Psych + Soci. Foundational Concept 6 - MCAT

Depressants

(e.g. alcohol, opiates, benzodiazepines, and barbiturates) Depress the inhibition and reasoning areas of the brain Use leads to delayed reaction time, slurred speech, and poor motor skills Can cause short-term memory loss (blackouts) Affects dopamine (responsible for happy feeling) and GABA (Gamma-Aminobutyric acid, responsible for calm feeling) systems

kinesthetic sense (proprioception)

-ability to tell where one's body is in space - you know where the position of your hand is even w/ your eyes closed -found in muscles & joints -play a role in coordination, balance & mobility also known as "proprioception" senses position/movement of ligaments, muscles, and tendons.

theories of why we sleep

1. Evolutionary/ circadian theory. 2. Restorative theory 3. Consolidation Because we are not nocturnal creatures, so during the day we have the light to use our vision, and during the night we avoid predators by sleeping Sleeping is a healing/restorative time for our body and brain tissues. We grow during sleep (while we are still developing); the pituitary gland releases growth hormones. It is thought that our brain is processing the day's events and creating long-term memories.

Piaget's stages of cognitive development

1. Sensorimotor (ages: 0-2 years): Involves learning to perceive the world using senses. During this stage they learn object permanence, the concept that even if you hide a ball under the rug, the ball continues to exist. 2. Preoperational Stage (ages: 2-7 years): The child learns that objects and ideas can be shown using symbols, such as images and words. They also learn to speak. During this period of time the child is very egocentric, and do not understand other people's perspectives. 3. Concrete Operational Stage (ages: 7-11 years): During this period of time the child learns the principle of conservation, which is the concept that a tall slender cup can hold the same amount of fluid as a short wider cup, even though the cups are different. (water conservation task) The child is also able to think logically about actual events. 4. Formal Operational Stage (ages 12- adulthood): During this period of time people learn how to reason based on morals, how to form hypotheses, and other forms of abstract reasoning.

mechanism of hearing

1. Sound enters ear. 2. Hits ear drum (tympanic membrane) 3. Malleus (hammer) → Incus (anvil) → Stapes (stirrup) 4. Vibrates fluid in Cochlea. 5. Transmits to fluid in Cochlea. 6. Cochlear hair cells excited by vibrations, and sends signal to brain.

types of problem solving

1. Trial and error - the process by which we experiment using various different approaches until we find one that is effective. 2. Algorithm - the process of following a set of particular rules or calculations, often involving a computer, to come up with the correct answer. 3. Heuristics - the process of using cognitive shortcuts, formed by someone's previous experiences. A "rule of thumb" is an example of a heuristic.

methods of memorization

1. chunking = grouping together 2. peg word system = sound a like words 3. method of loci = association with visual clue Elaboration involves the relation of new information to old, long-term memories, to form a sort of narrative. Chunking is a process that aids in recall by organizing pieces of new information into groups that fit into particular categories. For example, if you are trying to remember all the animals you saw at the zoo, you may choose to remember them by the habitats they were in. Acronyms are words or short sentences that represent a larger idea. For example, in order to remember the order of operations (in mathematics) you could use the acronym PEMDAS (Parenthesis, Exponents, Multiply, Divide, Add, Subtract). Associating memories with images has also been shown to aid in recall. This technique is especially effective if you can link new information to images or ideas that are personally applicable. This technique is known as self-reference. It has been shown that information that is processed on a deeper level (such as information that is personally relatable) is more likely to be remembered. This effect is known as depth of processing. Another technique for memorization is to create hierarchies. For example, if you are trying to remember the members of a family, you may decide to create a hierarchy system that orders them by age, oldest to youngest.

interference (memory)

1. proactive interference- Inability to recall new information due to information that was previously learned. E.g. remembering where I parked my car will be more difficult if I park it somewhere completely different than I normally park it. 2. Retroactive interference-Inability to recall old information due to new information learned. E.G. Learning new addresses and zip codes interferes with ability to recall old ones. Interference is a phenomenon that occurs when one memory interferes with the creation of another memory, preventing it from forming. Positive transfer occurs when old information helps someone learn new information. An example of positive transfer would be learning how to scramble eggs after already knowing how to make sunny side-up eggs. The Interference theory states that learning new information disrupts one's ability to remember long-term memories.

opiates

A category of psychoactive drugs that are chemically similar to morphine and have strong pain-relieving properties. (e.g. alcohol, opiates, benzodiazepines, and barbiturates) Depress the inhibition and reasoning areas of the brain Use leads to delayed reaction time, slurred speech, and poor motor skills Can cause short-term memory loss (blackouts) Affects dopamine (responsible for happy feeling) and GABA (Gamma-Aminobutyric acid, responsible for calm feeling) systems

memory construction and source monitoring

A schema is the overall framework of how we remember something (structure and components of the situation, details, etc.). Schemas can skew information. An example of a schema skewing information: being asked to recall the doctor's examining room that you saw as a child. You may remember certain things that were there, but due to your idea of what a doctor's examining room should look like, you may remember things such as tongue depressors, cotton balls, alcohol, etc., regardless of whether or not they were actually there. People can also accidentally alter what they remember by being misinformed by others. False information can make people prone to forming false memories. This phenomenon is called the misinformation effect. Imagination inflation occurs when certain memories are either constructed or exaggerated by the person's imagination. This is one way false memories can be created. Memories are usually more accurate if the person can remember the source of their information. When the source of information is forgotten, this mistake is known as a source monitoring error. The ability to form and recall accurate memories can be negatively affected by afflictions such as depression, trauma, brain injuries, and high levels of stress. They also make people more prone to source monitoring error.

decay (memory)

As the time (when you learned something) increases, so does the chance that you will forget it. The time since something was learned is known as a retention interval. The Decay Theory states that if long-term memories are not recalled often, it will become harder and harder (if not impossible) to remember them. It is also theorized that our inability to remember certain pieces of information may be due to the natural physiological death of neurons, especially as we age.

bottom up vs top down processing

Bottom-Up: Sensory receptors → Brain Bottom-up processing is a type of processing that begins with various sensory receptors, which pick up signals and send them to the brain for integration and processing. For example: prick your finger with a pin → sensory information sent to brain → feel pain. Top-Down: Brain → experience/expectations to interpret sensory info Top-down processing begins in the brain, where information from previous experiences has already been brought up by one of the sensory systems. The brain draws on this information to interpret new sensory information. For example: you see pin → remember pain from past experience → decide not to touch pin.

Broca's vs. Wernicke's

Broca's area: responsible for forming speech. Located in the left frontal lobe. If this area is damaged, the person can't speak properly but can understand you just fine. Wernicke's area: responsible for language comprehension. Located in the left temporal lobe, in the posterior part of the superior temporal gyrus. If this area is damaged, the person can speak fluently, but the words are gibberish.

Types of receptors based on stimulus and location

By stimulus: 1. Thermoreceptor- detects temperature (heat) 2. Chemoreceptor- detects chemicals 3. Photoreceptor / Electromagnetic - detects light/electromagnetic waves (ie. rods and cones in the retina) 4. Mechanoreceptor- detects touch and sound (mechanical stimuli such as vibrations, as well as pressure applied to skin) 5. Baroreceptor- detects pressure (ie. blood pressure within vessels) 6. Nocireceptor- detects pain (specialized chemoreceptor) By location: 1. Exteroceptor- located near/at the surface of the skin, detects stimuli on the surface of the body. 2. Interoreceptor- (aka Viceroreceptors) located near visceral organs/blood vessels and is linked with the autonomic nervous system. For example, we know we are hungry when nerve endings in our digestive mucous membranes detect an increase of fatty acids in our stomach. 3. Proprioceptor- located near tendons, ligaments, joints, and skeletal muscles. A specialized mechanoreceptor, detects position of the body.

different types of memory

Declarative memory (also known as explicit memory) refers to the memorization of information to the point where the person is able to "declare" it. For example, when you remember a song and are able to sing along to lyrics. Procedural memory (also known as implicit memory) is the memorization of how to complete a task. For example, one would exercise procedural memory when driving a car. Episodic memory refers to memories surrounding a specific (often important or meaningful) event. For example, remembering the specific details of and surrounding a serious car crash. Semantic memory refers to memories of facts, such as the name of the president. Autobiographical memory refers to the collection of memories that we collect about ourselves over a lifetime. Such memories include life events, relationships with people, emotions, etc. Retrospective memory refers to memories of things that have happened in the past. This is the type of memory we are using when learning about historical events, etc. Retrospective memory includes episodic, semantic, declarative, and autobiographical memories. Prospective memory refers to memories that must be had in the future. For example, one might say to themselves "I must remember to get milk when I go to the grocery store." This is an example of prospective memory.

drug addiction and reward pathway in the brain

Drug addiction stimulates a dopamine-based reward pathway in the limbic system of the brain. Drug addiction is a disease in which people feel an excessive, constant compulsion to use drugs. Sometimes this is limited to one type of drug; sometimes the user will abuse multiple types of drugs. It is theorized that addiction is reinforced by the release of dopamine in circuits located in the brainstem (especially the NUCLEUS ACCUMBENS, the pleasure center of the brain). Psychological dependence occurs when the drug user is dependent on their drug(s) of choice to avoid painful emotions and memories. Often times the user has been subjected to emotional and/or physical trauma in the past. Physiological dependence occurs when the user's body becomes so accustomed to having the drug that when the user stops they experience withdrawal. Withdrawal refers to uncomfortable feelings such as fatigue, nausea, irritability, and headache once the drug has been stopped. Withdrawal can be fatal (e.g. alcohol).

stimulants

Drugs that speed up the central nervous system (e.g. amphetamines, caffeine, nicotine, cocaine) Increase the speed of bodily functions (breathing, heart rate, overall increased energy) Users feel energized and hyper alert Often used for purposes such as staying awake and improving physical abilities Prescribed to treat attention deficit disorders such as ADD and ADHD (Adderall).

structure of the ear

Ear canal = auditory canal. Tympanic membrane = eardrum. Ear bones = malleus (hammer) → incus (anvil) → stapes (stirrup). Vestibule = contacts the oval window (where stirrup vibrates), is continuous with semicircular canals and cochlea. Cochlea = spiral = houses hair cells. Semicircular canals = 3 of them perpendicular to one another = senses position and movement of the head, help you balance.

two types of sensory memory

Echoic memory- the memory of a sound (very brief, lasting only as long as about 4 seconds). For example, the specific sound of a bird chirping. Iconic memory- the memory of an image (even more brief than echoic memory, lasting not even a full second). For example, the color of a stranger's eyes.

General and Emotional Intelligence

General intelligence (also referred to as the "G factor") is the type of intelligence that underlies all types of intelligence. It is arguable whether this factor is quantifiable. Emotional Intelligence is a type of intelligence that refers to one's ability to understand, sympathize/empathize, regulate, and express one's emotions.

Huntington's disease

Huntington's disease is a fatal genetic condition with no cure. Its symptoms include memory loss and dementia, as well as involuntary movements of the limbs. The disease is caused by neurons that are genetically programmed to degenerate over time.

Hypnosis

Hypnosis is an interaction between a hypnotist and a patient during an induced state of consciousness in which the patient is in a state of being open to the hypnotists' suggestion(s). It is thought to work by blocking information being received by sensory neurons Hypnosis cannot cause someone to acquire extraordinary capabilities or to commit acts that go strongly against their morals (e.g. robbing a bank). Used to help people recall old memories, though sometimes accidentally inaccurate Scientists have observed measurable changes in brain activity during hypnotism. This could mean that the changes observed in the brain are creating a different state of consciousness. Two main theories The Dissociation Theory states that the hypnosis patient is experiencing a divided state of consciousness. It is thought that if the patient alters their focus and tunes-out their everyday state of consciousness, they will be able to focus on another more specific and directed state of consciousness. The Social Influence Theory says that people under hypnosis are highly vulnerable to social influences. This means that the hypnosis patient may do and say what the hypnotist expects of them without even meaning to.

Korsakoff's syndrome

Korsakoff's syndrome is a chronic memory disorder that is caused by a deficiency of vitamin B1 (thiamine). It is a condition that is most commonly caused by heavy, constant alcohol abuse. In addition to memory loss, symptoms of Korsakoff's syndrome include confusion, poor coordination, disrupted speech, and involuntary eye movements.

Primary Mental Abilities

Louis Leon Thurstone; individuals have seven primary mental abilities that make up intelligence, included: word fluency, verbal comprehension, numerical ability, spatial ability, general reasoning, processing speed, and associative memory Savant Syndrome is rare, and is characterized by extreme talent in one particular area, such as music, but rather poor cognitive functioning in most other fields. This condition often involves a form of mental retardation, such as autism. (like the good doctor!)

Heuristics

Mental shortcuts Representative heuristic - we have a tendency to make judgments based on the probability of something happening based on our typical idea of a particular event. For example, we believe we will receive a cake rather than a salad when it is our birthday. This is because cakes are typically more representative of a birthday than a salad. Availability heuristic- tendency to believe that something is more common or more likely to happen just because it is more readily obtainable in our memory. For example, if everyone in your household has the flu, and someone at work coughs, you may jump to the conclusion that they, too, have the flu.

Nature vs Nurture

Nature: the hereditary influence / genetics Nurture: the environmental influence such as social culture and education. "Nature vs. Nurture" - our cognitive development is a complicated interaction between our genetic predispositions to certain abilities and disabilities (nature) and our environment (nurture).

Nativist theory of language development

Noam Chomsky. Language is an innate biological instinct, and everyone has a neural cognitive system allowing for learning of syntax and grammar. this perspective reinforces the idea that language is an innate feature of our being. Supporting ideas include: Every human society known to man has had its own language. Every human (without injury/disease) is able to speak its primary fluently by the age of 5. Despite being able to speak a language fluently, we cannot describe the reasons for using particular sentence structures, principles of grammar, etc.

olfactory receptors

Olfaction (smell) begins with olfactory cells found in the roof of the nasopharynx, (our nasal cavity) The olfactory receptors within the nasopharynx detect chemicals in the air that dissolve the mucous-covered nasal membrane. The nasal membrane contains olfactory nerves, which extend into the olfactory bulbs/nerves (cranial nerve I).

sleep cycles

One sleep cycle: stages are passed through in sequence (Stage 1, 2, 3, then 4), then rise back through the stages (Stage 4, 3, 2, then 1), before entering REM sleep. One cycle takes the average person 90 minutes to complete. As these sleep cycles continue, the amount of time spent in "deep sleep" decreases, and time spent in REM sleep increases

sleep-wake disorders

Parasomnias are abnormal actions that occur during sleep. Example of a parasomnia is somnambulism, popularly referred to as "sleep walking", as well as night terrors. Dyssomnia- this refers to an interruption in quantity, quality, and/or timing of sleep. Popular examples of dyssomnias include sleep apnea and narcolepsy. Sleep apnea is characterized by disruptive pauses in breathing that can last up to a minute, often causing the person to wake up. (Occurs more in obese people). Narcolepsy is a condition in which someone will fall asleep somewhat randomly, but especially when the person is relaxed. Insomnia- this refers to the inability to fall asleep or stay asleep for lasting periods of time. It can be caused by chronic stress, and is often treated by sleeping pills. Irregular Sleep-Wake syndrome is an extreme form of insomnia, with only 1-4 hours of sleep in a period of 24 hours. Someone with this syndrome does not feel sleep deprived, and is able to function normally.

biological factors that affect cognition

Processes that occur in the frontal lobe include organization and planning. The hippocampus, is responsible for forming new memories. The amygdala (and the rest of the limbic system) is also involved with cognition. Its job is to arouse the necessary emotions, causing alertness and motivation necessary to complete tasks.

triarchic theory of intelligence

Robert Sternberg's theory that describes intelligence as having analytic, creative and practical dimensions Experiential intelligence- (also known as creative intelligence) the ability to familiarize oneself with new circumstances and form new concepts. For example: If you move to a foreign country and you are able to learn the new language, you are exhibiting experiential intelligence. Componential intelligence- (also known as analytical intelligence) the traditional idea of intelligence. Includes ability to logically reason and think abstractly. Also includes the ability to communicate and think mathematically. This type of intelligence can be evaluated by standard tests of intelligence (e.g. IQ tests). Contextual intelligence- (also known as practical intelligence, or "street smarts") this is the ability to apply one's knowledge base to the world around them. Example: You have learned that UV rays from the sun can give you skin cancer, so when the sunlight becomes intense, you move to sit in the shade.

Four types of encoding memory

Semantic encoding involves encoding sensory information with specific relevance to the person (a phrase, word, image, event, etc.) that can be applied to a particular situation. This type of coding does not use sensory input such as sound, taste etc. Acoustic encoding involves encoding sounds (language, music, other sounds). We use our echoic memory to recall the auditory information that has been stored. Tactile encoding involves the use of our tactile senses. It is how we recall how something feels (physically). For example, we can remember silk feels smooth. Visual encoding involves the processing and encoding of images and other visual information (e.g. pictures, someone's face, a specific place). Before becoming a long-term memory, visual information is stored within our iconic memory (a type of memory specific to the storage of visual input).

Recall information (3 types)

Serial recall is the ability to remember various events, or a list of items in the sequence in which they occurred or, were listed. Free recall is the ability to remember something "out of the blue", without a cue. Cued recall is the ability to remember something once cued or asked.

Psychologists and experiments you should know

Sigmund Freud, the "father of psychoanalysis," developed well-known theories focused on unconscious desires. Freud's work centered around his ideas of the id (one's largely unconscious set of primal urges), superego (one's sense of moral purpose), and ego (the logic-based, more conscious balance between the two). Freud put his theories into practice in psychoanalytic therapy, a process in which a psychologist or other therapist converses with a patient one-on-one to address certain mental or emotional issues. American psychologist B. F. Skinner was an early behaviorist, meaning that he systematically studied behavior in conjunction with other factors (environmental, motivational, etc.). Skinner is best known for his work in operant conditioning, where he used a device called a "Skinner box" to study the effects of rewards and punishments on behavior. Psychologist Gordon Allport is known for his studies of personality, where he outlined a form of trait theory that included three basic types of traits: cardinal traits, central traits, and secondary traits. Cardinal traits are those around which people organize their entire lives. In contrast, central traits are defining characteristics of a person that can be easily inferred from that person's behavior. Finally, secondary traits are those that only occur sometimes, particularly when a person is in a certain social situation. John B. Watson's Little Albert experiment involved the use of classical conditioning and stimulus generalization to cause a healthy young boy to fear furry animals and objects. Solomon Asch's conformity experiment demonstrated that individuals often conform to a group view, even when the group view differs from a clearly correct answer. Asch used a task in which a participant, along with several of Asch's confederates, were told to judge the relative lengths of drawn lines. The confederates would give a clearly-incorrect opinion regarding which line was shorter or longer, causing the participant (who did not know that the others in the room were "in on it") to conform to this incorrect view in some cases. Albert Bandura, a social cognitive psychologist, famously conducted his "Bobo doll" experiments, which showed that children can display observational learning for aggressive behavior when they watch adults exhibit such behavior. Zimbardo's Stanford prison experiment focused on the effects of power and authority on individuals. Participants designated as "guards" were given power over participants designated as "prisoners," and over time, the guards began to exhibit progressively more abusive and problematic behavior. Milgram's electric shock experiment also relates to authority. This experiment indicated that participants were willing to administer painful stimuli to others if instructed to do so by an authority figure. In reality, the "others" in the study were actors who were simply pretending to be shocked. Abraham Maslow famously developed Maslow's hierarchy of needs, a schematic of human needs in order from the most basic (food, water, etc.) to the most high-level (self-actualization). Hans Eysenck studied personality with a strong focus on the biological perspective, which considers personality differences to be the result of biological factors. Harry Harlow examined parent/child attachment, social isolation, and dependency in rhesus monkeys. Finally, Muzafer Sharif's Robber's Cave experiment examined the intergroup conflicts that arise in response to competition over limited resources.

auditory processing

Sound → ear drum → vibrations in cochlea → vestibulocochlear nerve (cranial nerve VIII) → brain The auditory nerve then sends the message to an area of the brain called the brainstem At the brainstem details of the signal such as frequency, location, duration, and intensity are deciphered. Next, the signal passes through the thalamus and into the auditory cortex, a specific region found in the temporal lobe of the brain. Here the signal is translated by neurons into a message that we can understand

taste buds

Spherical in shape, covered in taste hairs that are used to detect chemicals in our food, and are connected to taste receptor cells A taste pore is located in the center of the taste bud For food to be recognized by the taste bud, a chemical called a "tastant" must be present. This chemical is soluble to saliva, so it can be easily absorbed between and among the papillae (small fleshy projections covering the tongue) and into the taste pores. Once taste hairs detect the tastant, they stimulate other taste receptor cells, which deliver the message to the gustatory area of the brain, where the signal can be translated into what we taste. pathway: tongue -> glossopharyngeal nerve (cranial nerve IX) -> brain

stages of sleep

Stage 1- This stage of sleep has mainly theta waves that are of low to moderate frequency (3-7 Hertz). During this stage of non-REM (rapid eye movement) stage of sleep there are slow eye movements. Stage 2 - There is a decrease in heart rate, respiration, and body temperature. During stage 2 the EEG measures moderate brainwave activity. This stage of the sleep cycle is defined by the introduction of k-complexes and sleep spindles that blend in among the theta waves. Stage 3 and 4- this is the stage at which we sleep the deepest, and we transition into slow wave sleep (SWS). It is characterized by the presence of delta waves. Delta waves are low frequency (0.5-3 Hertz) but high in amplitude. During this stage of sleep there is no eye movement, and growth hormones are secreted. REM (rapid eye movement)- this is the last stage of sleep, characterized by swift eye movements and the presence of dreams. The brainwaves measured by the EEG are low intensity and erratic frequency, and look like the waves that are observed in someone who is awake. REM sleep is also characterized by a lack of muscle movement. This type of motionless sleep is called paradoxical sleep.

different tastes and the associated receptors

Sweet (sugar, e.g. glucose): "T1R2" and "T1R3" receptors. Salty (salt, e.g. NaCl): sodium channels Bitter (basic, e.g. Quinine): T2R receptors Sour (acidic, e.g. HCl): TRP (transient receptor potential) channel. Umami (meaty, e.g. glutamate, amino acids and nucleotides): a combination of T1R1 and T1R3 receptors.

Interactionist Theory

The Social interactionist theory says that language is acquired and perfected by interaction (particularly interaction between a developing child and a linguistically experienced elder). This theory is based on a social-cognitive model, and places importance on the construction of a child's social circle, which, once constructed, serves to improve the child's language development.

somatosensation

The body senses, including body position, touch, skin temperature, and pain. pain, pressure, temperature, proprioception/position, and whether a muscle group of the body is being contracted. perceived by skin, muscles, joints, and ligaments.

sleep and circadian rhythm

The circadian rhythm is a biological process that oscillates throughout a (roughly) 24-hour period. It is also commonly referred to as a biological clock, and can vary depending on age. Our biological clocks are affected by the amount of light we are exposed to (natural and artificial). Light triggers proteins in our retina to send signals to the pineal gland, which produces melatonin. Melatonin is a hormone that causes us to sleep.

8 types of intelligence

The eight types of intelligence 1. Nature Intelligence- the ability to understand the biological aspects of the world. 2. Linguistic Intelligence- the ability to write, read, and speak. 3. Intrapersonal Intelligence- the ability to have insight; to understand one's inner self. 4. Interpersonal Intelligence- the ability to understand and associate with other people. 5. Mathematical Intelligence- the ability to perform in numbers (math). 6. Spatial Intelligence- the ability to see and process the world (space) that surrounds you. 7. Musical Intelligence- the ability to compose and/or perform musically. 8. Bodily-kinesthetic Intelligence- the ability to perform athletically (dance, sports, manual labor, etc.).

processing of encoding information (memory)

The hippocampus (located in the temporal lobe of the brain) receives sensory information from the cortex. There is also a pathway that leads back (from the hippocampus) to different areas of the primary cortex. This neural circuit is responsible for recording and linking associations with the memories we form. The serial position effect explains that we are least likely to remember the information in the middle of a list, and most likely to remember what was listed first and last. The primacy effect is a phenomenon in which we are more likely to recall information that was listed in the beginning (as opposed to information mentioned in the middle of a list. The recency effect explains that we are also more likely to recall information that was listed last.

neural plasticity

The term neural plasticity refers to the brain's ability to change and adapt according to various environments, behaviors and emotions, as well as new synaptic processes. There are four types of neural plasticity: Compensatory masquerade- the use of a new cognitive process to carry out a task that previously depended on a cognitive process that used to be impaired. It is the process of the brain finding another way to accomplish something when the first (typical) method is ineffective. Cross-modal reassignment- the brain can adapt through the introduction of new inputs to an area of the brain that was previously lacking its main inputs. Map expansion- information processing of a particular region of the brain can be heightened by frequent exposure to stimulus/ new information. For example, the area of the brain that deals with mathematics (inferior temporal gyrus) would become heightened after taking a calculus class. Homologous area adaption- if the brain suffers damage to particular regions, sometimes it can shift the responsibilities of that area of the brain to another, undamaged area. This adaption is most active during the early stages of development. Throughout someone's lifetime his or her brain is constantly changing. It is now known that new neurons can actually grow in particular areas of the brain, such as the hippocampus and cerebellum. The birth of new neurons is known as neurogenesis.

sensory reception by hair cells

The vibrating hair cells within the basilar membrane bend when they come in contact with the tectorial membrane. This movement opens up ion channels within the hair cells themselves that release neurotransmitters. These neurotransmitters stimulate dendrites from bipolar afferent neurons.

dissociation theory of hypnosis

Theory based on research by Ernest Hilgard. Suggests that hypnosis causes us to divide our consciousness voluntarily. One part or level of our consciousness responds to the suggestions of the hypnotist; another part or level retains awareness of reality. Hilgard's experiments indicate the presence of a hidden observer, a level of our consciousness that monitors what is happening while another level obeys the hypnotist's suggestions.

social influence theory

This means that the hypnosis patient may do and say what the hypnotist expects of them without even meaning to. theory that hypnotic subjects are just role-playing; so caught up in hypnotized role that they convince themselves it's real; trying to be a "good subject"; imaginative acting

Mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR)

This program applies mindfulness techniques to coping with stress and promoting physical and psychological health such as yoga and meditation

visual pathways in the brain

Visual pathways in the brain Nerve impulses travel from each eye along the optic nerves and meet at the optic chiasm Here, half of the nerves from each side cross and resume to the back of the brain The left side of the brain receives half of the left optic nerve and half of the right optic nerve The same goes for the right side The binocular field of vision is where left and right fields of vision overlap.

Reticular Activating System (RAS)

a dense network of neurons found in the core of the brain stem; it arouses the cortex and screens incoming information

Confirmation bias

a tendency to look for information that supports and agrees with your idea, instead of seeking out new information that may disprove or go against it. barriers to affective problem solving

Activation-Synthesis Theory (dreaming)

a theory of dreaming; this theory proposes that the brain tries to make sense of random brain activity that occurs during sleep by synthesizing the activity with stored memories

signal detection theory

a theory predicting how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus (signal) amid background stimulation (noise). Assumes there is no single absolute threshold and that detection depends partly on a person's experience, expectations, motivation, and alertness. There are four possible outcomes: Hit - signal present and detected Miss - signal present, but not detected False Positive - signal absent, but detected (eg. hallucinations) Accurate Rejection - signal absent and not detected

pheromones

chemicals that behave as signals to the brain that cause a response common to members of the same species. They serve as important chemical messengers, and help animals to prepare for events such as danger, a discovered food source, and when it is time to mate.

vestibular sense

controlled by hair cells in the inner ear. Responsible for our sense of balance (how we perceive gravity) and movement.

Anomie Theory

crime results from the breakdown of social norms Anomie refers to the breakdown of social bonds, such as social norms, between individuals and communities. Sociologists use strain theory to study how the social breakdown characteristic of anomie can lead to social deviance and crime, which can in turn reinforce social stratification and dysfunction.

Processes that aid retrieval:

cues, emotions.

intelligence quotient (IQ)

defined originally as the ratio of mental age (ma) to chronological age (ca) multiplied by 100 [thus, IQ = (ma/ca) x 100]. On contemporary intelligence tests, the average performance for a given age is assigned a score of 100. created by German psychologist William Stern. The first tests to measure intelligence were created to measure a "mental age", marked by a collection of abilities/disabilities that children of a certain age group possess

Barbiturates

drugs that depress the activity of the central nervous system, reducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgment (e.g. tranquilizers, Mebaral, Butisol, Nembutal) Classified as a type of depressant Prescribed to aid with sleep, anxiety reduction, prevention of seizures Users feel relaxed and tired, sometimes confused Can cause slurred speech, slowed heart beat, and weakness Should never be mixed with alcohol, can be fatal

Benzodiazepines

drugs that lower anxiety and reduce stress (e.g. Lorazepam, Clonazepam, Xanax, Valium) Prescribed to alleviate excessive anxiety Classified as a type of depressant Can also be used to prevent seizures Stimulates GABA system, creates feeling of calm Should never be mixed with alcohol, can be fatal

structure and function of the eye

eye structure: Light first travels through the cornea Then through the pupil (hole in the iris muscle) Lens = focuses light on retina. Ciliary muscles: changes the shape of the lens to focus light Vitreous humor = fluid. Retina = screen on the back of the eye = contains photoreceptors. Photoreceptors = cells located on the back of the retina. Rods = senses light and dark (no color), more sensitive. Cones = senses color, less sensitive. Rhodopsin = chemical responsible for light reception = Retinal (chemical) + Opsin (transmembrane protein) Light converts cis-retinal → trans-retinal. trans-retinal then causes hyperpolarization of photoreceptor cell, which prompts the chain of events that sends signal to the brain. Sends signal to brain via a bundle of nerves on the back of the retina (where the blind spot is) Optic nerve: transmits signal from the photoreceptors to the brain function: take in light, focus it, form an image on the retina, which is trasmitted to the brain via the optic nerve

Dialectic behavioral therapy (DBT)

is a type of cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT). It is prescribed widely among people diagnosed with borderline personality disorder, depression, anxiety, and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). DBT teaches a number of behavioral skills such as emotional regulation, mindfulness, and distress tolerance. It's goals are to help people be aware and present of the "here and now", and to learn to tolerate negative emotions.

information-processing model

model of memory that assumes the processing of information for memory storage is similar to the way a computer processes memory in a series of three stages

Dreaming

occurs during REM. If one does not sleep well enough to reach the REM stage, the individual will spend more time in REM the next time they sleep. This compensation is known as REM rebound According to Sigmund Freud called the "story" of our dreams (called manifest content) are symbolic of our unconscious ideas, called latent content The Activation-Synthesis Theory states that physiological processes happening in the brain create dreams

selective attention

our ability to focus on something that is going on while other, non-related things are going on around us.

sensory adaptation (habituation)

over time neurons decrease activity in response to a constant stimulus Our sensory neurons adapt to (become less sensitive/ignores) stimuli that are constantly there. For example, our inner ear uses this process to make recurring loud noises sound softer.

Parallel processing

parallel processing is what allows our brains to quickly process visual information such as color, depth, motion, and size, simultaneously, instead of one by one. the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions, including vision. Contrasts with the step-by-step (serial) processing of most computers and of conscious problem solving.

hallucinogens

psychedelic ("mind-manifesting") drugs, such as LSD, that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input (e.g. Marijuana, LSD, Psilocybin mushrooms) Users see images that do not exist in reality Colors may appear more bright Can cause euphoria and state of relaxation Sometimes user can experience extreme fear (depending on what user is seeing) Not normally prescribed as a therapeutic drug

two types of amnesia

refers to partial or complete inability to remember something. There are two types of amnesia: Anterograde amnesia is the inability to form new memories (this can be a result of damage to the hippocampus). Retrograde amnesia is the inability to remember older memories (things that have happened in the past).

Feature detection theory

the Feature Detection Theory describes why a particular part of our brain is triggered when we look at something (ie. looking at animals trigger one part of the brain, and looking at words trigger a different part.) A theory of visual perception that proposes that certain neurons fire for individual and specific features of a visual stimulus such as shape, color, line, movements, etc.

priming

the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perception, memory, or response is the activation of past, related ideas and associations that are all related to one main idea. Example: You are shown a sponge and then asked to name a type of cheese. This may have primed you to say "Swiss" because of an association you made with the holes, found in both the sponge and Swiss cheese.

long-term potentiation

the consistent process of strengthening neural synapses according to various activation patterns. As a synapse strengthens, the signal transmission time becomes quicker. For example: a mouse is placed in a maze, and in one of the corners is a piece of cheese. Assuming the mouse is successful, and finds the cheese, the mouse will more easily find the cheese (if put in the same place), next time he is placed in the maze.

cognitive development

the development of one's ability to understand concepts and think reasonably for oneself.

Fixation

the failure to see an issue from a new perspective. Sometimes fixation occurs because of a mental set. A mental set is the inclination to fixate on answers that have been successful in the past, even though they may be irrelevant or inappropriate for solving the current problem. Function fixedness is a tendency to observe the functions of things (objects) as static and unchanging. For example, one may think the only way to get to work is by driving, when other methods exist such as biking or public transportation. barriers to affective problem solving

sensory pathways

the pathways followed by a nerve impulse from a sensory organ (eg. eye, tongue, ear, skin) to the brain or spinal cord.

Weber's Law

the principle that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage (rather than a constant amount) ex: You are holding a dumbbell, and someone puts a stone on that dumbbell, can you detect it with your eyes closed? For humans, the stone must be at least 2% of the dumbbell for you to detect that change

perceptual organization

the process by which our brains structure information into structural units that is easier to visually understand Depth- we perceive how far away an object is, not just a flat 2-D image. Form- our ability to recognize an object's shape/outline. For example: In the dark you are able to see a car, not because you can see it's colors, but because you can recognize it's shape by piecing together outlines. Motion- motion perception is our ability to recognize that an object is moving. Constancy- the brain tends to maintain constancy of certain attributes of objects, such as color, size, and shape, even though some of these traits may have changed. For example, as you watch a car approach you from far away it may seem small at first, and increase in size as it approaches you. Even though this is what your eyes are seeing, you know that the car has remained the same size.

Psychophysics (Fechner)

the psychological study of the relationship between a physical stimuli and mental response. For example, a series of different pitches played for a subject to test which he/she can detect (humans can detect pitches ranging from 20 to 20,000 Hz).

Sensory threshold

the smallest signal that can be detected

Belief bias

the tendency for one's preexisting beliefs to distort logical reasoning, sometimes by making invalid conclusions seem valid, or valid conclusions seem invalid Belief perseverance is the tendency for us to hold on to our pre-existing beliefs, despite being presented with evidence that contradicts our beliefs.

divided attention

the type of attention we need to use when we are forced to do more than one task at a time. How much our attention is divided depends on the difficulty of the tasks. ability to perform multiple tasks at the same time

Gestalt principles

ways for the brain to infer missing parts of a picture when a picture is incomplete The Gestalt (German word for "whole") principle states that the "whole" object surpasses the singular details that make up an image. Eg, when you look at a flower, you do not first notice the defining lines of the flower, then the pieces that make up the flower, and then the color of the flower, but instead, you see the whole flower as a single image.