psych soc

In scientific research, to operationalize a variable means that a variable that is not directly measurable (eg, fatigue, depression) is defined in such a way that it can be measured for the purposes of testing/assessment. degree changes to that variable impact the dependent variable, which is the outcome measured The independent variable is manipulated/controlled by the researcher to determine if and to what by the researcher. Changes to the dependent variable determine whether the research hypothesis is confirmed. variable). Deliberation and psychological reactance are not directly measurable, so both require communicate with their patients would reduce or avoid psychological reactance (dependent Researchers hypothesized that physicians' use of deliberation (independent variable) to operationalizing. Therefore, psychological reactance is the dependent variable researchers need to operationalize.

(Choice D) The number of options presented to the patient would be an aspect of deliberation, the independent (not dependent) variable. Educational objective: variables are manipulated by the researcher and any changes to the dependent variables are the defined in such a way that they can be measured. Independent In scientific research, study variables that are not directly measurable must be operationalized, or outcomes (effects), which are assumed to be caused by the independent variable.

The bystander effect occurs when an individual in need is less likely to receive help when more people are present. This is partly explained by diffusion of responsibility, the tendency for people in groups to assume that action will be taken by someone else. In other words, everyone assumes someone else will step in (diffusion of responsibility), so no one ends up taking any action (bystander effect). This study was designed to evaluate the bystander effect. The researcher likely hypothesized that a greater number of onlookers present (independent variable) in the train station would result in longer amount of time until someone attempts to help the confederate (dependent variable). (Choice A) The amount of time it takes for someone to help the confederate is the dependent (not independent) variable because it is the outcome (effect) that measuring. (Choices C and D) The Hawthorne effect describes research subjects acting different from how they would normally behave as a result of knowing that they are being observed. In order for the Hawthorne effect to occur in this scenario, the onlookers in the subway station would need they were being observed,

(Choices C and D) The Hawthorne effect describes research subjects acting different from how they would normally behave as a result of knowing that they are being observed. In order for the Hawthorne effect to occur in this scenario, the onlookers in the subway station would need to know they were being observed, which is not indicated here. Educational objective: The bystander effect predicts that as the number of onlookers increases, the probability of an onlooker helping someone in need decreases. This can be partly explained by the diffusion of responsibility, whereby onlookers assume action will be taken by someone else.

Confirmation bias is a type of cognitive bias (common error in thinking) in which individuals tend to embrace evidence supporting their beliefs, dismiss or ignore evidence refuting their beliefs, and interpret ambiguous evidence as support. For example, an individual who prefers a particular presidential candidate might listen only to media reports predicting a win while ignoring other evidence that the candidate will lose. According to the passage, overweight Americans may not realize they are overweight due to changing social norms about acceptable body size. As others (friends, coworkers) gain weight, being overweight tends to look increasingly normal, making it easier to believe that being too heavy is merely average. In other words, overweight Americans might look only at evidence confirming their belief that their own weight is normal, ignoring evidence that it is not. Therefore, a successful strategy for promoting weight loss would be to counteract confirmation bias.

According to the passage, overweight Americans may not realize they are overweight due to changing social norms about acceptable body size. As others (friends, coworkers) gain weight, being overweight tends to look increasingly normal, making it easier to believe that being too heavy is merely average. In other words, overweight Americans might look only at evidence confirming their belief that their own weight is normal, ignoring evidence that it is not. Therefore, a successful strategy for promoting weight loss would be to counteract confirmation bias.

Ascribed status

Achieved status Attained social position (eg, doctor) Master status Dominant social position (eg, ex-convict) Assigned social position (eg, race) Relative to others in society, individuals hold social status positions, which are ascribed or achieved. An ascribed status is one that is socially assigned, such as race. An achieved status is one that is attained, such as one's occupation (eg, doctor), notable achievements (eg, Olympic athlete), or failures (eg, college dropout). Individuals may hold many ascribed and achieved statuses, but their master status is the one that dominates in social situations. A master status can be either ascribed or achieved, may be context- dependent, and tends to influence most aspects of one's social life.

Educational objective: Attribution theory suggests that

Attribution theory suggests that individuals tend to explain behavior (their own or that of others) as resulting from internal or external causes. Internal (dispositional) attributions ascribe behavior to personal factors, such as personality, ability, or attitude. External (situational) attributions ascribe behavior to environmental factors, such as task difficulty, presence of others, or luck. Both studies conclude that the presence of other people, which is an external environmental factor, results in the observed behavior. Therefore, both studies rely on situational attributions.

Educational objective: Deindividuation is a reduction in self-awareness when

Deindividuation is a loss of individual self-awareness when one is part of a large group engaged in an emotionally arousing activity (eg, a large crowd at a sporting event). Members of large groups tend to feel a reduced sense of personal responsibility and an increased sense of anonymity. When identities are masked (eg, Ku Klux Klan robes), deindividuation is even more likely to occur. Deindividuation results in reduced personal identity and inhibitions as identification with the group increases. This can lead individuals to engage in uncharacteristic behaviors (eg, rioting, looting) while part of a large crowd. Appalling group behaviors, like public lynching, are often attributed to deindividuation. Competing in a large bicycle race is not likely to induce deindividuation among the racers. Even though the cyclists consist of a large group such that identifying individuals may be difficult, the racers still bear a sense of personal identity because they are trying to earn distinction by winning the race.

Computerized tomography (CT)

Detailed structure of internal Computer combines multiple x-rays taken at different angles organs & tissues at a single point in time

Educational objective: Changes in human behavior occur because of biological evolution (natural selection of genetic traits) or cultural evolution. Cultural evolution occurs when socially transmitted beliefs and values result in changes in behavior.

Educational objective: Changes in human behavior occur because of biological evolution (natural selection of genetic traits) or cultural evolution. Cultural evolution occurs when socially transmitted beliefs and values result in

Educational objective: Confirmation bias is a type of cognitive bias in which an individual believes evidence supporting pre- existing beliefs, dismisses or ignores evidence refuting beliefs, and interprets ambiguous evidence as support.

Educational objective: Confirmation bias is a type of cognitive bias in which an individual believes evidence supporting pre- existing beliefs, dismisses or ignores evidence refuting beliefs, and interprets ambiguous evidence as support.

Unlike prejudice (negative or positive ideas/beliefs about a specific group), discrimination involves actions that negatively impact specific groups. Individual discrimination occurs at the person-to- person level (eg, a male manager refusing to hire females). Institutional discrimination occurs when social institutions have systematic policies and procedures that result in unfair treatment of individuals based on their group membership. This scenario is an example of institutional discrimination because the policy disadvantages females but not males; therefore, it demonstrates unfair treatment of female surgical residents at the institutional level. These types of policies often have long-term consequences, such as fewer women choosing to pursue surgery or completing surgical residencies, resulting in far fewer female surgeons than male surgeons.

Educational objective: Discrimination involves actions that negatively affect certain social groups (eg, a certain race or gender). Individual discrimination involves person-to-person interactions that involve unfair treatment (eg, male manager refusing to hire females). Institutional discrimination involves policies at the organizational, rather than individual, level that result in the unfair treatment of certain people based on group membership.

Popular culture is defined as the ideas, attitudes, and perspectives that are mainstream (ie, relevant to most people in society). Popular culture includes anything the majority of individuals in a society believe in (eg, freedom), do (eg, watch television), wear (eg, blue jeans), or buy/consume (eg, cell phones, McDonald's meals). Popular culture can be contrasted with high culture, which is relevant to a very small fraction of the population, usually those with wealth or education. For example, collecting museum-quality artwork is not considered part of popular culture. Educational objective: Popular culture refers to ideas, attitudes, and behaviors that are widespread in society. Popular culture reflects the beliefs and behaviors of the masses, whereas high culture is relevant to only a small fraction (eg, those who are wealthy and/or educated).

Educational objective: Popular culture refers to ideas, attitudes, and behaviors that are widespread in society. Popular culture reflects the beliefs and behaviors of the masses, whereas high culture is relevant to only a small fraction (eg, those who are wealthy and/or educated).

According to rational choice theory, people are rational decision makers who behave in ways that maximize gain and minimize loss. For example, a smoker will weigh the costs and benefits of quitting before deciding to act. Social exchange theory suggests that individual interactions (social exchanges) are based on decisions regarding the costs and benefits accrued to each person in the relationship. For example, the costs include the time, effort, and even money required to be in the relationship. The benefits may include acceptance, friendship, and intimacy.

Educational objective: Rational choice theory assumes that people are rational decision makers attempting to maximize gain and minimize loss. Social exchange theory assumes human behavior is based on decisions about the costs and benefits involved in a relationship. Both theories view society from a micro-level (individual interactions) perspective.

Educational objective: is theory suggesting

Educational objective: Social constructionism is a theory suggesting that social interactions establish "reality" through the creation of social constructs (eg, race), which have meaning only because individuals in society have agreed on that meaning.

Social norms are unwritten rules for behavior that people in society are expected to follow (eg, chewing with a closed mouth). Unlike laws, which are more formally enforced, disobeying social norms is often informally punished (eg, getting stared at or shunned). Social norms maintain order in society by ensuring that behavior is predictable. Social norms also provide guidelines for how to behave in various situations and help individuals decode and understand the behavior of others. As the body weight of the average American has increased, obesity has become the norm rather than the exception. Epidemiologists face the challenge of resetting social norms so that obesity is again considered unhealthy and unacceptable. caused by extreme

Educational objective: Social norms are unwritten rules that members of a society are expected to follow to maintain order. Social norms ensure predictable behavior, provide guidelines for behavior in new situations, and help individuals understand the behavior of others.

results Problem-solving describes all of the mental processes involved with trying to reach a goal with an unknown solution, such as trying to find misplaced keys, solve a word problem, or figure out if a parking space is big enough. There are several common problem-solving methods. Trial and error involves attempting possible solutions until the problem is solved, ruling out ineffective solutions along the way. For example, a psychiatrist may try various antidepressants for a patient, monitoring their effects over time, until the best medication is found. Trial and error is most viable when there are a limited number of options. The dialog between the physician and the patient demonstrates the trial and error approach; the physician makes recommendations and suggests reassessing at the next visit.

Educational objective: Trial and error is a problem-solving method in which a series of possible solutions are attempted and ruled out until the problem is solved. This method is best suited for problems with a limited number of possible solutions.

Electroencephalogram (EEG)

Electrodes placed on scalp & connected to an amplifier

Educational objective: In scientific experiments, independent

Every experiment has at least two types of variables: independent and dependent. Independent variables are manipulated/controlled by the experimenter to determine if these changes impact dependent variables. Dependent variables are measured or observed by the researcher. Changes in the dependent variable determine whether the research hypothesis was confirmed and may inform future research. In the new design for Study 2, an increased heart rate would serve as an indicator of autonomic arousal, stimulation of the sympathetic branch of the peripheral nervous system, which regulates the fight-or-flight response. Because social facilitation is thought to result partly from increased autonomic arousal (due to the presence of others), testing changes in heart rate helps clarify this relationship. researcher Educational objective: In scientific experiments, independent variables are manipulated by the researcher whereas dependent variables are observed/measured. Changes to the dependent variable are assumed to be caused by the independent variables.

Group polarization

Group polarization is more likely to occur if group members have similar Group polarization occurs when group members adopt a more extreme attitude or course of action opinions before group discussion. Group discussion strengthens and reconfirms individuals' opinions, resulting in an average viewpoint that is more extreme. Group polarization can occur in either direction (ie, extremely positive or extremely negative).

A reference group is used as a standard of comparison for one's beliefs and behaviors. Individuals compare themselves to members of their own reference group (eg, comparing one's MCAT study habits to those of other pre-meds) or to those of other reference groups to which they aspire (eg, comparing one's MCAT study habits to those of top MCAT scorers). Individuals often emulate aspirational reference group members and typically have many different reference groups.

Impression management involves trying to influence how one is perceived by others by employing certain behaviors (eg, covering one's tattoos for a medical school interview). Individuals usually attempt to generate a positive impression, but not always (eg, a prisoner may flaunt tattoos in an attempt to inspire fear in other inmates). Imitation of a reference group best explains a medical resident emulating the behaviors and mannerisms of the attending physicians. Impression management best explains her volunteering for multiple committees in an attempt to impress these physicians. Educational objective: Individuals use reference groups as a standard of comparison for their beliefs and behaviors. Individuals often have many reference groups, to which they may belong or aspire to belong. Impression management is the process of attempting to influence how one is perceived by others, often with the goal of being perceived favorably.

Positron emission tomography (PET)

Scanner detects radioactive tracer Changes in glucose metabolism attached to a glucose analog in the brain over time

Folkways (eg, wearing clothes backward)

Minor punishments,Least deviant (eg, staring)

Mores (eg, wearing no clothes in public)

More serious punishment, More deviant (eg, arrest)

Taboos (eg, incest, suicide)

Most serious punishment, Most deviant (eg, incarceration)

Functional magnetic resonance imaging (FMRI)

Scanner detects the differential properties of oxyhemoglobin & Changes in blood oxygenation in the brain over time

Algorithms

Precise logical or mathematical rule yielding exact results • Accurate, systematic, time-consuming

Primary groups are composed of a small number of individuals sharing close, informal, and enduring personal relationships. Examples of primary groups include families, close friends, and couples in loving relationships.

Primary groups are composed of a small number of individuals sharing close, informal, and enduring personal relationships. Examples of primary groups include families, close friends, and couples in loving relationships. those between primary group members. Examples of secondary groups include classmates and something. Relationships between secondary group members Secondary groups, on the other hand, are composed of individuals coming together to accomplish are not as enduring or intimate as coworkers. Socialization involves learning the norms and values of a society or culture. The second paragraph describes the way members of primary and secondary groups ("close friends, coworkers, and family members") are socialized into accepting the new standards of what a normal body should look like. Educational objective: Primary groups consist of members who share close, enduring personal relationships and who care about each other (eg, family members). Secondary groups exist to carry out functions and consist of members whose relationships are less intimate and enduring (eg, coworkers).

Social constructionism is interactions, resulting in agreed-upon

Racial categories are considered social constructs because they have no clear biological basis and are largely defined by certain physical traits (eg, skin color). Racial categories also vary by society: an individual with one black parent may be considered black in the United States but not in another country. A definition of race that is maintained through social interactions is most consistent with the social constructionist perspective.

Attributional biases are cognitive biases (common errors in thinking) that tend to occur when people attempt to explain behavior (their own or someone else's) or attribute it to something. Self-serving bias is a common type of attributional bias in which an individual attributes success to internal factors but blames failure on external factors. For example, failure on a school exam is attributed to the test being unfair (external), whereas success on a school exam is attributed one's own intelligence (internal). This bias serves to preserve or protect one's self-esteem, overall opinion of self-worth. The patient's blaming the physician for her failure to lose weight (an external factor) best exemplifies the self-serving bias. Educational objective: The self-serving bias is a type of attributional bias in which a person takes credit for a success (I did well on the test because I am smart) or blames a failure on an external factor (the test was unfair), This bias serves to protect self-esteem, one's overall opinion of self-worth.

Self-serving bias is a common type of attributional bias in which an individual attributes success to internal factors but blames failure on external factors. For example, failure on a school exam is attributed to the test being unfair (external), whereas success on a school exam is attributed one's own intelligence (internal). This bias serves to preserve or protect one's self-esteem, which is one's overall opinion of self-worth.

Trial & error

Series of potential solutions attempted until desired results achieved • Time-consuming, unsystematic

Educational objective: Social identity refers to

Show individuals see themselves relative to others and is based on membership in socially defined groups. The major social identities are sex/gender, sexuality, race/ethnicity, socioeconomic status, age, family status, and occupation. Personal identities are subjectively defined, private or individual characteristics. Social identity describes how one's self-concept (ideas and beliefs about the self) is shaped by group membership. The major social identities are sex/gender, sexuality, race/ethnicity, socioeconomic status, age, family status (eg, married, parent), and occupation. Social identities define individuals in relation to others and allow for social groupings. This study assesses the interpretation of sex category, a social identity, by asking participants to categorize faces along a continuum of male and female. Personal identity, on the other hand, describes how one's self-concept is shaped by more private or individual characteristics. For example, "Cubs fan" and "bookworm" are personal identities.

Educational objective: Social facilitation is a phenomenon

Social facilitation occurs when the presence of others enhances performance. This is thought to occur because the presence of an audience increases autonomic arousal, which causes the dominant (most easily elicited) response to occur. If a task is easy, well rehearsed, or familiar, arousal improves the performance of that task. For example, a basketball player scores more points in a game than during practice. On the other hand, if a task is difficult or unfamiliar, arousal tends to hinder performance on that task (social impairment). For example, a novice basketball player is less likely to score a basket while others are watching.

Conflict

Society = struggle for limited resources Inequality based on social class, macro, karl marx and max weber

Educational objective: Sexual orientation

Sociologists define sexual orientation as a comparison between one's own sex category and the sex category to which one is attracted and with which one is physically intimate. Like sex category and gender, sexual orientation is also a social construct that is often thought of as dichotomous, with homosexuality describing attraction to members of one's own sex category and heterosexuality describing attraction to members of the opposite sex category. However, there are a range of possible sexual behaviors, so theorists now believe that human sexuality, like gender, exists along a continuum, which can be visualized using the Kinsey Scale. A major limitation of the Kinsey Scale is that it requires individuals to identify with a binary sex category. For example, for individuals who identify as intersex, it may not be possible to define sexual orientation as "same sex" or "opposite sex." Although there are a variety of additional labels for sexuality (eg, pansexual, sapiosexual, demisexual, asexual, queer) that do not fit along a heterosexual-homosexual continuum, the most common way of designating sexuality still relies on this method. Educational objective: Sexual orientation describes people's sexual identity in relation to their own sex category and the sex category to which they are attracted. Sexual orientation exists along a continuum (eg, Kinsey Scale), even though it tends to be perceived as dichotomous (homosexual or heterosexual).

A stigma

Stigma is an attribute or behavior that is considered undesirable by most in society. Social stigmatization is the disapproval of those with a deviant characteristic that does not conform to social expectations, such as an intersex appearance (combination of male and female characteristics). Social stigmas can result in prejudice (negative attitudes) or discrimination (unfair treatment) by others in society.

Heuristics

Strategy or shortcut yielding approximate results Fast, potentially error-prone

Educational objective:

Symbolic interactionism is a microsociological perspective that suggests that people develop subjective meanings for things (eg, objects, behaviors) through social interaction. The definition of the situation allows people to understand the roles of everyone involved in a social encounter so that each person acts accordingly.

Educational objective: The bystander effect refers to the fact that the probability

The bystander effect is a phenomenon whereby individuals are less likely to help someone in need while in the presence of others. The more people present, the less likely anyone is to offer assistance. This is partly explained by diffusion of responsibility, the tendency for people in groups to assume someone else will do something. In other words, everyone assumes someone else will step in (diffusion of responsibility), so no one ends up taking any action (bystander effect). In order for the researchers in Study 1 to analyze if the bystander effect occurs during bicycle races when a cyclist is injured in an accident, they would need to assess the size of the crowd and the length of time between the accident and the assistance. The bystander effect would predict that the larger the crowd, the longer it would take for a fallen cyclist to receive help. (Choice Educational objective: The bystander effect refers the fact that the probability of a bystander helping someone in need decreases as the number of bystanders increases. This can be partly explained by the diffusion of responsibility, whereby the bystanders assume that someone else will take responsibility for providing assistance.

Social loafing occurs when an individual exerts less effort while working in a group versus working alone. For example, when asked to pull as hard as possible on a rope, people tend to pull harder by themselves than when others are also pulling. Research suggests that factors such as group size and motivation or interest in the group task may impact the degree to which individuals engage in social loafing.

The reduced effort exerted by individuals as a result of social loafing often translates into a loss of group productivity. In this example, experts are comparing the benefits of teamwork (ie, working in a group) to the potential drawback of social loafing (ie, the productivity loss of individuals in a team setting). Educational objective: Social loafing occurs when individuals expend less effort as part of a group than they would if working alone. The extent to which social loafing occurs is influenced by various factors, such as group size, motivation, or interest in the group task. Copyright © UWorld.

Educational objective: Positron emission tomography is

a functional neuroimaging technique that measures physiological activity in the brain. It uses a radioactive tracer attached to a glucose analog to measure which areas of the brain are metaboli ive (using glucose more rapidly) during specific tasks.

Institutional discrimination concerns

a social institution's inherent policies/procedures that result in unequal treatment on the basis of an individual's group membership. If police department policies (rather than individual officers' decisions) cause resources (eg, patrol officers) to be focused in predominantly black neighborhoods, this would be an example of institutional discrimination. Even though white and black people use drugs at similar rates, an increased police presence in black neighborhoods results in more blacks being arrested for drug use. T.

Educational objective: Social constructionism is

a sociological theory suggesting that social constructs (ie, agreed-on meanings in society) determine small-scale (micro, individual) and large-scale (macro, structural) interactions in society. Sex category and gender are socially constructed. Sex and sex category are defined by biology (sex organs, hormone levels) and genetics (presence or absence of the Y chromosome), even though not all bodies are strictly male or female (eg, intersex conditions). • Gender is a social construct based on social norms and roles (expected behaviors for males and females). Social constructionism is a sociological theory suggesting that "reality" is created through interactions, resulting in an agreed-on shared meaning. Objects (eg, money) and behaviors (eg, handshake) have meaning only because individuals in society have agreed on that meaning. Money has value in society because everyone has agreed that it has value, thereby making money a social construct. Social constructionism can focus on micro-level (individual) interactions or macro-level (large-scale) social structures. The individual interpretation of sex category and gender most aligns with principles of social constructionism,

Educational objective: involves negative beliefs and feelings

about members of a group. Discrimination involves actions Stereotypes are overgeneralized beliefs about groups and can be positive or negative. Prejudice based on stereotypes and prejudice that negatively impact a group.

Nonverbal communication involves

all the wordless cues that convey meaning when exchanged between individuals. Cues include physical distance between face-to-face speakers, body language and other physical movements, facial expressions, and vocal modifications (eg, tone, volume, emphasis, inflection). Research suggests that social interaction is largely influenced by nonverbal communication.

Educational objective:Attributional biases are

cognitive biases (common errors in thinking) that occur when people attempt to explain their own behavior or the behavior of someone else. Attributions can be dispositional, based on internal characteristics (eg, personality), or situational, based on external (eg, environment). The actor-observer bias is an attributional bias that describes the tendency to attribute one's own actions to external factors but the actions of others to internal factors. The physicians' tendency to make external attributions for their own lack of exercise (eg, "I'm too busy") while attributing their patients' lack of exercise to internal factors (eg, "they are lazy") best supports the actor-observer bias.

Positron emission tomography (PET) is a

functional imaging technique that monitors physiological activity by measuring labeled glucose metabolism. Active brain regions metabolize glucose more quickly, so a glucose analog with a radioactive tracer is used for PET neuroimaging. The metabolism of the analog results in the emission of positrons, which are detected by the PET scanner; this information is often combined with other imaging techniques to produce a three- dimensional image of the brain showing hypermetabolic hypometabolic regions. The final paragraph most clearly suggests the use of PET. It describes the injection of participants with a glucose analog containing a radioactive tracer an hour before brain activity measurement.

Educational objective: Social roles define

how people are expected to behave in social situations. Competing expectations of a single role (role strain) or multiple roles (role conflict) may lead to role exit, the process of disengaging from an existing role.

Educational objective: Social networks are

informal and nonhierarchical webs of interaction between nodes, which are linked by ties. Nodes can either be individuals or organizations. Ties describe the connections between the nodes and are defined as strong or weak. Weak ties are loose/flimsy connections, such as those between acquaintances, whereas strong ties are more solid connections, such as those between family and close friends. Social capital refers to a person's networks of people that can be converted into economic gain.

Motivation describes the factors that prompt action toward a goal. Most motivation theories focus on internally motivating factors (eg, desire to achieve), physiological drives (eg, hunger), or the fear or threat of negative consequences (eg, punishment). Incentive theory of motivation suggests that organisms are motivated to act in order to obtain external rewards. For example, a student might spend many hours studying for an exam not because she is interested in the material (an internal factor), but because she wants to get a god grade (an external reward). Incentive theory explains why a person would continue smoking even in the face of dire health consequences. According to this theory, the pleasure of smoking is so strong and so immediate that it serves as a stronger incentive than the prospect of good health in the future. The promise of good health is a weaker incentive because it is less immediate and less certain to occur.

internal factors Educational objective: Motivation describes the factors that prompt action toward a goal. Incentive theory suggests that behavior is primarily motivated by extrinsic (external) rewards, rather than internal rewards or biological drives.

Educational objective: The concept of the looking-glass self

is part of the symbolic interactionism perspective and states that an individual's self-concept is shaped by that person's interpretation of others' perceptions, regardless of the accuracy of those interpretations.

Educational objective: Stereotype threat

occurs when an individual is made aware of a negative stereotype regarding a group with which that individual identifies, and this awareness causes the individual's performance to suffer,

Educational objective: Institutional discrimination

occurs when members of a certain group are negatively impacted because of systematic differential treatment. Institutional discrimination can be intentional or unintentional.

Stereotype boost (also known as stereotype lift) occurs when positive stereotypes about social groups cause improved performance. For example, Asians reminded of the stereotype "Asians are good at math" before completing a math test tend to outperform Asians who are not first reminded of this stereotype. This passage does not discuss improved performance as a result of a positive stereotype. Prejudice refers to preconceived ideas and beliefs about people or groups based on their group membership. Discrimination is the unequal treatment of individuals or groups on the basis of group membership

occurs when positive stereotypes about social groups cause improved performance. For example, Asians reminded of the stereotype "Asians are good at math" before completing a math test tend to outperform Asians who are not first reminded of this stereotype. This passage does not discuss improved performance as a result of a positive stereotype. Prejudice refers to preconceived ideas and beliefs about people or groups based on their group membership. Discrimination is the unequal treatment of individuals or groups on the basis of group membership (Choices A, C, and D) A police officer who believes black people commit more crimes (prejudice) and who spends the majority of his time patrolling predominantly black neighborhoods (discrimination) is more likely to witness black people than white people committing crimes, which confirms his original belief (confirmation bias).

Educational objective: An intersectional analysis argues that

people hold several statuses (group memberships) simultaneously, which must be considered together in understanding an individual's overall perspective and experience. An individual does not operate simply based on race, gender, or any other social identity alone, but more specifically as (for example) a young black male, a white heterosexual female, or a working-class Hispanic female. The intersectionality approach describes how all individuals hold multiple, interconnected identities that simultaneously impact their lives and perspectives. For example, being female is not the only identity that affects how a woman sees, experiences, or is treated in the world. Her experiences and perspectives are also a product of her other identities (eg, racelethnicity, class, sexual orientation). With respect to incarceration, the U.S. prison population is both disproportionately black and disproportionately male, placing individuals who are black and male at the intersection of statuses most represented in prisons. Although white males are more likely to be incarcerated than black females, black males are more likely to be imprisoned than white males.

Educational objective: According to the dramaturgical approach

suggesting that individual behavior can be explained using a theater metaphor. According to this theory, individuals behave as "actors" in front of others, the "audience." The front-stage self involves impression management, which is the process of attempting to influence how one is perceived by others. For example, wearing a white coat and speaking with a soothing tone are ways a doctor uses front-stage behavior to manage the impression her patients have of her. The back-stage self involves behaviors that occur in private or informal settings, when an individual is completely comfortable and has no fear of criticism. For example, that same doctor might curse about one of her patients when she is out of earshot or is at home with her partner. persuasion. Educational objective: According to the dramaturgical approach, front-stage behavior is similar to acting on a stage for an audience. It involves impression management (behaviors to shape how others perceive one) and presenting the most favorable image of oneself in front of others. Back-stage behaviors are those done in private or informal settings, without fear of criticism.

Educational objective: Taboos are

the most serious form of deviance-acts considered illegal and/or reprehensible society. These forms of deviance meet with the most serious types of disapproval in the form Previous

Educational objective: The dominant culture establishes

the norms, values, and rituals of a society. A subculture is distinct from the dominant culture in some way but is still aligned with the norms and values of the dominant culture. A counterculture opposes the norms and values of the dominant culture.

A self-fulfilling prophecy is a belief or prediction about something (which may or may not be true) that influences the behavior of the person who believes it, which then causes the belief to come true. For example, a student believes he is terrible at chemistry, so he does not study very hard for the chemistry final because he thinks, "Why bother? I'm terrible at this subject, so what is the point in trying?" His lack of preparation causes him to fail the exam, thus reinforcing his belief that he is bad at chemistry. The first paragraph describes how people delay seeing a doctor about an ailment because they are afraid hearing bad news. The fear becomes a self-fulfilling prophecy when the patient eventually does see a doctor and receives bad news because the disease has progressed. Educational objective: A self-fulfilling prophecy is a belief about something (which may or may not be true) that influences behavior such that the belief actually comes true. Beliefs (I'm bad at chemistry) impact expectations (I won't do well on the chemistry test), which then influence behavior (not studying). The results (failing the test) then reinforce the belief.

the scenario described. Educational objective: A self-fulfilling prophecy is a belief about something (which may or may not be true) that influences behavior such that the belief actually comes true. Beliefs (I'm bad at chemistry) impact expectations (I won't do well on the chemistry test), which then influence behavior (not studying). The results (failing the test) then reinforce the belief.

According to rational choice theory, people act

to maximize gain and minimize loss. For example, an individual weighs the benefits of acting deviantly against the likelihood of getting caught (cost) before acting. The passage does not mention a cost/benefit decision-making process. Educational objective: Labeling theory suggests that deviance lies not in the act but in the social response of applying label to individuals. Labeling individuals as deviant has consequences, such as stigmatization, that lead to further deviance.

Educational objective: Graphs with two y-axes can be

used to represent the relationship between one independent variable (x-axis) and two dependent variables (y-axes). Continuous variables that are perceived categorically appear to abruptly change from one extreme to the other, producing a sigmoidal graph.

Role conflict

• Competing expectations for two or more roles create tension eg, a student (role 1) who is employed part-time (role 2) struggles to find enough time to complete homework & work late hours

Role strain

• Competing expectations within a single role create tension o eg, a student struggles to find enough time to complete homework (expectation 1) & attend student government meetings (expectation 2)

Feminist

• Examines gender inequality in society

Rational choice/social exchange

• Individual behaviors & interactions attempt to maximize personal Micro gain & minimize personal cost

Role • Individual disengages exit o eg, a college student (old role) graduates & begins full-time employment (new role)

• Individual disengages from a social role, often replacing it with a new social role o eg, a college student (old role) graduates & begins full-time employment (new role)

Symbolic interactionism

• Meaning & value attached to symbols

Insight

• Solution occurs in an "A-ha!" moment, typically after a mental break from the problem Valuable, occurs infrequently

Functionalism

•Society = an organism • Each part of society works to maintain dynamic equilibrium (homeostasis) Масго Talcott Parsons, Émile Durkheim,