Psych Quiz 5, P155 Exam 3, Psych Quiz 3-30
long-term potentiation
a process whereby communication across the synapse between neurons strengthens the connection, making further communication easier
conditioned response (CR)
a reaction that resembles an unconditioned response but is produced by a conditioned stimulus.
unconditioned response (UR)
a reflexive reaction that is reliably produced by an unconditioned stimulus
Conditioned response (CR)
a reflexive reaction that resembles the UR but is produced by a conditioned stimulus.
Unconditioned response (UR)
a reflexive reaction that's reliably produced by an unconditioned stimulus.
encoding specificity principle
a retrieval cue can serve as an effective reminder when it helps re-create the specific way in which information was initially encoded
Neutral stimulus
a stimulus that does not cause a response before conditioning.
metacognition
a student's awareness of their level of understanding material; big part of transition to college
In the presence of a discriminative stimulus (classmates drinking coffee together in Starbucks), a response (joking comments about a psychology professor's increasing waistline and receding hairline) produces a reinforcer (laughter among classmates)
"three-term contingency"
episodic
"I remember that day!" Marta exclaims, showing a friend a "memory" status from 4 years ago that appeared today in her social media site newsfeed. Marta seems to have a clear _____ memory for the day in question.
is much less accurate than
. Evidence shows that eyewitness testimony _____ juries, police, and attorneys assume.
sight is to sound.
. Iconic memory is to echoic memory as:
retrieval; studying
... produces higher levels of recall than extra... ...over a long period of time
The cerebellum, amygdala, and basal ganglia
...are primarily responsible for storing the associations we learn via classical conditioning and producing reflexive responses - physical movements and emotions.
three essential concepts of learning
1. Learning must be based on an experience 2. Learning must produce a change in the organism. 3. Leaning must involve relatively permanent changes
taking notes in class
1. Provides a key summary 2. Creates a set of memory cues 3. Engages you in class 4. Get missed information right away 5. Consider recording the lecture 6. Borrowing notes is a poor substitute 7. Actively organize and review notes
three basic rules of habituation
1. The orienting reaction to weak stimuli habituates faster than to strong ones. 2. Habituation occurs fastest if stimuli are presented not too close together and not too far apart in time. 3. Unexpected strong stimuli can make a habituated response reappear temporarily. This process is called dishabituation.
encoding, storage and retrieval
3 key functions of memory
sensory, short-term, and long-term
3 parts of memory
semantic, visual imagery, and organizational
3 types of encoding
not learning
A previously psychotic patient is given Dr. W's frontal lobotomy, and no longer exhibits any psychotic behaviors.
Jerome, who studied by answering similar questions via practice quizzes
According to memory research, who will likely do BEST on a multiple-choice exam?
asking oneself questions to practice retrieving the information is best.
According to research on memory, when studying for a test:
discriminative stimulus (one that indicates that a response will be reinforced)
As Skinner rephrased it later, most behavior is under stimulus control, which develops when a particular response occurs only when an appropriate... ... is present.
reinforcer
Baby Eva is whining. Her mother lightly spanks her, and her whining increases. For Baby Eva, spanking was a(n):
helps us survive and reproduce.
Based on research discussed in the textbook chapter, it seems like we are BEST able to remember information that:
habituation
Benjamin used to startle every time the family dog would bark. Now he continues whatever he is doing and appears to not even notice the dog's bark. Benjamin's example demonstrates:
having arbitrarily similar information in memory since blocking usually doesn't occur with highly distinctive memories.
Blocking may result from...
names of people and places
Blocking occurs especially often for the...
left frontal
Brain scans have shown that increased activity in the _____ lobe occurs when a person is simply trying to recall information that was presented earlier.
you're building solid memories
By practicing information retrieval...
the queasiness that Carson feels when he sees lime sherbet
Carson used to really enjoy lime sherbet and when he was in Mexico he tried frozen lime margaritas. After his fourth margarita Carson became extremely ill. Now he finds that even the sight of lime sherbet in a bowl can make him feel queasy. In this example, the conditioned response is:
the first few years of life that are inaccessible to memory.
Childhood, or infantile, amnesia refers to:
neutral stimulus; unconditioned stimulus
Classical conditioning occurs by pairing a(n) _____ with a(n) _____ to produce a response.
an implicit memory
Classical conditioning produces...
retrieving
College students who are taking a test are _____________ information from long-term memory.
evolutionary theory
Conditioning alone cannot explain why some behaviors are easier to learn than others without taking _____ into account.
the synapses
Currently, we think memories are stored in...
episodic
Dave is reminiscing about the first car he owned in high school and how it felt the first time he drove it through town. This is an example of ____ memory:
hippocampal
Divided attention also leads to less... ...involvement in encoding
experience
Essential to the process of learning is that it is based on:
implicit memory
Greg's persistent sadness after his father's death, even though he had no conscious knowledge of the event, is an example of...
sound; salivation
In Pavlov's famous studies, the _____ was the conditioned stimulus, and the _____ was the conditioned response.
positive reinforcer
Jana is sitting just in front of a pair of students in class who will not stop talking --- the talking is very annoying. Jana asks the students to please stop talking and they do. If the frequency of the Jana asking talkative peers to stop being disruptive in class increases in the future it will be because in this instance she received a:
explicit
Jenny remembers her 25th birthday party vividly and recalls how her parents surprised her with a brand new necklace. This is an example of a(n) _____ memory.
negative reinforcement
Juan's parents told him they would unground him and allow him to go on the school's annual class trip if he raised all of his grades to passing this semester. Juan's parents are using _____ to affect his study behaviors.
memory misattribution
Just before an episode of The Oprah Winfrey Show, a fake crime was committed in which a man with brown hair dressed in blue jeans and a green long-sleeved shirt stole a woman's handbag. The "crime" was staged right next to the line of bystanders, including a few people planted by Oprah, queuing for the audience seats. When questioned by "police" almost immediately after the event, after talking about the "robbery" among themselves, many "witnesses" said that the man was wearing a hat and gave differing descriptions of the culprit. Which flaw of memory BEST explains this fault?
extinction
Ken used to drool at the smell of peanut butter cookies as they baked, and he couldn't wait to sink his teeth into that first cookie. However, Ken's new roommate makes terrible peanut butter cookies that Ken won't eat. Now the smell of the cookies baking is no followed by Ken putting the cookies in his mouth. Consequently, Ken finds that the smell of the cookies no longer makes him drool in anticipation. This illustrates the classical conditioning process known as:
the song
Li always hated having her diaper changed but she loved cake. So, Li's mom decided to use classical conditioning to make diaper changes less miserable. Every time she changed Li's diaper, she would play the same song on a CD and give Li a small bite of cake while she changed her diaper. Now, as soon as Li hears the song, she is happy to have her diaper changed. What is the conditioned stimulus in this case?
second-order conditioning.
Money gains its power to control behavior through:
amygdala
Normal fear responses are not exhibited in an animal whose connections from the hypothalamus to the _____ have been disrupted.
extinction
Once a CR has been established, it can be weakened and suppressed by a process called
anterograde amnesia.
Patients like HM, who cannot store new memories, suffer from a form of:
the source of this knowledge
People sometimes correctly recall a fact they learned earlier or accurately recognize a person or object they have seen before but misattribute...
collaborative
Psychologists are increasingly interested in how people remember in groups, which is now referred to as _____ memory.
often continue or even become strengthened by irregular reinforcement.
Schedules of reinforcement are based on the fact that conditioned behaviors:
about 5 to 9 unrelated bits of information at any one time.
Short-term memory can hold...
episodic memory relies on the hippocampus, while semantic memory does not.
Since some people with damage to the hippocampus have no trouble learning new facts but cannot recall personal events they experienced, researchers have concluded that:
reinforcement and punishment.
Skinner expanded on the work of Thorndike by focusing on:
enhanced; and an increase in new
Studies of the snail species Aplysia have indicated that the axon terminals of sensory neurons show _________ neurotransmitter release _______ synapses during training trials.
Visuo-spatial sketchpad
Subsystem of working memory that stores and manipulates visual images
mowing the lawn is a positive reinforcer for doing the dishes
Tessa really likes to mow the lawn during the summer months, but her parents will only let her mow the lawn if all the dishes are washed. Consequently, every Saturday Tessa has the table cleared and all the dishes washed as soon as everyone has finished breakfast. In this case
amygdala
The _____ is the primary brain structure responsible for conditioning based on fearful or anxiety-inducing stimuli.
upper left frontal lobe
The _____ of the brain is more active during organizational encoding.
implicit memory
The ability to ride a bike or tie your shoelaces or play the guitar are other examples of...
procedural memory and explicit memory.
The amnesia patient H.M. learned how to perform a visuomotor task in which he looked at his hand and the drawing of a star in a mirror while tracing the shape of a star. He learned this backwards drawing task in three days, but he had no recollection on the second or third days of ever having practiced it before. This example most clearly illustrates the difference between:
change bias
The bias to exaggerate differences between what we feel or believe now and the things we felt or thought in the past. "Things keep getting worse."
egocentric bias
The bias to make ourselves look good in our memories. "I was a better student than today's kids are."
consistency bias
The bias to reconstruct the past to fit the present. "I have always held these beliefs
biological preparedness
The concept of _____ suggests that conditioning has an evolutionary origin in that certain associations will be more easily learned if they help the organism's survival.
biological preparedness
The concept of _____, studied by John Garcia, suggests that conditioning has an evolutionary origin in that certain associations will be more easily learned if they aid the organism's survival.
preparedness
The concept of ___________________ clearly demonstrates how biological factors can influence learning.
negative consequences of practicing retrieval
The course material that you don't practice retrieving might be remembered worse than if you'd never answered any questions at all.
1. Don't panic 2. Don't go into denile
The don'ts of studying, bad exam
information in memory may be available but not easily accessible.
The effectiveness of retrieval cues supports the idea that:
forming new memories.
The hippocampus is vital for:
biological preparedness
The idea of _____ suggests that conditioning has an evolutionary perspective, in that certain associations will be more easily learned if they help the organism's survival.
unconditioned stimulus (US).
Then a neutral stimulus (NS) is paired with the
consolidate memories
There's evidence that sleeping, specifically the REM phase of sleep, is one mechanism that your brain uses to...
enjoy being negatively reinforced and dislike being punished
Typically, most people would:
pattern
Unlike in classical conditioning, where the sheer number of learning trials was important, the... ...with which reinforcements appeared was crucial in operant conditioning.
generalization
When Kristen asks her grandmother for a cookie, her grandmother usually gives her one. Last week at the park Kristen's mother was embarrassed when Kristen walked up to five different elderly ladies and asked them for cookies. Kristen's behavior illustrates the concept of:
habituation; sensitization
When an organism reduces its responding to a repeated stimulus it is referred to as _____, but when an organism increases its responding to a later stimulus it is referred to as _____.
Explicit memory
When we consciously or intentionally retrieve past experiences.
food
Which of the following is an example of a primary reinforcer?
Amy realizes that she is consistently mixing up the definitions for implicit memory and explicit memory. So she decides to focus on the two terms, comparing and contrasting the definitions and several examples of each type of memory.
Which of the following is an example of a student showing they are capable of metacognition?
In an experiment, the first time a 2-week-old baby hears the syllable /ba/ from a loudspeaker, she starts sucking on her pacifier. With repeated presentation of /ba/, her sucking declines and stops.
Which of the following is an example of habituation?
Memory for the first time you hit a home run.
Which of the following is not an implicit memory?
d. all of the above
Which of the following mechanisms have no role in Skinner's approach to behavior? a. cognitive b. neural c. evolutionary d. all of the above
ABC CIA IRS MTV; because each set of letters is a meaningful "chunk
Which of the following statements regarding sensory memory is not accurate?
Staying alive is more important than being happy, so the human mind is adapted to be very good at recalling the "staying alive" stuff.
Why do we remember traumatic events so well?
Because the retrieval strategies used by some group members might disrupt other members.
Why does collaborative inhibition occur?
after; before
With respect to amnesia, antero- is to retro- as _____ is to ______.
worse retrieval of information than the combined efforts of individuals
Working with a group can lead to...
encode it in a fantastic way
You can take a piece of information and... ...to create a more enduring memory
encoding
Zandra's teacher tells her that she cannot forget something if she never "got it" in the first place. MOST likely, Zandra's teacher is referring to a failure in:
older adults; college students
\When asked either to recall episodes that actually occurred in their pasts or to imagine new episodes that might occur in their futures,... ...provided fewer details about what happened, or what might happen, than did...
Classical conditioning
_____ can be used to explain why experienced drug users overdose when taking the same amount of their usual drug but in a novel environment.
Survival
_____ encoding tasks lead to the greatest amount of information being recalled later.
Tip-of-the-tongue; blocking
_____ is the experience of knowing something but not being able to identify it, which is a result of _____.
Encoding
_____ is the process by which we transform our experiences into enduring memories.
Explicit
_____ memory consists of conscious memories.
latent learning example
a cognitive map, a mental representation of the physical features of the environment, and we can typically learn this type of representation without any reinforcement.
Individuals are repeatedly exposed to conditioned stimuli associated with their trauma in a safe setting, in an attempt to extinguish the conditioned fear response
a therapy that has proven effective in dealing with such trauma-induced fears is based directly on principles of classical conditioning
classical conditioning
a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events
second-order conditioning
a type of learning whereby a CS is paired with a stimulus that became associated with the US in an earlier procedure; i.e. money
the CS provides new information and when it is noticeable and salient (i.e., when it is unfamiliar).
acquiring a conditioned association is more likely when...
working memory
active maintenance of information in short-term storage
working memory and intelligence
allows people to learn more information while holding other information
punisher
any stimulus or event that decreases the likelihood of the behavior that led to it
Reinforcer
any stimulus or event that increases the likelihood of the behavior that led to it
semantic processing; semantic encoding
being in a good mood affects patterns of electrical activity in parts of the brain responsible for... ..., suggesting that mood has a direct influence on...
schemas
beliefs about how people, objects, and events are most likely to look and act Help us understand experiences, so they can improve memory recall
Priming effects...
can occur without conscious awareness of recalling the prime.
orienting task
causes you to think in deep or shallow ways, regardless of your intention
Bias
distorting your memories based on your current knowledge
shallow processing
focuses on meaningless aspects of information; memorizing definitions or mindlessly re-reading notes
deep processing
focuses on subjective meaning; relating new info to prior knowledge or making information personally meaningful
transience
forgetting what occurs with the passage of time occurs during the storage phase of memory. involves a gradual switch from specific to general memory. Mind fills in what "probably" happened
divergent creative thinking
generating creative ideas by combining different types of information in new ways
exposure therapy
gently exposing the individual to the CS and demonstrating that there is nothing to fear; an effective treatment for PTSD and some phobias.
lower left frontal region
greater activity in the... ...during encoding is associated with better memor
transience
happens due to interference; occurs over time
Short-term memory
holds nonsensory information for more than a few seconds but less than a minute; We need to attend to incoming information for it to enter, but as soon as we attend to something else, the information is quickly lost
Visual sketchpad
holds visual information
Learning must produce a change in the organism
included the acquisition of new knowledge, skills, or responses.
15-20 seconds
information can be held in the short-term memory store for about...
it requires students to choose a strategy according to the nature of individual problems (as students must do on a test),; students could repeatedly apply the same strategy without having to select among possible strategies.
interleaved practice was more effective because... ...whereas during blocked practice,...
whereby only some of the responses made are followed by reinforcement, they produce behavior that is much more resistant to extinction than does a continuous reinforcement schedule
intermittent reinforcement
implicit learning
is less affected by age than explicit learning is
Implicit learning
is remarkably resistant to various disorders that are known to affect explicit learning
A retrieval cue...
is something outside your head in the surrounding environment that is related to the memory you are trying to retrieve.
upside to forgetting
keeps our brains flexible so we can learn new things
declarative memory
memory for facts; info travels to hippocampus
false ideas integrated into brains that change memories
post-event info issue
ideas that come in after events happen
post-event information
perceptual priming
reflects implicit memory for the sensory features of an item (e.g., the visual characteristics of a word or picture); depends primarily on regions toward the back of the brain, such as the visual cortex; is associated primarily with the right cerebral hemisphere
left frontal lobe
regions in the... ...show heightened activity when people try to retrieve information that was presented to them earlier
the opposite of
sensitization is... ...habituation
seven meaningful
short-term memory can hold about... ...items at once
proactive interference
situations in which earlier learning impairs memory for information acquired later
memory
the ability to store and retrieve information over time
Consistency bias
the bias to reconstruct the past to fit the present.
saves a bit of processing time
the brain... ...after priming
bias
the distorting influences of present knowledge, beliefs, and feelings on recollection of previous experiences.
combines separate items into an integrated whole; long-term
the episodic buffer automatically... ...and is a gateway to...1
Suggestibility
the error of incorporating external information into episodic memories
Semantic memories
the facts and concepts that comprise your general knowledge of the world.
Sensory memory
the first stage after information gets to a sense organ. It is extensive, accurate, but very brief, lasting about a second. It is a temporary storage buffer between sensory input and the next stage, short-term memory.
retrogade amnesia
the inability to retrieve information from before the damage occurred, which suggests the hippocampus may continue to play a role in the formation of memories, even after the memory is initially encoded.
retrograde amnesia
the inability to retrieve information that was acquired before a particular date, usually the date of an injury or surgery
sensory memory
the shortest-term memory system
distinctiveness
how is concept different from others
Not learning
One day a toddler spontaneously stops sucking his thumb.
collaborative memory
how people remember in groups; better than individual
Response
how the individual reflexively automatically responds to the stimulus.
When Andrew's brother gets hit (US) with a paper ball, he feels angry (UR).
The US does produce a UR:
true nature of long-term memory
"Memory is the process by which we imagine the past."
long-term potentiation (Hebb's postulate)
"When an axon of cell A is near enough to excite a cell B and repeatedly or persistently takes part in firing it, some growth process or metabolic change takes place in one or both cells such that A's efficiency, as one of the cells firing B, is increased."
fixed-interval
Checking your mailbox is generally reinforced on a _____ schedule, since the mail only comes once per day at about the same time.
reduced activity in the hippocampus
successful suppression of an unwanted memory causes...
Semantic encoding
The process of relating new information in a meaningful way to knowledge that is already stored in memory.
Visual imagery encoding
The process of storing new information by converting it into a mental picture.
Retrieval-induced forgetting
a process by which retrieving an item from long-term memory impairs subsequent recall of related items
automaticity
a process so highly practiced that it occurs without any conscious effort
hippocampal region
successfully remembering a past experience tends to be accompanied by activity in the...
variable-ratio schedules; fixed-ratio schedules
...produce slightly higher rates of responding than... ..., primarily because the organism never knows when the next reinforcement is going to appear
Involuntary memories; memories that we voluntarily try to retrieve
...occur even more often in everyday life than...
the hippocampal region
...of the brain is critical for putting new information into the long-term store
the higher the ratio, the higher the response rate tends to be
A 20-response variable-ratio schedule will produce considerably more responding than a 2-response variable-ratio schedule will
Learning must involve relatively permanent changes
A change needs to last a while for us to say that it's been "learned."
the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon
A college student walking across campus is greeted by someone she has met, but she can only remember that his name begins with T and that her roommate introduced them at a restaurant. This memory difficulty is an example of ____________________.
latent
A college student who has walked around a mall several times with no particular purpose in mind is able to locate a shoe store in the mall very quickly when she wants to buy new shoes. The student's capability is an example of __________ learning.
learning
A computer program generates random opening moves for its first 100 chess games and tabulates the outcomes of those games. Starting with the 101st game, the computer uses those tabulations to influence its choice of opening moves for the remainder of the games it plays.
echoic
A fast-decaying store of auditory memory is referred to as _____ memory.
collaborative inhibition.
A surprising finding about collaborative memory is that the collaborative group typically recalls fewer items than the nominal group; this negative effect of group recall on memory is known as:
easy; more difficult
A possible explanation for distributed practice being an effective learning strategy versus massed practice is that when we engage in massed practice, retrieving recently studied information is relatively _____, whereas during distributed practice, it is _____ to retrieve information that we studied.
Survival-related encoding
A process that combines some elements of semantic, visual, and organizational encoding and considers the relevance of the information for an individual's survival.
you get something you don't like (have to do extra chores) -or- something you like is take away (parents take your cell phone away)
A punisher may be unsatisfying because...
go to a neighboring barn.
A rat is foraging in the country for food. On Tuesday, the rat finds food in Farmer Brown's barn. A researcher using an evolutionary perspective might predict that on Wednesday the rat would:
you get something you like (get candy) -or- something you don't like is taken away (headache goes away).
A reinforcer may be satisfying because...
US and CS.
A researcher in a classical conditioning experiment is attempting to condition a fearful startle response to a green light. To do this, she flashes the light at the same time that she plays a very loud noise. This experiment is utilizing what is called simultaneous pairing of the:
Encoding Specificity Principle
A retrieval cue can serve as an effective reminder when it helps re-create the specific way in which information was initially encoded
second-order conditioning
A smart political candidate becomes friends with a very popular professional baseball player because she hopes that this will improve her popularity with the voters. With regard to classical conditioning phenomena this is an example of:
chunking
A study conducted by William Chase and Herbert Simon (1973) demonstrated that experts had superior recall than novices for the placement of chess pieces when the pieces were placed meaningfully on the board. However, this difference disappeared when the pieces were placed randomly. Which of the following concepts is most relevant to explaining this result?
false recognition
A type of memory misattribution. Feeling of familiarity about something that hasn't been encountered before.
learning
A worm is placed in a T maze. The left arm of the maze is brightly lit and dry (unpleasant); and the right arm is dim and moist. On the first 10 trials, the worm turns right 7 times. On the next 10 trials, the worm turns right all times.
her marriage as unhappy and tumultuous.
A year after getting married, Marisol told her friends she was unbelievably happy. Now, Marisol and her husband are getting divorced. Because of the constructive nature of memory, Marisol may now remember:
the same room in which one will take the exam.
According to the encoding specificity principle, it would be BEST to study for an exam in:
may overdose
According to the text, if an experienced male heroin user takes the same dose of the drug in a new place, he _____ because of the role of classical conditioning.
classical conditioning.
Advertisers often pair pictures of attractive people with their products with the expectation that consumers will respond positively to those products. This reaction comes from a reflexive response that is based on:
short-term
Dakota was given a list of seven items to buy at the drugstore but did not attempt to encode it and so he could not remember it later. More than likely the list never made it past his _____ memory.
the funeral.
After being around roses at her grandmother's funeral, Rosalyn feels sad when she is given a bouquet of roses for Valentine's Day. In this example, the unconditioned stimulus is:
feeling sad.
After being around roses at his grandfather's funeral, Tom felt sad when he was given a bouquet of roses for his birthday. In this example, the conditioned response is:
10 to 20 seconds
After chatting with a Deanna at a party, she tells you her telephone number so you can call her. About how long do you have to write down the number before your short-term memory store is depleted?
Then, the neutral stimulus (NS) alone causes a response.
After conditioning:
a conditioned stimulus (CS); a conditioned response (CR)
After conditioning: We now refer to the phone alert as... ..., and feeling angry in response to the phone alert is...
evolutionary
After having a bad experience with a particular type of food, people can develop a lifelong aversion to that food. This suggests that conditioning has a(n) aspect.
learning
After witnessing an older sibling being punished for taking a cookie without asking, the younger child does not take cookies without permission.
observational learning.
Alisha suffers from claustrophobia, despite having never been stuck in an elevator or locked in a supply closet. The notion of diffusion chains suggests that Alisha may have acquired the phobia through:
Participants in the study/test condition performed better than the study/study condition when the final test was conducted after 2 days, or 1 week.
All participants in a memory experiment studied brief stories. Then, half the participants were asked to study the stories again ("study/study" condition), and the other half were given a test to try retrieving what they'd initially learned ("study/test" condition). All participants were given a final recall test either 5 minutes, 2 days, or 1 week later. Which of the following is true?
positive reinforcement
Britney's parents are taking her to her favorite theme park over the weekend because she got straight A's on her report card. Britney's parents are using _____ to affect her study behaviors.
variable-ratio
Although it is unknown if one must buy 1, 10, or 100 scratch-off lottery tickets to get a winning ticket, it is probable that if one keeps buying, eventually one will get a winner. In fact, maybe the very next ticket will be a winner. Therefore, buying scratch-off lottery tickets is reinforced according to a _____ schedule.
primacy; recency
Although the ________ effect is thought to be due to the transfer of early information to long-term memory, the _________ effect appears to be due to information remaining in short-term memory
priming
An elementary school class took a spelling test immediately after learning how to bake a cake. The teacher noticed that many of the students spelled the word "flour" instead of the vocabulary word "flower." This illustrates:
anterograde amnesia
An exciting aspect of implicit memory is that it's not affected by...
Now, when he hears the phone alert (CS), he anticipates getting hit (US), and he feels angry in response to the phone alert (CR).
Andrew's brother has learned to associate two stimuli:
the boss.
Angie's always-angry boss wears a particular type of cologne. One day, Angie was at a store when she smelled the same cologne. The smell produced a momentary feeling of uneasiness. In this example, the unconditioned stimulus is:
proactive interference.
Anne graduated from college a few years ago. She is trying to remember the name of her roommate when she was a senior, but she can't because the name of her roommate when she was a first year student keeps popping into her mind. Anne is suffering from:
proactive interference.
Anne is trying to remember her locker combination but keeps using the locker combination she had last year. Anne is suffering from:
first work individually but then compile results and submit the exam as a group submission
Annie, Cierra, and Deidre memorize facts about historical figures in psychology as part of an introductory psychology course. On the day of the exam, the professor informs the three students that they can either take the exam individually or submit one exam from the group. Based on research on collaborative memory, the students should:
memory formation and serve as an index that ties together memory contents stored elsewhere
Evidence from hippocampal cell firing patterns in mice also supports the idea that these cells are involved in...
some memories (highly detailed recollections of personal experiences, the kinds of memories that give us the feeling that we are almost reliving a past experience),; less detailed, more general memories
Another possibility is that the hippocampal index remains involved over long periods of time with... ...but it does not stay involved in `
75%
Approximately ______ of the first 250 cases in which DNA evidence was used to acquit people convicted of a crime was faulty eyewitness memory a factor in the original conviction.
frontal lobes
As Deepak studies for his anatomy exam, he relates the new material to what he already knows about the topic (semantic encoding). He also creates concept maps to organize the different organs of the body (organizational encoding). It is likely that the _____ of Deepak's brain is/are very active.
a commercial for a local dry cleaner
As Everett watches television, he sees something that serves as a retrieval cue for him to move some laundry from the washer to the dryer. Which example would be MOST likely to serve as an effective retrieval cue for Everett?
b. maintenance rehearsal
As Greg listens to the librarian list all of the different types of special collections available in the library, he silently repeats all of them to himself. Greg is engaging in:
retrieval cue
As Henry watches television, he sees a commercial for a local dry cleaner and then remembers that he needs to move some laundry from the washer to the dryer. Seeing the dry-cleaning commercial has served as a _____ for Henry.
the reinforcements stop
As in classical conditioning, operant behavior undergoes extinction when...
increases the likelihood that they will develop a false memory of it
Asking people to imagine an event like spilling punch all over the bride's parents at a wedding...
short-term memory
Attention to sensory memory leads to... .... . Maintenance rehearsal happens here and unrehearsed information is lost.
echoic
Aurora tells her roommate about her physics exam, and he does not seem to be listening. Aurora accuses him of not paying attention, so he repeats back the last three words of her story. This does not excuse him, because Aurora knows that he may be relying on his _____ memory.
transience
Bailey attends her 20th high school reunion and realizes that she would have great difficulty with names if people were not wearing nametags. Her inability to remember the names of people she spent so much time with 20 years earlier is MOST likely caused by:
apple
Based on what you know about survival encoding, which word would you be MOST likely to remember?
priming
Because of _____, Jon will be faster to respond to the word "cat" than to the word "sun" if he just saw a picture of a cat.
The unconditioned stimulus (US) causes the unconditioned response (UR).
Before conditioning:
enculturation hypothesis
Being raised in a human culture has a profound effect on the cognitive abilities of chimpanzees, especially their ability to understand the intentions of others when performing tasks such as using tools, which in turn increases their observational learning capacities
cognition
But classical conditioning does require... ...because the familiarity of the CS will affect the formation of a conditioned association.
Those items were recalled most poorly of all, indicating that retrieving the similar target items (e.g., orange) caused subsequent forgetting of the related but suppressed items (e.g., apple)
But what happened on the final test to the items such as apple, which were not practiced and which participants presumably had to suppress while they practiced recall of related items?
shaping
Bobby's parents are frustrated because he never cleans his room. In order to modify their son's behavior, they start reinforcing (with 25 cents) every time he simply throws his clothes into a particular corner instead of all around the room. After some time passes, they only reinforce him if he puts his clothes in the hamper. As this process continues, Bobby's parents keep gradually changing the terms of reinforcement so that Bobby has to do more and more of the tasks they consider part of keeping his room clean. After several months of this, Bobby cleans his entire room for the 25-cent reward. This example best demonstrates the process of:
slow, methodical responding
Both fixed-interval schedules and variable-interval schedules tend to produce... ...because the reinforcements follow a time scale that is independent of how many responses occur.
frontal lobe
Brain-imaging studies indicate that the central executive component of working memory depends on regions within the... ...that are important for controlling and manipulating information on a wide range of cognitive tasks
discriminated between the two leashes.
Brian's dog Mitzy gets very excited when she sees her leash because she knows they are going for a walk. Brian replaces Mitzy's leash today with a new one and brings it over to her to get ready to go outside. Brian is surprised because Mitzy doesn't seem as excited as usual. This is MOST likely because Mitzy has:
reconsolidation
Carlos and Maria are studying for their test in psychology. Carlos asks Maria, "Hey, do you remember who founded psychoanalysis?" Maria pauses for a few seconds and then answers, "Sigmund Freud." As soon as she answers, her cell phone rings. It is her friend Beth, and Maria talks to her for about 10 minutes. When she gets off the phone, Carlos says, "Maria, I didn't hear you. Who founded psychoanalysis?" Maria thinks for a few moments, then realizes that she has forgotten, illustrating the importance of memory:
an effect of suggestibility
Carolin attends the IU-Illinois basketball game on Saturday. When she talked to brother after the game she made no mention of rough play having occurred. Sunday morning she reads about the game in the local newspaper in a piece that mentions that the captain of the opposing team was guilty of unsportsmanlike conduct. Even though the captain of the opposing team had behaved in a sportsmanlike fashion during the game, Carolin tells her friends on Monday that the player had committed a number of aggressive foul plays. Carolin's faulty recall illustrates:
Extinction—the rat will stop responding to the song.
CeCe trained a rat to run up a set of miniature steps whenever she plays the theme song to the movie Rocky. Each time the song played and the rat ran up the steps, she gave the rat a treat. After acquisition, if CeCe were to present the song but no longer provide the treats, what would eventually happen?
lower left frontal; greater
Cerebral imaging studies have found that the greater the activation of the _______ lobe(s) during encoding the _______ the likelihood of the words being recalled later.
echoic
Charlene may be able to repeat the last few words that someone spoke even if she was not paying attention. This is because the information is still available in her _____ memory.
7
Chrissy is trying to remember all 26 definitions in her chemistry booklet 2 minutes before the exam. She seems to think that she can just store all 26 of these definitions in her short-term memory. If she understood the limits of memory, she would realize that her short-term memory is able to recall approximately _____ of the definitions.
animals experience biologically relevant events.
Conditioning only "works" when...
state-dependent retrieval
Crystal had been feeling depressed for several weeks. Her English professor asked the entire class to write short autobiographies of happy preschool experiences, Crystal couldn't remember any happy preschool experiences. Crystal's poor memory may have been partially influenced by:
sensitization
Danielle is visiting a friend in a neighborhood charitably described as "lively." Danielle startles when she hears a car backfire. Later, she jumps even more dramatically when a falling pecan hits the tin roof of the garage. Danielle is demonstrating:
the happiness
Dante always hated having his diaper changed, but he loved cookies. Dante's father decided to use classical conditioning to make diaper changes less miserable. Every time he changed Dante's diaper, he would play the same song and give Dante a small cookie. Now, as soon as Dante hears the song, he is happy to have his diaper changed. What is the conditioned response in this example?
implicit
Daphne knows that she cannot interrupt her professor while he is talking to another student, even if she does not know when or how she learned this type of information. That is because this type of learning is:
visual imagery.
Darcy wants to stop at the grocery store on the way home but does not have a list of the things she needs. As she goes to work that morning, she does a "mental walk" through her home and imagines each grocery item in a different location. Darcy is making use of:
visual imagery encoding.
Dee has a hard time remembering names. One night at a party, she met a guy that she really wanted to impress. To remember that his name is Joe, she imagined a steaming cup of coffee ("cup of Joe") every time she looked at him. This illustrates:
observational learning.
Deon lives in an isolated farmhouse in a flat Plains state. He has never looked out the window from an office in a skyscraper. He has never flown in an airplane; in fact, he has never climbed a tree. Nevertheless, Deon has a fear of heights. The concept of diffusion chains suggests that Deon may have acquired this phobia through:
absentmindedness
Derrick returns home after work and hears his cell phone ringing in his pocket. He scrambles to answer his phone while carrying grocery bags and attempting to keep the dog from running outside. Later, he can't remember where he put his house keys when he got home from work. His forgetfulness is MOST likely due to:
concept map
Diagram of concepts and their interrelationships; used to enhance learning and memory of a topic.
prevents the lower left frontal lobe from playing its normal role in semantic encoding
Dividing attention, then,... ..., and the result is absentminded forgetting
A neutral stimulus (NS) is paired with the unconditioned stimulus (US).
During conditioning:
Yes, that doesn't mean that classical conditioning requires conscious thought
Does Classical Conditioning Require Cognition?
extinction
Don's parents want to him to do more chores around the house so they decide to pay him a small amount (50 cents) for each chore he does. Initially, this produces a large increase in the number of chores that Don does, but his parents soon tire of paying him for his work and discontinue the monetary reward program. Don continues his chores for a short while but once he realizes that he's no longer being paid he stops doing them all together. The discontinuing of Don's chore behavior best illustrates the process of:
1. Keeps studying the same way, hoping to improve 2. Waits until the end of the semester to ask for help. 3. Skips class to focus on other classes. 4. Falls further behind waiting to find time to catch up 5. Crams at the last minute 6. Doesn't do assignments becauase they are small or late
Don't be the student who...
stimulus control
Due to _____, a person can tell the difference between the men's restroom and the women's restroom and know which one to use.
habituation; sensitization
During ____ organisms become less responsive to stimuli; during ____ organisms become more responsive to stimuli.
The CS comes before the US, not after it or at the same time. The US follows it closely in time. The CS provides new information about the US (if the CS occurs regularly without the US, its occurrence before the US is not very informative). The CS is noticeable and salient.
During acquisition, the pairing is most effective when:
biologically predisposed
Each species is _____ to learn some things more readily than others.
déjà vu.
Egan is out to dinner with friends and suddenly has this feeling that he has been in that exact same restaurant with the exact same people having the exact same conversation. Egan is probably experiencing:
habituation
Elise's cat appears decidedly frightened at the sound of the first fireworks on New Year's Eve. Later, though, the cat dozes through the blasts. Elise's cat is demonstrating:
The dogs had learned an association between the sight of food and the taste in the dog's mouth.
Eventually, Pavlov recognized the importance of this effect: this salivary response to the sight of food showed learning
learning
Eventually, Pavlov recognized the importance of this effect: this salivary response to the sight of food showed...
a continuous reinforcement schedule
Every time Zachary puts a dollar bill in the vending machine at school and presses the button for a Munchem chocolate bar, the machine dispenses the chocolate bar and provides the correct change. In this example, Zachary's behavior is reinforced on:
listen to the Deadmau5 playlist while taking the exam
Every time she studies, Molly listens to music on her cell phone. She always listens to the same playlist of songs performed by Deadmau5. Molly believes in state-dependent retrieval. What should she do at exam time?
t will become reconsolidated, and your new experiences with the recalled memory may distort your initial encoding of the memory.
Every time you retrieve a long-term memory,...
How to tie shoes or how to swim
Examples of implicit memories
knowledge of facts (like your home address, your favorite sports team's starting lineup, etc.) and events (high school graduation, the last time you ate at a restaurant, etc.).
Explicit memories include...
the unpairing of the US and CS
Extinction in classical conditioning involves:
episodic
Faced with a tough decision regarding whether or not to end a long-term relationship, Naomi relies on her _____ memory to imagine the different outcomes associated with staying with or leaving her partner.
15 to 20
Finn meets a woman at a party. She gives Finn her telephone number so he can call her. Finn has about _____ seconds to write down the number before his short-term memory store is depleted.
the proper response has been made, and they don't always occur even then
In operant conditioning, the reinforcements occur only when...
Classical conditioning is the relationship between a stimulus and a response. The learner responds to the unconditioned stimulus reflexively as a natural response. The CS does not produce a reaction initially. During conditioning the CS is presented directly before the UCS during conditioning. The learner then associates the CS to the UCS.
First, explain the process of classical conditioning in general terms: How does the learner respond to the UCS and CS before conditioning? What happens during conditioning? How does the learner's response to the CS change when conditioning is complete? Next: Think of an example of taste aversion conditioning and identify the UCS, UCR, CS, and CR in the example
visualizing in her mind its location on the map her dad showed her
Five-year-old Hannah has never been to Kentucky. Which technique would work BEST for her to easily remember this new-to-her state name?
a conditioned stimulus
Floyd had been working at Qualton Enterprises for 2 years when his boss asked to see him in her office. He thought she wanted to talk about a promotion so he was quite excited, but instead of giving him a promotion, the boss told Floyd he was being laid off as a result of company downsizing. Floyd could feel his heart pounding as he listened to the news. Floyd has a new job now, but every time his new boss asks to talk to him in private, Floyd feels a little faint. In this example, Floyd's new boss asking for a private talk is:
the environment itself was a retrieval cue
For example, in one study divers learned some words on land and some other words underwater; they recalled the words best when they were tested in the same dry or wet environment in which they had initially learned them, because...
still needs to be paying attention to the to-be-learned material
For implicit learning to occur, the learner...
Conditioned stimulus (CS)
a previously neutral stimulus that produces a reliable response in the organism after conditioning; that is, after being paired with the US.
observational learning.
Four-year-old Mia watched her mother sing while she was brushing her hair. The next day, Mia's mother saw Mia singing while brushing her dog. Mia acquired the behavior through _____ .
(a.) we learn an association between a behavior (operant) and consequences that follow (stimuli that reinforce or punish), and (b.) operant behaviors are voluntary, not reflexive.
In operant conditioning,...
it was gone forever.
HM could repeat a telephone number with no difficulty, suggesting that his short-term memory store was just fine. But after information left the short-term store,...
voluntary behavior happens first - we are acting (or operating) on our world, and consequences follow. Thus, we adapt our behavior to experience satisfying consequences (reinforcers) and avoid unsatisfying results (punishers)
In operant conditioning,...
you learn a stimulus is not significant because nothing particularly interesting happens after it occurs. It is produced simply by presenting a stimulus over and over again without anything following it.
Habituation happens when...
flashbulb
Having a pop-up reminder of a meeting that will occur in 15 minutes serves as an aid for _____ memory.
prospective
Having a pop-up reminder of a meeting that will occur in 15 minutes serves as an aid for _____ memory.
1. Commit time and effort 2. Minimize distractions 3. Attend class 4. Set realistic goals 5. Don't begin to slide 6. Don't give away points
Helpful strategies to raise your grade
repeatedly present the rat without the loud noise
How could extinction be used to eliminate Little Albert's fear of a white rat?
Reinforcement is a term used in operant conditioning to refer to anything that increases the likelihood that a response will occur. We cannot accurately predict if it is a predictor because the child may not like chocolate, thus it would be a positive punishment. Positive means to give one something, and negative is to take it away.
How did Skinner operationally define "reinforcer"? Can we confidently predict that chocolate is a reinforcer for children who show good behavior - why or why not? Also, what do "positive" and "negative" mean in operant conditioning? Define "positive reinforcer" and "negative reinforcer" and give a specific example of each.
Spontaneous recovery
How do we know that extinction is not forgetting?
by combining information we already have in our brains with new information that comes in through our senses.
How do we make memories?
retrograde amnesia
If Erica Kane on the soap opera All My Children awakes from a coma one day and finds that she cannot remember anything about her life up until that time, does not even know who she is, what problem does she have?
a lot of caffeine before the exam
If Jasper drinks a lot of caffeinated coffee while studying for an exam, the concept of state-dependent retrieval implies that he would do best on his exam if he drinks:
consistency bias
If Sarah really dislikes the current president of her college but later comes to appreciate the good things that the president accomplished, she may report that she felt more positive toward the president while she was in school. This example represents the memory problem known as _____.
state-dependent retrieval
If Zyanya drinks a lot of coffee while studying for an exam, the concept of _____ learning indicates that she would do best on the exam if she drinks a lot of coffee right before it.
diffusion chain.
If a person watches someone to learn how to ride a bicycle, and then serves as a model for another student, that person is part of a:
they might be stuck focusing on something they already know or skipping something that they don't know so well. The "yoked" group will perform worse because they weren't controlling their studying routine.
If another student receives these "yoked" studying sequences,...
consolidated
If memories are not _____, they will not remain in the long-term memory system.
the behavior will be strengthened.
If the consequence is reinforcing,...
the state itself
If the person's state at the time of retrieval matches the person's state at the time of encoding,... ...is a retrieval cue.
you might learn to associate the two events. You might start expecting the interesting event to happen as soon as you hear the alert, and you might react to the alert in the same way you react to the interesting event.
If the two events repeatedly occur together (e.g., alert + interesting event),
bias
If you really dislike the current prime minister but later come to appreciate the good things that he accomplished, you may report that you felt more positive toward him while he was in office. Which sin of memory does this scenario represent?
memory misattribution (source memory error) example
If you tell someone you learned about the 1921 Tulsa Race Massacre in a U.S. History class, but you learned about it when you saw the premiere of "Watchmen" on HBO
working memory.
If you were to add the numbers 26 and 41 in your head, it is assumed that you would be doing this in your:
negative reinforcement.
Imagine that you have a headache. You take two aspirin and notice that in a few minutes, your headache starts to subside. Because the aspirin effectively eliminated your headache, you would probably be more likely to take them again the next time you have a headache. This example best demonstrates the process of:
significant to you (e.g., your parents, siblings, close friends, etc.), and it also tends to happen more often when the model is viewed positively and when the model is rewarded for the behavior.
Imitation tends to happen more for models who are
become habituated to the dog's bark.
Parker used to get startled every time the family dog would bark. Now he continues whatever he is doing and appears to not even notice the dog's bark. Parker has probably:
the patterns surrounding you, relationships between stimuli and events that you don't need to try to learn, but that ultimately become familiar nevertheless.
Implicit learning usually involves learning about...
converse easily, use and understand language, and perform well on intelligence tests, but he could not remember anything that happened to him after the operation.
In 1953, a 27-year-old man, known then by the initials HM, suffered from intractable epilepsy. In a desperate attempt to stop the seizures, HM's doctors removed parts of his temporal lobes, including the hippocampus and some surrounding regions. After the operation, HM could...
consistency bias.
In 2016, Jane told her friend Alicia that she thought that tattoos were ridiculous and that no one should ever get one under any circumstance. In 2019, Jane tells Alicia that she just got a tattoo. Alicia is quite surprised because she remembers that, just 3 years ago, Jane was absolutely opposed to tattoos. Jane insists that she was only opposed to tattoos on particular areas of the body. It is possible that Jane's memory of the past may be influenced by:
answered questions about what the word means; long-term memory
In Craik and Tulving's experiment, subjects answered questions about a long list of words. They found that subjects recalled best words for which they had _____________. After answering such questions it is likely that the words recalled best had been stored in ____________.
fixed-interval
In Shawn's experiment, a monkey must push a lever to get a reward. If the monkey is successful, it gets a piece of banana every 2 minutes. What type of reinforcement schedule is this?
by themselves; with others OR by themselves
In a typical collaborative memory experiment, participants first encode a list of words _____ and then some time later attempt to recall those words _____.
change what we remember from an experience
In addition to improving and impairing subsequent memory, the act of retrieval also can...
, the stimulus does not directly evoke a response; rather, it establishes an internal cognitive state that then produces the behavior.
In both Rescorla's and Tolman's theories...
a reflexive response to the CS; volunteered by the subject
In classical conditioning, once acquired, the learned response is ____, while in operant conditioning the learned response is ____.
come to elicit the conditioned response.
In classical conditioning, stimuli that are initially neutral:
(a.) we learn to associate two events (stimuli) and (b.) our behavior is reflexive
In classical conditioning,...
model; modeling
In observational learning, one person is the observer, the other is the... ...and the imitative behavior performed by the observer is called...
biological predisposition.
In the Brelands' research, pigs would not drop coins into a box, and, instead, pushed them along the ground with their snout, despite programmed reinforcement. This was evidence of:
new words that hadn't been shown
In the dot-clearing experiment, participants are better at identifying words that they'd seen previously than __________.
causes Andrew's brother to feel angry!
In the end, just the sound of the phone alert alone...
She wants to remember a new fact about psychologist Albert Bandura.
In which situation would it be BEST for Sheila to use semantic encoding?
This is probably because the frontal lobes play a significant role in effortful retrieval processes, which are required to dredge up the correct source of a memory.
Individuals with damage to the frontal lobes are especially prone to memory misattribution errors
sensory memory
Information in which memory store lasts for a few seconds?
State-Dependent Retrieval
Information is better recalled when the person is in the same mental or physiological state during encoding and retrieval.
Sensory memory
It is large, accurate, but very brief; sensory memories will decay after about a second. It is a temporary storage buffer between sensory input and the next stage, short-term memory.
the specific items that are practiced; stronger
It may seem like sometimes retrieval can help improve memories, but other times it may impair memories. But in both situations, the memories for _______ will become ______.
salivation
Ivan Pavlov won the Nobel Prize for his work focusing on:
retrieval
Jake is describing a chance encounter with acquaintance. "I couldn't remember her name, yet it was on the tip of my tongue!" he exclaims. Jake is describing a failure of a memory process called:
serial position
Janayah tries to recite the names of the Harry Potter books in order. She remembers the first three and the last three, but forgets one in the middle. Janayah's memory for the first and last Harry Potter books reflects the _____ effect.
false recognition.
Jeanette is walking down the street and sees a man he is sure she has met before. Jeanette asks the man if they know each other, and he informs her that he has just arrived in the country and has never seen her before. Jeanette's feeling of familiarity is MOST likely a result of:
7
Jessica is trying to memorize all 26 definitions in her chemistry booklet in the last 2 minutes before the exam. She believes that she can store all the definitions in her short-term memory. In fact, her short-term memory is able to hold approximately _____ of the definitions.
spontaneous recovery
Kaleb developed a fear of snowstorms two winters ago when his car spun off the road and hit a tree during a blizzard. As the winter progressed, and he had no further accidents, Kaleb thought his fear of snowstorms had pretty well disappeared. To his surprise, this winter when the first heavy snow started to fall, he found his heart was pounding and he was trembling. This illustrates the classical conditioning process known as:
episodic
Kareem vividly remembers when he received his driver's license. This event in his life is different from other people's experiences, so it is a(n) _____ memory.
transience
Keith took 4 years of Latin in high school and 2 years of Latin in college. Nevertheless, only a year after he graduated from college, he realizes that he remembers very little of the Latin language, illustrating:
a. occurs without any obvious reinforcement.
Latent learning provides evidence for a cognitive element in operant conditioning because it
absentmindedness
Lauren returns home after work and hears the phone ringing. She runs for the phone while attempting to keep the cat from getting outside. Later, she cannot remember where she put her car keys when she got home from work. Her forgetfulness is MOST likely caused by:
"Responses that produce a satisfying effect in a particular situation become more likely to occur again in that situation, and responses that produce a discomforting effect become less likely to occur again in that situation."
Law of Effect
variable interval; fixed interval; more
Leah and Simon are both taking Introductory Spanish. Leah's class is scheduled to have 16 pop quizzes during the semester, while Simon's class is scheduled to have a quiz each Friday. Leah's class is on a __________ reinforcement schedule, while Simon's class is on a ______________ reinforcement schedule. Leah's class can be expected to study ________ steadily than Simon's class.
key ideas of learning
Learning is based on experience. Learning produces changes in the organism. These changes are relatively permanent
contexts
Learning takes place in... ..., not in the free range of any plausible situation
negative reinforcement
Liam can make his sister, Lily, give him her toys or candy by whistling. Because she hates the sound so much, Lily will give Liam whatever he wants to make him stop. When Liam stops whistling, it is _____ for Lily.
transience
Lilith took 4 years of French in high school and 2 years of French in college. Nevertheless, only a year after she graduated from college, she realizes that she remembers very little of the French language, illustrating:
white rat; loud noise
Little Albert developed a fear of a _____ because it was paired with a(n) _____.
stimulus generalization.
Little Albert's fear response to a white rabbit, fur coat, and Santa Claus mask are all examples of:
generalization
Lucy, a 6-year-old, was recently bitten by her grandmother's terrier. Lucy sees a small dog in the park a week later and begins to cry. MOST likely, Lucy is exhibiting:
transactive
Lynn and Jerry have been in a close relationship for 20 years, and they often rely on each other to remember certain kinds of information that they can share with each other. Lynn and Jerry are using a type of collaborative memory called _____ memory.
Not learning
MYCIN is a computer program that does a rather good job of diagnosing human infections by consulting a large database of rules it has been given. If we add another rule to the database, has MYCIN learned something?
semantic
Making _____ judgments about new information makes it easiest to remember.
Transfer-Appropriate Processing
Memory is likely to transfer from one situation to another when the encoding and retrieval contexts of the situation match.
short-term
Mary is trying to help her daughter sell Girl Scout cookies. A fellow colleague at work tells her 7 different boxes of cookies he wants to buy. Mary must write these down right away because she has about 15 to 20 seconds before her _____ store is depleted.
encoding information and storing it so that it may be retrieved at a later time.
Memory functions by:
the law of effect.
Meng believes that he does things that make him feel good and avoids things that make him feel bad. His views are consistent with:
the boss
Mia's angry boss wears a particular type of cologne. One day, Mia is at the mall when she smells the same cologne. The smell produced a momentary feeling of uneasiness in Mia. In this example, what is the unconditioned stimulus?
visual image
Michael can't remember the name of his brother's girlfriend, but he remembers what she looks like and could pick her out of a crowd. This is MOST likely due to his having encoded a(n) ______.
episodic
Michaela and Leon are arguing about the details surrounding their first vacation. Their disagreement is occurring because they each have different _____ memories for the event.
negative punishment
Michelle's parents took away her smartphone for 2 weeks because she failed a class that semester. Michelle's parents are using _____ to affect her study behaviors.
the whistle
Miguel is training his dog, Ringo, to bark when there is a knock on the door. He already knows that blowing on a whistle will make Ringo bark. So, he decides to blow on the whistle and knock on the door at the same time to condition Ringo to bark. What is the unconditioned stimulus in this case?
a positive punishment for drinking red wine
Miguel used to enjoy occasionally drinking a glass of red wine, but when he drank too much red wine at a friend's party a few months ago he woke up with a terrible hangover. Since then Miguel refuses to drink any red wine. In this case, Miguel's hangover acted as:
primacy
Morgan's teacher read her a list of U.S. presidents and instructed her to find several facts on each as part of a homework assignment. However, Morgan failed to write the list down. She can remember the first few presidents the teacher mentioned, though. Morgan's memory for these presidents reflects the _____ effect.
encoding, storage, and retrieval
Morris thinks about what he ate for breakfast this morning. In order, which key steps must his brain perform to remember this event?
retrieving the stored information
Most of what you do with memory (remembering names, events, facts, songs, etc.) depends on effectively
e. both b. and c. are true
Most people who overdose on a drug (like cocaine) do so not by taking more of the drug, but by taking the same amount as usual in an unfamiliar setting. Which of the following are true in regards to this phenomenon: a. cues associated with using a drug in a familiar environment elicit a conditional response identical to unconditional response to that drug b. cues associated with using a drug in a familiar environment elicit a conditional response that opposes the unconditional response to that drug c. in the unfamiliar setting, in the absence of cues associated with using a drug in a familiar environment, the person does not have their typical conditional response before the drug enters their body d. both a. and c. are true e. both b. and c. are true
The group of individuals will recall more items correctly versus those recalled by an individual, as collaboration benefits memory.
Mulan, Alice, Jamal, and Sam are working together to recall the items they are to bring to school for a class project. Pam is individually trying to remember the items she needs to bring to school for the same project, without any help from others. Are the collaborators (Mulan, Alice, Jamal, and Sam) or the individual (Pam) likely to recall more items?
habituated
My parents live in Los Angeles, and there're a lot of helicopters flying overhead. Whenever I visit them, I notice every flyover by a helicopter, but my parents are able to totally ignore them, because they've become _________ to the helicopters.
damage to parts of the left temporal lobe on the surface of the cortex,
Name blocking usually results from... ...,most often as a result of a stroke.
an effective study strategy because examples should help her to recall key ideas
Naomi is studying for her law exam. While she is studying she is trying to think of as many examples as she can to illustrate key ideas. In this case, Naomi is using:
rehearsal
Nate is going to the grocery store to pick up a few things. He refuses to write a list, but instead repeats the eight items he intends to buy over and over in his head on the way to the store. This is an example of:
removal; removal
Negative reinforcement involves the _____ of a stimulus when a desired behavior occurs, and negative punishment involves the _____ of a stimulus when an undesired behavior occurs.
action.
Neural research indicates that observational learning is closely tied to brain areas that are involved in
When we fear for our well-being, the sympathetic nervous system puts the body on "high alert," and the brain's emotional response, centered in the amygdala, triggers the hippocampus to encode enhanced memories of the emotional experience.
Neuroscience behind persistence of bad memories.
combining information we already know with new sensory information.
New memories are formed by:
semantic, visual imagery, and organizational
One advantage of encoding survival-related information is that it draws on elements of... ...encoding, which together produce high levels of subsequent memory.
Non-human animals have demonstrated their ability to learn from the behaviors of others, enabling them to learn what predators fear, learn novel uses for tools, and generally imitate the behaviors of those surrounding them.
Observational learning in animals
hippocampus
Olive's _____ experiences reduced activity when she is successfully suppressing an unwanted memory, like the exam she failed last week or the death of her beloved pet hamster.
the frontal lobe no longer has to work as hard to control retrieval, ultimately making it easier to recall the target item
Once the competitor is suppressed,...
positive punishment
One of the disadvantages of ______________ is that it often arouses negative emotions such as fear and anger and can inspire the dislike or avoidance of the person administering it.
with just one single acquisition trial.
One of the fascinating aspects of learned taste aversion is that it can sometimes occur...
Declarative memories
One of the hallmark features of explicit memories is that you can describe or declare them, which is why explicit memories are sometimes called...
A swimmer who practices (operant) and then wins a competition (reinforcer) is likely to practice more in the future.
Operant Conditioning ex]
the new stimulus is similar to the CS.
Our reactions tend to generalize from the CS to new stimuli, producing conditioned responses as long as...
organizational / hierarchical encoding.
Participants in a memory study are presented with words that belong to one of four categories (e.g., insects, beverages) or are presented with words that have no apparent relationship to one another. The group that received the categories of words remembers more words than those who had the other list. This is MOST likely due to their use of:
explicit; implicit
Patients with amnesia show deficits in _____ memory but not in _____ memory.
explicit and implicit memories are distinct systems.
Patients with amnesia who have hippocampal damage can still form procedural memories, suggesting that:
positive punishment
Paulo's parents told him he would have to study for an extra hour each day since he failed all of his courses this semester. Juan's parents are using _____ to affect his study behaviors.
generalization; discrimination
Pavlov's dogs were conditioned to salivate to a 1000-hz tone due to its pairing with food. After this training, it was found that the dogs would salivate to a 900-hz tone but not to a 500-hz tone. Salivating to the 900-hz tone is an example of _____, and not salivating to a 500-hz tone is an example of _____.
rehearsal
Penelope is trying to remember a phone number by repeating it several times in her head. Penelope is using _____ to remember the items.
hippocampal
People who have amnesia can still acquire new procedural memories because the _____ area of the brain is not necessary for implicit memories.
have difficulty imagining future possibilities
People who have selective deficits in recalling past events also...
disturbing or traumatic experiences.
Persistence occurs most often after...
the role of bias in long-term memory
Phillip has just returned from a trip to Spain, the land of beautiful senoritas and courageous bullfighters. During his trip he went to a carnival that included many people in colorful costumes. In describing the variety of people in costume at the carnival, Phillip states that there was a man dressed as a bullfighter in black suit with a red cape --- even though there was no one at the carnival dressed as a bullfighter. Phillip's error in recall BEST illustrates:
transfer-appropriate processing
Phoebe's Spanish professor schedules an exam for the next class but does not describe the format of the test. Phoebe studies for the exam using a program in which she speaks to a computer in Spanish, while her friend studies using a practice test with multiple choice questions. According to the _____ principle, if the test is an oral recitation, Phoebe's friend should perform worse on the exam than Phoebe does.
rotation test
Place individual in special chair, tilt head forward about 30 degrees to ensure horizontal duct is parallel to floor. Spin chair 10 turns, then stop abruptly. Momentum of endolymph causes movement w/in canal to continue, & even though head is stationary, eyes move slowly in direction of turn (slow component), then quickly move to opposite direction (fast component). This continues for about 30 sec.
weaken; weaken
Positive punishers _____ behavior, and negative punishers _____ behavior.
presentation; removal
Positive reinforcement involves the _____ of a stimulus and increases the likelihood of a behavior, and negative reinforcement involves the _____ of a stimulus and increases the likelihood of a behavior.
Appropriate to retrieval and application
Practice recalling the information and using the information in the way your teacher expects you to be able to do.
The phone alert (NS) is followed by (+) getting hit (US) with paper repeatedly.
Present an NS followed by the US:
more accessible.
Priming is a technique that makes certain memories:
implicit memory; 17 years
Priming is an example of... ...and can last up to...
saving processing time.
Priming makes memory more efficient by:
Less activity in cortex that is activated usually
Priming seems to make it easier for parts of the cortex that are involved in perceiving a word or object to identify the item after a recent exposure to it
the accuracy of flashbulb memories
Psychologist Charles Weaver (1993) compared students' recollections of the bombing of Iraq in the Persian Gulf War with their recollections of a routine interaction with a friend. When he questioned students several months after the war, he found that the students recalled the bombing no more accurately than the social interaction, and that the students tended to be more confident in their memories of the bombing. This finding has the most relevance to which of the following concepts?
answer questions about that thing.
Psychologists are starting to discover that, if you want to learn something, one of the best things you can do is...
encoding
Quinton never remembered his new friend's phone number because he was not paying attention. MOST likely he will not recall this number because of a failure in:
episodic
Rachel's fifteenth birthday is on Friday. Her mother and father ask her to choose between Olive Garden and Red Lobster for her birthday dinner. Rachel remembers that she more recently ate at the Red Lobster. Because of this, Rachel decides that she would like to go to Olive Garden for her birthday dinner. What type of memory did Rachel utilize in making her decision?
latent learning
Ramona learned to drive a car with a stick shift 20 years ago but had not driven one again since until she rented a car in Italy. She found that she recovered this skill within a few minutes. Ramona's experience BEST exemplifies:
variable interval schedule.
Random drug tests and roadside speed traps would both be considered examples of the
long-term potentiation
Rats given a drug to block _____ have difficulty remembering where they have just been and are more likely to get lost in a maze than are rats not given the drug.
retroactive interference
Ray's new assistant in the shipping department is names John Cocker. Ray keeps calling him Joe, mixing him up with the singer Joe Cocker who Ray has liked for years. Why is Ray making this error?'
explicit memory
Recalling last summer's vacation, incidents from a novel you just read, or facts you studied for a test all involve...
Fixed-Ratio (FR) Schedule
Reinforcers are presented after a specific number of responses are made. Frequent buyer cards in the IMU Food Court (buy ten meals, get $2 off the 11th meal) reinforce eating there on a fixed-ratio schedule.
Variable-Ratio (VR) Schedule
Reinforcers are presented after a variable number of responses, based on a particular average number. The classic example of this is a slot machine, where you're unsure how many times you'll need to play to win.
Variable-Interval (VI) Schedule
Reinforcers are presented at a variable time interval, based on an average time that has expired since the last reinforcement. Pop quizzes might be considered to be on a variable-interval schedule — you can't predict precisely when it'll be, but it'll be some interval after the last pop quiz.
Fixed-Interval (FI) Schedule
Reinforcers are presented at fixed-time periods, provided that the appropriate response is made. Exams in traditional classes are like fixed interval reinforcement: No studying for a few weeks, then a lot of studying right before the next exam (except that the exam will occur regardless of whether you study).
the motor cortex
Related evidence indicates that observational learning of some motor skills relies on... ..., which is known to be critical for motor learning.
disrupting reconsolidation; amygdala
Related work using fMRI indicates that... ...can seemingly eliminate a fear memory in a part of the brain called the... ..., which, as we will learn later in this chapter, plays a key role in emotional memory
episodic
Remembering the what, where, and when information about the personal events that occurred in one's life is a type of _____ memory.
false memories
Repeated suggestibility may actually produce _____ in some people.
explicit memories.
Research has revealed that the hippocampus plays a particularly important role in the formation of:
synapses
Research indicates that the _____ in the brain actually change as a result of long-term potentiation.
observational learning.
Researcher Peter Vaughn and colleagues broadcasted a TV show in which role models demonstrated the importance of avoiding risky sexual acts. Characters in the show who practiced safe sex habits received positive outcomes, whereas characters who engaged in risky sexual behaviors received negative outcomes. The results revealed that people who were exposed to this show increased their use of safe sex practices. This study demonstrates the effectiveness of:
changes the state of the memory system in important ways.
Retrieval doesn't merely provide a readout of what is in memory; it also...
if you were to spend the same amount of time simply studying the material by reading, highlighting, or taking notes.
Retrieval practice creates even stronger memories than...
short-term
Rihanna heard a phone number but did not attempt to encode it, so she could not remember it later. More than likely, the phone number never made it past her _____ memory.
a cognitive map
Road construction prevents you from getting to campus using the route that you usually travel. You think about the situation for a moment and then come up with a different route to take. To figure out this alternative route, you are using _____ to devise a different route.
positive reinforcement
Rob drinks alcohol because it helps him be more talkative and humorous when socializing with his friends. Rob's drinking is being maintained by:
the reconstructive nature of memory
Rosa is hosting a birthday party for her son's fifth birthday. The kids are screaming and Rosa has a terrible headache. She is telling one of the other mothers about the day her son was born. Even though her actual labor was relatively short and problem free, she describes it as being a long and difficult labor. Rosa's faulty recall illustrates:
semantic
Rosemary learns a new fact about Wilhelm Wundt, her favorite psychologist. To remember it, she relates the new fact to information she already knows. Rosemary is using _____ encoding.
semantic memories are not tied to any specific personal experience. Episodic memories, however, are about personal experiences that occurred at a particular time and place.
The primary difference between semantic and episodic memories
d. both a and b are true
Secondary reinforcers in operant conditioning: a. become reinforcing after being associated with (a) primary reinforcer(s) b. become reinforcers via classical conditioning c. are reinforcing for just about everyone throughout their entire life d. both a and b are true e. all of the above (a, b, and c are true)
the frontal lobes
Semantic and organizational encoding both depend on _____ of the brain.
explicit
Shannon remembers her 16th birthday partly vividly and recalls how her parents surprised her with a brand new car. This is an example of a(n) _____ memory.
recall of clusters in a hierarchy
Sheila's class has just finished studying the skeletal system in anatomy class. Sheila is trying to recall all of the bones in the human body. She begins by naming all of the bones in the legs, followed by the arms, the trunk and then the head and neck. Sheila's pattern of recall illustrates the concept of:
what you are noticing at any given moment, whatever you are perceiving or thinking about. Unfortunately, if we get distracted, we may "lose our train of thought."
Short-term memory contains...
reliable
Somehow, Pavlov's dogs were sensitive to the fact that Pavlov was not a... ...indicator of the arrival of food.
Questioning, create a concept map, retrieving and using info in ways that the teacher expects
Strategies for achieving deep processing while reading
1. Do examine how you prepared 2. Be honest with yourself 3. Review the exam 4. Compare errors with notes taken 5. Talk to your professor 6. Examine your study habits 7. Develop a plan
The Do's after bad exam
The phone alert (NS) causes no response from his brother at the start.
The NS does not produce a UR:
expectations
The Rescorla-Wagner model shows that classical conditioning actually involves a cognitive aspect based on the organism's:
causal relationship
Superstitions can be explained by operant conditioning as mistakenly inferring a _____ between a specific behavior and a reinforcer.
visual imagery.
Tammy needs to stop at the grocery store on the way home. As she drives to work that morning she does a "mental walk" through her home and imagines each needed grocery item in a different location in her home. Tammy is making use of:
visual imagery encoding.
Tamosin has a hard time remembering names. One night at a party, she met a man whom she wanted to impress. In order to remember that his name was Joe, she imagined a steaming cup of coffee ("a cup of Joe") every time she looked at him because "Joe" is a slang term for coffee. This illustrates:
discriminative stimulus; in the preschooler's case, the discriminative stimulus is being in the childcare playground.
The "cue" that indicates whether a behavior will be reinforced
generalization
The CR is observed even though the CS is slightly different from the CS used during acquisition
Getting hit (US) always causes Andrew's brother to feel angry (UR).
The US causes a UR each time it occurs:
recognize words
The episodic buffer plays a role in learning to... ..., which requires combining visual and verbal information.
hippocampal structures
The fact that people who have amnesia can acquire new procedural memories suggests that the... ...that are usually damaged in these individuals may be necessary for explicit memory, but they aren't needed for implicit procedural memory
prospective memory.
The flashing red light on the multiline telephone operator's phone reminded him that there was an important call waiting to be transferred. The flashing light served as a cue for his:
Rehearsing definitions out loud
The following are all strategies for achieving deep processing, except:
to create memories that you can retrieve on an exam
The goal of studying is...
semantic
The hippocampus is necessary for episodic memory but may not play as strong a role in acquiring new _____ memories.
procedural
The hippocampus is not necessary for acquiring new _____ memories.
semantic
The hippocampus is unnecessary for acquiring new _____ memories.
retrieval
The idea that information in memory may be available but inaccessible is supported by the effectiveness of _____ cues.
all of the above
The idea that memories are reconstructions of information we encountered in the past is supported by which of the following? a. memories are sketchy...we encode what we consider to be key and discard what the consider to be "details" b. memories are distorted by pre-existing ideas...we tend to encode in our memories what we expect to happen in that sort of situation c. memories can be distorted by misinformation or by leading questions we encounter after the experience d. all of the above
organizational
The process of categorizing information according to the relationships among a series of items is _____ encoding.
camping
The last time Leo went camping, he found a snake in his tent, and he is deathly afraid of snakes. Now he becomes nervous every time he thinks about camping or watches a movie or television show that involves camping. The conditioned stimulus in this case is:
nervousness
The last time Leona went camping, she found a snake in her tent. She is deathly afraid of snakes. Now she becomes nervous every time she thinks about camping or watches a movie or television show that involves camping. The conditioned response in this case is:
the less effective the reinforcement (or punishment) will be at modifying behavior.
The longer there's a delay in reinforcement...
the frontal lobe and the inner part of the left temporal lobe
The more activity there is in these areas, the more likely the person will remember the information.
the less effective the reinforcer
The more time elapses...
explicit and implicit forms of memory.
The most basic division in the taxonomy of memory is between...
medial forebrain bundle
The neurons in the... ..., a pathway that meanders its way from the midbrain through the hypothalamus into the nucleus accumbens, are the most susceptible to stimulation that produces pleasure
the hippocampal-region index.
The observation that people like HM cannot make new memories but can remember old ones can be explained by:
highly emotional experiences
The persistence of intrusive memories, such as flashbulb memories, is often a result of:
an already established CS can be used in the place of a natural US
The phenomenon of second-order classical conditioning shows that:
Organizational encoding
The process of categorizing information according to the relationships among a series of items.
the hippocampus plays a key role in the consolidation of long
The profound anterograde amnesia that H. M. experienced after undergoing surgery to control his epilepsy suggests that:
the encoding specificity principle.
The research on divers who remembered more when their learning conditions (being on land or in the water) matched their recall conditions (being on land or in the water) supports:
sequences previously watched than on the untrained sequences; the previously danced sequences
The results of a surprise dancing test given to participants after the conclusion of scanning showed that performance was better on... ..., demonstrating significant observational learning; but performance was best of all on...
collaborative inhibition
The same number of individuals working together recall fewer items than they would on their own.
reactive
The study of classical conditioning is the study of behaviors that are...
bias
The tendency for people to remember events as either more positive or more negative as compared with their feelings at the actual time of the event is due to:
the unconditioned response (UR).
The unconditioned stimulus (US) causes
organizational encoding
The use of _____ will probably lead to better recall of words when participants in a memory study are presented with words that belong to one of four categories (e.g., insects, beverages), rather than words that have no apparent relationship to one another.
yoking
Then I ask a random sample of other students to use the exact same study habits — so they get exposure to the same material, at the same times, and in the same way.
encoding, storage, and retrieval
Think about what you ate for breakfast this morning. What three steps must you have performed to remember this event?
semantic memory.
This test question would be considered an example of a test of:
repeated; avoided
Thorndike's law of effect states that behaviors leading to pleasant situations will be _____, and behaviors that result in unpleasant situations will be _____.
he reference desk at a library, where attention is allocated to diverse tasks and information is processed and retrieved.
To draw a rough analogy, your working memory can best be likened to:
without the US.
To extinguish a CR, you present the CS alone,...
encode
To successfully remember information, a person must first _____ the information before he or she can store and retrieve it.
lose; general
Transience describes how our memories _____ detail over time, and we reconstruct memories based on _____ experience.
searching through memories, suppressing irrelevant memories, and making connections between cues and memories.
Trying to remember involves...
different; different
Trying to remember something and actually remembering something involve _____ processes and use _____ brain areas.
successfully retrieving a memory
Trying to retrieve a memory seems to involve a different brain network than the act of...
semantic
Twenty-five years from now, Andrew is on Jeopardy. One of the answers is "This person was the 23rd prime minister of Canada." Andrew says confidently, "Who was Justin Trudeau?" and is correct. To answer this question, Andrew has to use what part of his memory?
collaborative memory
Tyson, Ray, and Marcus are assigned a list of places to remember. After studying them for a period of time, they work together to remember the list. This type of task is called _____ group.
N back test
a procedure where participants are given a sequence of items and must report whenever the current item is identical to the one "n" items before
occipital lobe
Visual imagery encoding activates visual processing regions in the..., ...which suggests that people actually enlist the visual system when forming memories based on mental images
organizational
Visual imagery encoding could relate to _____ encoding if a person also categorized the information according to how the items related to one another.
about 1/2 to 1 second
Visual sensory memory, or iconic memory, lasts...
1. he wanted to show that a relatively complex reaction could be conditioned using Pavlovian techniques 2. he wanted to show that emotional responses such as fear and anxiety could be produced by classical conditioning and therefore need not be the product of deeper unconscious processes or early life experiences as Freud and his followers had argued 3. Watson wanted to confirm that conditioning could be applied to humans as well as to other animals
Watson's goals in Little Albert experiment.
we already
We make memories by combining information... ...have in our brains with new information that comes in through our senses.
Even sophisticated behaviors such as emotion are subject to classical conditioning.
What did Watson and Rayner seek to demonstrate about behaviorism through the Little Albert experiments?
they displayed an increase in aggression
When the children observed a model being rewarded and praised for aggressive behavior...
a person can no longer encode new information to long-term memory but can still recall information from before the injury reasonably well.
When there's damage to the hippocampus...
source memory misattribution
When we fail to recall when, where, and how we acquired information
the encoding specificity principle.
When we place ourselves in the physical space our original learning process occurred, we prime ourselves to more readily retrieve memories that were encoded in the same space. This is called:
b. implicit learning
What kind of learning takes place largely independent of awareness of both the process and the products of information acquisition?
the occipital lobe
What region of the brain is MOST active during visual imagery encoding?
stimulus discrimination
When Antonio was sick as a child his mother would always make him vanilla pudding; to Antonio it seemed like the vanilla pudding made him feel better. Even now, he still gets a good feeling when he starts to prepare some vanilla pudding, but not when he starts to make any other type of pudding. This example illustrates the classical conditioning process of:
habituated to the sound.
When Ariel first moved into her apartment, the sound of the traffic drove her nuts. Now, after 3 months, Ariel doesn't notice the sound because she has likely:
habituation
When Jasminda first moved into her apartment, the buzzing noise coming from her refrigerator greatly annoyed her. Now, after 3 months, Jasminda does not notice the sound at all. Jasminda's experience BEST demonstrates:
People simply couldn't encode all the letters in such a brief period of time. People encoded the letters but forgot them while trying to recall everything they had seen.
When asked to remember all 12 of the letters they had just seen, participants recalled fewer than half. There were two possible explanations for this:
diffusion chain
When individuals initially learn behavior by observing another individual perform that behavior and then serve as a model from which other individuals learn the behavior
transience
When our memory fades over time, we generally lose most information closer to the time of learning, rather than long after learning has occurred. This is an example of:
Implicit Memory
When past experiences influence later behavior and performance, even without any effort to remember them or an awareness of the recollection.
a potentially dangerous recipe for memory misattribution is in place
When people experience a strong sense of familiarity about a person, object, or event but lack recollection of specific details,...
left frontal lobe
When someone is unsuccessfully trying to remember something, there is activity in the:
causes anterograde amnesia
Which an elderly person is diagnosed with mild cognitive impairment (MCI) they are still capable of carrying out their normal daily activities but they lose things often and forget to go to events or appointments. These impairments indicate that MCI _____.
eye blinks
Which behavior is LEAST likely to be studied by researchers using operant techniques?
avoiding sushi after getting sick following eating it
Which behavior is MOST apt to be a biologically prepared response?
avoiding speeding in an area where you received a ticket previously
Which example demonstrates that learning has occurred?
Alan carefully watches out for terms and ideas that sound similar (e.g. behavioral v behavioral genetics) or that have similar meanings (e.g. clinical v counseling psychology) so that he can think deeply about the ways in which they differ from each other.
Which of the following is an example of distinctiveness principle for deep processing?
ABC CIA IRS MTV; because each set of letters is a meaningful "chunk
Which of the following lists of letters would be easier for a person to maintain in short-term memory and why?
d. All of the above.
Which of the following question can be answered, at least in part, by understanding the principles of operant and classical conditioning? a. Why do people persist longer in performing a behavior that has paid off only occasionally in the past compared to who had been rewarded for the behavior each time it occurred in the past. b. Why do people who know the deadline for a project sometimes put off starting to work on the project only when the opportunity for a reward for doing a good job a day or two away? c. How do advertisers manipulate the emotions we feel to sell their products? d. All of the above.
the amygdala
Which part of the brain is involved in the classical conditioning of fear?
It starts slowly, rises quickly, and then tapers off.
Which pattern BEST describes learning during the acquisition phase of classical conditioning?
fixed-interval
Which schedule offers reinforcement based on the amount of time that has passed since the last reinforcement was received?
long term, short term, sensory
Which sequence lists the types of storage from largest to smallest capacity?
sensory, short term, long term
Which sequence lists the types of storage from most brief to most enduring?
sensory memory, short-term memory, long-term memory
Which sequence represents the flow of information through the memory system?
Your memory might be currently primed by events that took place years earlier
Which statement about priming is true?
We usually remember information in a way that makes us view ourselves negatively.
Which statement does NOT describe an adaptive feature of the sins of memory?
A baby reflexively pulls back her hand when it is exposed to a hot burner.
Which statement does NOT present an example of learning?
A woman reflexively pulls back her hand from a hot burner.
Which statement is NOT an example of learning?
the nucleus accumbens
Which structure is a pleasure center in the brain?
taking practice tests
Which study strategy has been shown to be the most effective?
iconic
While driving in his car looking for a particular street, Aiko briefly sees the road sign but after a few seconds she cannot remember the name of the street. This illustrates the quick decay of _____ memory.
explicit
While stopping at the store to pick up some snacks, you run into George, an old friend you haven't seen in a while. You and George talk, catching up on things. Then George says, "I remember the time we went to the World Series game." He continues to tell you about the game. What type of memory is George using to tell the story of the game?
Then the neutral stimulus (NS) alone causes a response.
a neutral stimulus (NS) is paired with the unconditioned stimulus (US).
punished; positively reinforced
While walking through the mall, a young boy sees a new pair of shoes and immediately tells his grandmother that he would like to have them. The grandma initially refuses, prompting the boy to get upset and he starts to cry. The grandma hates to see her grandson get upset, so she changes her mind and buys him the shoes. In this example, we could say that the grandma's initial refusal was _____________ and the boy's mini-tantrum was ____________.
frontal
Wilson is memorizing a list of countries during a PET scan. One would expect that the upper part of his left _____ lobe is the most active.
"no." Animals (and humans) have natural response sequences that can be very difficult to bypass in operant conditioning learning models.
With enough shaping and reinforcement, can animals learn anything?
effect
Xenon purchases food that tastes good to her and avoid foods that do not taste good. Her behaviors are consistent with Edward Thorndike's law of _____.
mirror neurons
You are watching your friend use a new statistical software package. As you do so special neurons in your brain are activated. These neurons, which are the same neurons that would be activated if you were using the new package, are known as _____.
a. A fraction of a second
You are witness to a hit-and-run car accident. Just before the accident you looked directly at the car's license plate. How long can you expect your sensory memory to hold on to that iconic image?
Chunking
You recode the letters into words and the pictures behind the words
Unpracticed-related items (the words that are not practiced, but are in the same category as words that were practiced)
You're trying to remember word pairs that consist of a category name, and an example from that category (e.g., METAL - iron, TREE - birch, METAL - silver, TREE - elm). You practice retrieving some of the pairs repetitively, but not all of them. Then you take a final recall test. Because of retrieval-induced forgetting, which of the following items will you be *worst* at remembering during the final test?
semantic encoding.
Your professor tells you that it will be easier to remember a particular concept if you relate it in a meaningful way to knowledge you already have stored in memory, which is the process of:
you
Your psychology professor schedules an exam for the next class but does not say what type of test it will be. You study for the exam using a multiple-choice practice test, while your friend studies using a practice test with true/false questions. According to the transfer-appropriate processing principle, all other factors being equal, who is likely to do better on the exam if the questions are multiple choice?
conditioned stimulus (CS)
a previously neutral stimulus that produces a reliable response in an organism after being paired with a US
Sensitization
_____ is a simple form of learning that occurs when presentation of a stimulus leads to an increased response to a later stimulus.
Classical conditioning
_____ is a type of learning that occurs when a neutral stimulus produces a response after being paired with a stimulus that naturally produces a response.
Working
_____ memory includes a short time limit that information can be kept in mind but allows for active maintenance and processing of stored information.
Iconic
_____ memory is a fast-decaying store of visual memory.
Positive and negative; positive and negative
_____ reinforcement increase(s) the likelihood of a behavior happening, while _____ punishment decrease(s) the likelihood of the behavior.
State-dependent
_____ retrieval would suggest that, if Asher is asked to recall a childhood memory when he is in a bad mood, he will MOST likely remember a negative memory.
Ratio
_____ schedules of reinforcement typically produce the highest and most consistent rates of responding.
variable-interval (VI) schedule
a behavior is reinforced on the basis of an average time that has expired since the last reinforcement
reward center
a dopamine-rich pathway in the brain that produces feelings of pleasure when activated; motivates behavior
blocking
a failure to retrieve information that is available in memory even though you are trying to produce it
blocking
a failure to retrieve information that is otherwise available in memory.
Echoic memory
a fast-decaying store of auditory information; usually decay in about 5 seconds
iconic memory
a fast-decaying store of visual information; decay in a bout 1 second or less
habituation
a general process in which repeated or prolonged exposure to a stimulus results in a gradual reduction in responding
cognitive map
a mental representation of the physical features of the environment
long-term memory
a type of storage that holds information for hours, days, weeks, or years
sensory memory
a type of storage that holds sensory information for a few seconds or less.]; unattended information is lost
operant conditioning
a voluntary behavior (being considerate) followed by a satisfying experience (chocolate) increases in frequency as Penny volunteers more and more considerate behaviors.
central executive memory
manager of the operations that working memory completes; delegates tasks to phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, or episodic buffer; decides what input is most important
1.ability to maintain information over time 2.All memory systems have three key functions: encoding, storage, and retrieval.
all memory systems share two things in common:
their evolutionary history
all species are biologically predisposed to learn some things more readily than others and to respond to stimuli in ways consistent with....
hippocampus and nearby structures in the medial temporal lobe
amnesic individuals are characterized by lesions to the...
implicit
amnesic patients not only show normal... ...memories but also display virtually normal implicit learning of artificial grammar
priming
an enhanced ability to think of a stimulus, such as a word or an object, due to recent exposure to the stimulus (or to a related stimulus).
primary reinforcer
an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need
Reinforcers
are always satisfying (pleasant) and increase behavior:
Punishers
are always unsatisfying (unpleasant) and decrease a behavior:
Mirror neurons
are found in various locations throughout the cerebral cortex. Some researchers believe that these neurons play an essential role in social behavior, allowing us to understand the actions of others and experience the emotion they are experiencing by imagining ourselves in their shoes.
episodic buffer
area of brain that adds soundtrack to the visuals and subtitles, adds sense of timing
memory misattribution
assigning a recollection or an idea to the wrong source
All facts you know are...
associated with each other in an extensive "network" of interrelated information
up to 2-3 seconds
auditory sensory memory, or echoic memory, lasts...
Procedural memory relies on...
basal ganglia and cerebellum
ratio schedules
based on the ratio of responses to reinforcements.
interval schedules
based on the time intervals between reinforcements
Why does sensitization occur?
because the stimulus is intense or punishing
could learn to imitate the exact actions performed by a model
chimpanzees who had been raised in environments that also included human contact...
recency effect; primacy effect
classic studies showed that the... ...—but not the... ...—is eliminated when participants count backward by 3s after the final list item is presented, which prevents them from relying on short-term storage to rehearse the last few items
a lasting reduction in the accessibility of individuals' memories.
collaborative inhibition produces...
chunking
combining small pieces of information into larger clusters or chunks that are more easily held in short-term memory.
amygdala
influences hormonal systems that kick into high gear when we experience an arousing event; these stress-related hormones, such as adrenaline and cortisol, mobilize the body in the face of threat—and they also enhance memory for the experience.
reconsolidation
consolidated memories can become vulnerable to disruption when they are recalled, thus requiring them to be consolidated again
overlearning
continuing to study beyond just knowing information to where it can be recalled quickly and easily
central executive
coordinates the subsystems and the episodic buffer
massed practice
cramming
two types of memory
declarative memory, procedural memory
flashbulb memories
detailed recollections of when and where we heard about shocking events
implicit learning
earning that takes place largely independent of awareness of both the process and the products of information acquisition
Group studying
easiest way to fool yourself into thinking you learnied
showed improvement on other working memory tasks when compared with untrained children
elementary school students who were trained on several working memory tasks (about 35 minutes/day for at least 20 days over a 5- to 7-week period)...
available; inaccessible; inaccessible
information is sometimes... ...in memory even when it is momentarily... ...and that retrieval cues help us bring... ...information to mind.
Semantic judgements
equired the participants to think about the meaning of the words (Is hat a type of clothing?).
Semantic and episodic memories are...
explicit memories
The response rate drops off fairly rapidly and, if a rest period is provided, spontaneous recovery is typically seen.
extinction of operant behavior looks like that of classical conditioning
regions within the frontal lobe that are involved in retrieval effort
fMRI evidence indicates that during memory retrieval,... ...play a role in suppressing competitors
personal
how can I relate concept to personal experience?
deja vecu
feel strongly—but mistakenly—that they have already lived through an experience and remember the details of what happened; disruption to parts of the temporal lobe that normally generate a subjective feeling of remembering as well as parts of the frontal lobe that are involved in source memory
einforcement is delivered after a specific number of responses have been made
fixed-ratio (FR) schedule
hippocampus
getting information into long-term memory is a function of the...
phonological loop
handles all auditory info; process what we hear and what we rehearse what we are going to say; about the length of time we can say string (2 seconds)
implicit learning
haven't been trying to learn these patterns — it's just something that you've picked up along the way; takes place largely independent of awareness of both the process and the products of information acquisition
nominal group
he combined recall of several individuals recalling target items on their own
Practice testing, distributed practice
highly effective study techniques
it will be even more resistant to extinction than if the reinforcer was presented on every trial.
if a reinforcer is presented in one of these patterns...
Operant conditioning extinction
ignoring the child if they are having a tantrum - don't reinforce the temper with attention.
conceptual priming
implicit memory for the meaning of a word or how you would use an object; depends more on regions toward the front of the brain, such as the frontal lobes; is associated with the left hemisphere
sleep
important role in consolidation of memories
positive reinforcer
increases the likelihood of the behavior that led to it because it earned you something you do like -> reward.
negative reinforcer
increases the likelihood of the behavior that led to it because it gets you out of something you don't like -> relief.
diffusion chain
individuals initially learn a behavior by observing another individual perform that behavior, and then become models from which other individuals learn the behavior
frontal lobes
individuals with damage to... ...are especially prone to memory misattribution errors
Shaping example
instead of waiting for your dog to casually wipe its paws on the mat at your front door one day, you might reward swiping at a rug with one foot, then swiping with the other paw, then swiping with both paws, then swiping on a different carpet until your dog can wipe its paws. In shaping, each behavior is a successive approximation toward the desired end-state.
episodic buffer
integrates visual and verbal information from the subsystems into a multidimensional code
a practice schedule that mixes different kinds of problems or materials within a single study session.
interleaved practice
the fact that operant behaviors that are maintained under intermittent reinforcement schedules resist extinction better than those maintained under continuous reinforcement
intermittent reinforcement effect
Learning
involves the acquisition, from experience, of new knowledge, skills, or responses that results in a relatively permanent change in the state of the learner.
Procedural Memory
is a form of implicit memory; the memories of "how" to do something
Habituation
is a reduction in a response; the simplest form of learning
Sensitization
is an increase in a response; when repeated exposure to a stimulus increases responsiveness to an event.
that the amygdala, particularly an area known as the central nucleus
is critical for emotional conditioning
the hippocampal region index
is critical when a new memory is first formed, it may become less important as the memory ages
absentmindedness
lapse in attention that results in memory failure, and it typically occurs at the encoding phase; when you don't give something enough attention for it to be semantically encoded, or in other words, you don't think about it enough to be developed into a sufficiently strong memory.
If you eat something that makes you sick, you'll probably avoid that food in the future.
learned taste aversion
Beliefs that make you stupid
learning is fast, knowledge is composed of isolated facts, being good at a subject is a matter of inborn talent, "i'm really good at multi-tasking"
shaping
learning that results from the reinforcement of successive steps to a final desired behavior
Shaping
learning that results from the reinforcement of successive steps toward a final desired behavior
limitless and permanent
long-term memory capacity and duration
semantic encoding
long-term retention is greatly enhanced by...
summarization, highlighting/underlining keyword mnemonic, imagery for text, reading
low effective study habits
Where does semantic encoding take place?
lower left part of the frontal lobe and the inner part of the left temporal lobe
semantic
making... ...judgments about a word (e.g., what does brain mean?) usually produces a more durable memory for the word than does making rhyme judgments (e.g., what rhymes with brain?)
Memories are not static recordings of information
memories are active, changeable, and transient.
sensory cues might suddenly bring a nostalgic experience to mind.
memories are sometimes retrieved involuntarily, like when...
continuing act of creation
memory is a...
information; construct that information``
memory is all about... ...and you get to...
humans performing an action
mirror neurons in monkeys also fire when they observe...
elaborative interrogation, self-explained interleaved practice
moderately effective study techniques
You're annoyed by a small rock in your shoe, and as the day goes by, it becomes ______ annoying. You've ________ to the rock.
more ; become sensitized
imagining new experiences
more recent findings from individuals with hippocampal amnesia reveal that some of them have difficulty...
duration of short-term memory
more than a few seconds, but less than a minute
we can't recall a friend's name, when we can't think of the right word (even though we know it), or when we can't remember where we put something.
most of us experience blocking when...
Memory is not a single thing
multiple memory systems serve different purposes.
conditioned stimulus; conditioned response; unconditioned stimulus
n classical conditioning, a(n) _____ elicits a(n) _____ due to its association with a(n) _____.
UR.
n order to cure himself of smoking, a man regularly places his package of cigarettes next to a particularly disturbing picture of two lungs that are black from a lifetime of smoking. After a week of this, the man can't pick up his cigarettes without thinking of this intense image, and as a result he smokes less. In this example, his natural negative feelings toward the picture would be considered a(n):
interference theory
new memory that is similar to an old one causes the old one to be changed or easily forgotten
Episodic memory
nvolved in "mental time travel" because it allows you to remember events that you'd experienced in the past and seems to be involved in imagining the future.
implicit memory
occurs when past experiences influence later behavior and performance, even without an effort to remember them or an awareness of the recollection
sensitization
occurs when presentation of a stimulus leads to an increased response to a later stimulus.
latent learning
omething is learned, but it is not manifested as a behavioral change until sometime in the future
behavior that an organism performs that has some impact on the environment
operant behavior
emit (make) the behavior before it can be conditioned.
operant conditioning requires an individual to...
serial position effect
our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list
Decay theory
over time we can't retrieve memories because they fade away and disappear
lower left frontal lobe
participants show less activity in the... ...when their attention is divided
Visuo-spatial sketchpad, the phonological loop, episodic buffer, and central executive
parts of working memory
frontal lobes
play a significant role in effortful retrieval processes, which are required to dredge up the correct source of a memory
actively retrieving an item from memory during a test improves subsequent retention of that item
practice testing is effective, in part, because... ...more efficiently than simply studying it again
priming is an example of implicit, not explicit, memory.
priming is an example of...
hippocampal structures
priming, like procedural memory, does not require the... ...that are damaged in cases of amnesia
elaboration, distinctiveness, personal, appropriate to retrieval and application
principles to achieve deep processing
declarative memory is different from...
procedural memory
receive stimulation directly in the brain
rats would ignore food, water, and other life-sustaining necessities for hours on end simply to...
vulnerable to disruption and change
reactivating a memory temporarily makes it...
auditory cortex (the upper part of the temporal lobe); visual cortex (in the occipital lobe)
recall of previously heard sounds is accompanied by activity in the... ..., whereas recall of previously seen pictures is accompanied by activity in the...
source memory
recall of when, where, and how information was acquired
negative punishment
reduces the likelihood of the behavior that led to it because something you like was taken away -> response cost
positive punishment
reduces the likelihood of the behavior that led to it because you get something you do not like.
the nucleus accumbens, a brain area that's associated with pleasurable sensations
reinforcement during operant conditioning results in increased activity in...
Superstitious behavior
reinforcement occurs randomly or serendipitously — not based on any behavior that the organism performed.
fixed-interval (FI) schedule
reinforcers are presented at fixed time periods, provided that the appropriate response is made.
elaboration
relating concepts to other concepts
intention offloading
relying on external devices to remind us to carry out future tasks
the biggest sin of memory
remembering (imagining) things that never happened and insisting with 100% confidence that we are right.
prospective memory
remembering to do things in the future. Stronger when there are cues. E.g. an older person may require to write down to take pills three times a day.
case judgements
required the participants to think about the appearance of the words (Is HAT written in uppercase or lowercase?).
rhyme judgement
required the participants to think about the sound of the words (Does hat rhyme with cat?).
semantic memories
researchers have concluded that the hippocampus is not necessary for acquiring new...
survival encoding
resulted in higher levels of recall than several other non-survival-encoding tasks
procedural memory
retention of skill such as riding a bike; rely on cerebellum and basal ganglia
When witnesses to a staged crime are questioned about some details of the crime scene, their ability to later recall related details that they were not asked about is impaired, compared with that of witnesses who initially were not questioned at all
retrieval-induced forgetting can affect eyewitness memory
not part of their original experience.
retrieving and vividly reexperiencing memories of what participants actually did see at the museum led them to incorporate into their memory information that was...
recent memories close to the traumatic incident.
retrograde amnesia usually only impairs...
secondary reinforcers
rewards that may be associated with primary reinforcers.
1. Set a goal and agenda 2. Set criteria for participation 3. Keep ultimate goal of learning in mind 4. Everyone can ask/answer questions 5. Any member can express the group understanding
rules for effective group study
the frontal lobe and the inner part of the left temporal lobe
semantic encoding is uniquely associated with increased activity in...
Persistent impression of light left after the light has disappeared because you have stored the visual information in a memory system called "sensory memory"
sensory memory and light
first
sensory memory is the... ...stage after information gets to a sense organ
learning novel words
studies of individuals with neurological damage to the phonological loop subsystem of working memory reveal that not only do those individuals have problems holding on to strings of digits and letters for a few seconds, but they also have difficulty...
retroactive interference
situations in which later learning impairs memory for information acquired earlier
Highlighting while reading textbook
slow and effortful, review what you highlighted, highlight main themes, skip unneeded words
The rats would press the bar repeatedly to stimulate these structures
some brain areas, particularly those in the limbic system, produced what appeared to be intensely positive experiences
A retrieval cue
some information that is associated with stored information, and that helps retrieve it from long-term into short-term memory.
model
someone whose behavior might be a guide for others
stimulus
something that exists in the surroundings or that is presented and then goes away.
unconditioned stimulus (US)
something that reliably produces a naturally occurring reaction in an organism
Unconditioned stimulus (US)
something that reliably produces a naturally occurring, automatic reaction.
distributed practice
spreading out study activities so that more time intervenes between repetitions of the information to be learned
produce superior subsequent memory compared with survival scenarios that do not involve planning
survival scenarios that do involve planning...
do; do not
survival scenarios that... ...involve planning produce superior subsequent memory compared with survival scenarios that... ...involve planning. It is
Suggestibility
tendency to incorporate misleading information from external sources into personal recollections
suggestibility
tendency to incorporate misleading information from external sources into personal recollections.
primacy effect
tendency to remember information at the beginning of a body of information better than the information that follows; first impression
recency effect
tendency to remember words at the end of a list especially well; last impression
discrimination
the ability to distinguish between the CS and other stimuli
learning
the acquisition of new knowledge, skills, or responses from experiences that result in a relatively permanent change in the learner's state.
Procedural memory
the acquisition of skills resulting from practice, like juggling, riding a bike, or playing the drums; also include non-motor skills, like memories of how to play chess, how to recognize someone from the sound of their voice, or how to do algebra
Short-term memory (STM)
the active conscious part of memory. It carries out various control processes: rehearsing and recoding information for long-term storage, retrieving information from long-term storage, and more.
working memory
the active maintenance of information in short-term storage; processes language and perception in the brain; allows us to manipulate objects, language, and numbers; organize tasks, regulate emotions, and pay attention
they are no longer paired with reinforcement
the behaviors shaped by operant conditioning will eventually decrease if...
seven pieces of information
the capacity of short-term memory
discrimination
the capacity to distinguish between similar but distinct stimuli
operant conditioning
the consequences of an organism's behavior determine whether it will repeat that behavior in the future
variable-ratio (VR) schedule
the delivery of reinforcement is based on a particular average number of responses
explicit learning involves effort at creating memories, not just more attention.
the difference between implicit and explicit learning is that...
procedural memory
the gradual acquisition of skills as a result of practice, or "knowing how" to do things.
Extinction
the gradual elimination of a learned response; an elimination of a response; it doesn't mean that the association has been forgotten or unlearned.
transfer-appropriate processing
the idea that memory is likely to transfer from one situation to another when the encoding and retrieval contexts of the situations match
Anterogade amnesia
the inability to transfer further information from the short-term store into the long-term one
anterograde amnesia
the inability to transfer new information from the short-term store into the long-term store; damage to hippocampal region
persistence
the intrusive recollection of events that we wish we could forget
persistence
the intrusive recollection of events that we wish we could forget.
phonological loop
the part of working memory that holds and processes verbal and auditory information
acquisition
the phase of classical conditioning when the CS and the US are presented together
acquisition
the phase of classical conditioning when the CS and the US occur close together in time
law of effect
the principle that behaviors that are followed by a "satisfying state of affairs" tend to be repeated, whereas those that produce an "unpleasant state of affairs" are less likely to be repeated
Consolidation
the process by which memories become stable in the brain
consolidation
the process by which memories become stable in the brain; related to why the hippocampus becomes less important over time
encoding
the process by which we transform what we perceive, think, or feel into an enduring memory.
retrieval
the process of bringing to mind information that has been previously encoded and stored.
Rehersal
the process of keeping information in short-term memory by mentally repeating it.
Rehersal
the process of keeping the information in short-term memory by mentally repeating it
storage
the process of maintaining information in memory over time.
Encoding
the process of transforming what we perceive, think, or feel into an enduring memory.
State-dependent retrieval
the process whereby information tends to be better recalled when the person is in the same state during encoding and retrieval.
spontaneous recovery
the reappearance of a CR without further training when tested sometime after the CR was extinguished
1. Transcience 2. Absentmindedness 3. Blocking 4. Memory misattribution 5. Suggestibility 6. Bias 7. Persistence
the sins of memory
change bias
the tendency to exaggerate differences between what we feel or believe now and what we felt or believed in the past
egocentric bias
the tendency to exaggerate the change between present and past in order to make ourselves look good in retrospect
collaborative group; nominal group
the... ...typically recalls fewer items than the...
Learning must be based on experience
there are plenty of psychological changes that depend on changes in biology rather than on personal experience.
consistency, change, and egocentric
three different kinds of bias
transience, absentmindedness, and blocking
three reasons for forgetting
the reinforcement should happen immediately after the behavior
to effectively reinforce a behavior...
perceptual priming and conceptual priming
two forms of priming
over seconds or minutes and over longer periods of time (days, weeks, months, and years, and likely involves transfer of information from the hippocampus to more permanent storage sites in the cortex.
two types of consolidation
easy; more difficult
when we engage in massed practice, retrieving recently studied information is relatively... ..., whereas during distributed practice, it is... ...to retrieve information that we studied less recently.
prospective memory failure
when we forget to remember to do something; absentmindedness
location specific theory
we lose thoughts in transitioning to another room
and then create a complete story by adding information that seems like it would be true for that type of situation.
we often remember a few critical features of a scene...
personal futures
we rely heavily on episodic memory to envision our...
Primacy effect
we tend to remember words at the start of the list better than words in the middle; long-term
the initial stimulus (e.g., alert sound) becomes potentially informative.
what happens when the experience (e.g., the cell phone alert) is followed immediately by an interesting event?
long-term memory
what people usually think of as "memory." It is the large, passive, long-lasting part of memory storage. Short-term memory adds to, alters, and retrieves information in long-term memory. When one long-term memory is activated, related "neighboring" topics are also activated.
What is the most important factor in successful learning?
what you think about while studying
Second-order conditioning
when a neutral stimulus is paired with a CS that became associated with the US in an earlier procedure.
Classical conditioning
when a neutral stimulus produces a response after being paired with a stimulus that naturally produces a response
continuous reinforcement
when every response is followed by the presentation of a reinforcer, there is a one-to-one, or perfect, correlation
suppress the competitor.
when hippocampal activity during retrieval practice signals successful recall of an unwanted competitor, frontal lobe mechanisms are recruited that help...
Observational learning
when learning takes place by watching the actions of others
proactive interference
when memories for previously learned information or a skill impair the formation or retrieval of new memories.
retroactive interference
when memories for recently learned information or a skill impairs retrieval of memories
disrupt those used by others
when recalling items together, the retrieval strategies used by individual members of the group...
latent learning
when something is learned, but it is not manifested as a behavioral change until sometime in the future.
—a visual one and a verbal one—
when you use visual imagery to encode words and other verbal information, you end up with two different mental placeholders for the items... ...which gives you more ways to remember them than just a verbal placeholder alone
the upper surface of the left frontal lobe
where does organizational coding take place
one for visual images (the visuo-spatial sketchpad) and another for verbal information (the phonological loop)
working memory includes two subsystems that store and manipulate information
judgements of learning
you have a rough idea of what you know and what you don't know; will cause good students to change their studying habits so that they concentrate on the material that's least familiar.
