is, the harder it is to judge
Control Processes
things you can do without awarenes to keep information going. System specific processes that affect duration and capaxcity
Method of Loci
think of well known series of landmarks (path to school) picture each item at pathway and walk through it disadvantage is cant really pull something out at random (picking an item out of middle)
Mnemonics
tricks to improve memory (elaboration techniques) used for arbitrary lists
Dual-coding theory (Paivio)
two independent memory codes 9verbal visual) imagery is an effective learning strat works best when 2 words can be related
Loftus also did slides with a car hitting someone
two sign, half saw red half saw yield two conditons, suggesting stop and yield consistent conditons are much more accurate than not
Sensory memory length
unlimited memory but very breid
The Link method
used to remember lists milk-towels towel-butter associate words in the list
Schemas- way to organize knowledge bartlett
war of the ghosts and asked them to retell story people unfamiliar with these kinds of stories didnt have the schema and omiited many details, changed things, and modified to fit their culture
Chucking
well learned item in memoru Varies on material leads to semantic associations
Interaction
when a variable depends on another variable
Selective interference Brooks experiment
when tasks require same resources at same time "imagine the letter F, when you reach an outide corner tap with left hand, right hand for inside corner" 3 response conditions verbal- say yes or no- no interference tapping- left= yes, right=no spatial- point to yes or no on screen --slowest with most interference Spatial >tap>verbal
More implicit memory
without conscious awareness, behavior indicates memory even though you cant report
Indirect testing methods
word fragment completion word stem completion indentification of flashed words solving anagrams