Psych test 3

Which of the following statements are true about children and adolescents who participate in after-school activities? a. As high school students, they are less likely to abuse alcohol or drugs b. They differ very little, if at all, from those who do not participate c. Their academic achievement is slightly lower, apparently as a result of less time for studying d. They are not well behaved in the classroom, apparently because they have too much structure and not enough "down time"

a. As high school students, they are less likely to abuse alcohol or drugs

A teacher told her students to go to the cabinet and take one box of crayons to use for the rest of the year. Maggie is the last student in line to get crayons. By the time she gets to the cabinet no one else is paying any attention to her. Maggie could easily take more than one box of crayons and not get caught. However, she decides that she shouldn't because it would be against the classroom rules. In which of Kohlberg's stages of moral reasoning is Maggie? a. Conventional b. Preconventional c. Postconventional d. Egocentric

a. Conventional

Most developmental psychologists believe that temperament: a. involves certain genetic dispositions, which are moderately open to socialization b. Has a strong biological basis and is resistant to socialization efforts c. Arises from the complex interaction of the genetic inheritance of the two parents d. Is almost completely a product of the socialization efforts of parents and other adults

a. Involves certain genetic dispositions, which are moderately open to socialization

Three of the following adults are acting in ways consistent with the textbook's recommendations regarding television and interactive media. Which one is NOT? a. Mr. Edwards warns children of the many sexual predators on the internet and urges them not to go online until they are at least sixteen b. During a unit on Jane Austen's Pride and Prejudice in her high school English class, Ms. Ingalls shows students excerpts from a recent movie based on the book c. Ms. Ferraro points out how television commercials are intentionally designed to entice children to purchase certain foods, toys, and clothing d. Mr. Gregorian asks children to speculate on possible reasons why violence is so common in prime time television programs

a. Mr. Edwards warns children of the many sexual predators on the Internet and urges them not to go online until they are at least sixteen.

Three of the following teachers are using strategies that are likely to be effective with students who have emotional-behavioral problems. Which teacher is NOT using an effective strategy? a. Ms. Walsenburg allows students to be verbally aggressive with classmates as long as they don't become physically aggressive. b. Mr. Moreno makes it clear that getting up and leaving the classroom without permission is unacceptable behavior c. Ms. DuBois asks Harry, "Do you want to talk about it?" when he seems especially upset d. Mr. Green privately praises students for such appropriate behaviors as smiling, speaking pleasantly, and cooperating.

a. Ms. Walsenburg allows students to be verbally aggressive with classmates as long as they don't become physically aggressive

Ms. Smythe keeps Eric after school whenever he swears in class. Even though Eric has been kept after school each day for the past three weeks, his swearing has increased rather than decreased. Given what we know about the effects of punishment on behavior, Ms. Smythe should probably conclude that: a. Staying after school is reinforcing for Eric b. Eric's swearing will decrease eventually c. Her punishment is only temporarily suppressing Eric's swearing d. The punishment is too severe

a. Staying after school is reinforcing for Eric

Which one of the following is the best example of a student attributing success to an internal factor? a. Sue Ellen has just gotten a good grade on her geography test. She is proud that she did so well and glad that she studied hard. b. Renata has just gotten a good grade on her math test and is glad that her mother got her a math tutor. c. Polly's teacher has just told her that she will be the group leader for her reading group next quarter. Polly is glad her teacher is in a good mood today d. Nita has just gotten an A on her final exam in world history and is feeling very grateful that the test was so easy

a. Sue Ellen has just gotten a good grade on her geography test. She is proud that she did so well and glad that she studied hard.

Even though he teachers history rather than English, Mr. Stahl wants to support his seventh-grade students in their syntactic development. Which one of the following strategies, although possibly beneficial in other respects, is LEAST likely to promote his students' syntactic development? a. Teach students how to take notes more efficiently by capturing ideas in short phrases rather than complete sentences. b. Engage students in many formal writing activities, and give them regular feedback about grammar. c. Teach students the differences between similar words (e.g. that vs. which, lie vs. lay) and when to use each one d. Teach students a wide variety of sentence structures that they might use.

a. Teach students how to take notes more efficiently by capturing ideas in short phrases rather than complete sentence.

Three of the following statements describe possible effects of television viewing on children's development. Which statement is NOT necessarily true? a. Watching television more than five hours per week has a negative impact on IQ b. Many television shows convey unrealistic standards of feminine beauty c. Depending on the content of the show, children can learn either prosocial or aggressive behavior from watching television. d. Many television shows perpetuate stereotypes of particular genders and racial groups

a. Watching television more than five hours per week has a negative impact on IQ

Julie, a sixth grader, nearly always eats lunch with the same five or six girls. They usually spread out at the table so no other girls can join them. Julie's group appears to be: a. a clique b. a gang c. a subculture d. a dominance hierarchy

a. a clique

Ms. Miller holds up a picture of a bird and asks her first graders, "What letter does this word start with?" Most of the students yell out, "B!" "You're absolutely right," Ms. Miller responds, "the word bird begins with a B." This interaction can best be described as: a. an IRE cycle b. an authentic activity c. decoding words d. language immersion

a. an IRE cycle

David loves to interact with other students, and he readily asserts his opinions in class. Within the context of the five dimensions of personality listed in the textbook, you would be most likely to rate David high on a. extraversion b. agreeableness c. conscientiousness d. neuroticism

a. extraversion

Children's early attachments with caregivers are more likely to: a. help children form ideas about the nature of typical interpersonal relationships b. be secure only if the caregivers are usually hovering close by c. be impediments to children's emotional well-being if they persist into adulthood d. slowly fade away during adolescence

a. help children form ideas about the nature of typical interpersonal relationships

On her first day at a new child care center, 2-year-old Martha is quite upset when her father leaves to go to work. When Dad returns that afternoon, Martha runs to him for a hug but then soon pushes Dad away. Martha's behavior is most consistent with a(n): a. insecure-resistant b. secure attachment c. overly secure d. insecure-avoidant

a. insecure-resistant

Janis uses the term teddy to refer to all of her stuffed toys, including teddy bears, stuffed bunnies, stuffed birds, and even a stuffed lizard. In doing so, she is showing a. overextension b. under extension c. too much dependence on defining features d. overregularization

a. overextension

Which one of the following children is displaying extrinsic motivation? a. Roxanne wants to be an accountant because she likes working with numbers b. Elbert wants to become a professional football player so others will admire him c. Donnetta wants to become an actress because she thinks acting is fun d. Brad wants to be a veterinarian because he loves animals and wants to help them

b. Elbert wants to become a professional football player so others will admire him

Which one of the following is the best example of pragmatics in language? a. Isaiah recognizes the double meanings in many of the puns he hears b. Julie waits until her friend has finished talking before she begins to speak c. Sheena knows that the plural of man is men, not mans d. Morris understands the underlying meaning of "A stitch in time saves nine"

b. Julie waits until her friend has finished talking before she begins to speak

Three of the following teachers are employing strategies to promote phonological awareness in their students. Which teacher is using a strategy that, although potentially beneficial for other reasons, will not necessarily promote phonological awareness? a. Mr. Gray has his students collect items that begin with the featured letter of the week b. Ms. Noble has the words to, too, and two posted on her wall. when students use those words in their speech, she asks them to point to the one they are using. c. Mr. Schofield plays a game with his students called "Making the Word." A sample question is "What letter do we add to it to make it sit?" d. Ms. Leach asks her class, "Who can think of a word that rhymes with boat?"

b. Ms. Noble has the words to, too, and two posted on her wall. When students use those words in their speech, she asks them to point to the one they are using.

Only one of the following statements is accurate regarding similarities or differences in moral standards across cultures. Which one? a. Because cultures can be so very different from one another, similarities in moral standards are few and far between b. Virtually all cultures tend to value both individual rights and compassion for others c. Because youngsters' notion of tight and wrong are based on universal (and possible inherited) moral principles, there are cultural differences only in social conventions, not in moral situations d. Intentionally telling lies is considered to be morally wrong in all cultures

b. Virtually all cultures tend to value both individual rights and compassion for others

Which one of the following students is most clearly demonstrating automatization in word recognition? a. When Roland reads, he has to sound out most of the words b. When Kristen reads, she recognizes words by sight and recalls their meanings immediately. c. When Samantha reads aloud, her voice lack expression d. When Cole listens to someone say a new word, he closes his eyes and tried to imagine how it might be spelled.

b. When Kristen reads, she recognizes words by sight and recalls their meanings immediately

In a middle school science lab activity, students are looking at how much water objects of varying sizes and weights displace. Lab partners Jack and Jennifer have just put two equal-size balls - one made of plastic and one made of lead - into separate beakers of water and measured how high the water rose in each one. They've observed that the water rose the same amount in the two beakers. Jack says, "That can't be right. The lead ball should push the water up more because it's heavier." Jennifer responds, "We must have measured wrong. Let's try the experiment again." The two students' reasoning reflects a. a substance schema b. a confirmation bias c. poor visual-spatial ability d. a nativist view of science development

b. a confirmation bias

A preschool child who says, "I eated the cake" is demonstrating that: a. he knows nothing about the rules for forming the past tense b. he has overregularized the rule for the regular past tense c. he will likely continue to use the incorrect past tense until adulthood d. his parents frequently use ungrammatical langauge

b. he has overregularized the rule for the regular past tense

Seven-year-old Bayli thinks that "Too many cooks spoil the broth" is only about cooking soup. Her inability to recognize the more general meaning of the expression: a. indicated that she has not received instruction in reading comprehension b. is typical for her age group c. shows delayed pragmatic development d. reveals preoperational thinking

b. is typical for her age group

Catalina is talking about her experiences in pottery class. "At first I had a really hard time getting the clay centered on the wheel. Then I'd finally get it centered, but the pot would collapse when I tried to pull the walls up. (She laughs.) It was really frustrating, but I just kept practicing over and over. I am doing better now than I did at the beginning of the semester." From her comments, it is clear that Catalina has a: a. core goal b. mastery goal c. performance goal d. social goal

b. mastery goal

Most days Marnie keeps to herself at school, and her classmates don't even seem to be aware that she is nearby. Marnie can best be describes as a(n): a. rejected child b. neglected child c. androgynous child d. controversial child

b. neglected child

Bert is looking for his favorite toy truck in the preschool sand pile. He sees that Ernie is playing with it. Bert pushes Ernie away and reaches for the truck. Bert's behavior is an example of: a. relational aggression b. proactive aggression c. a hostile attribution bias d. reactive aggression

b. proactive aggression

Which one of the following best describes Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development? a. A process of becoming increasingly self-confident through the years as one's competence improves b. A series of stages in which people develop increasingly more sophisticated social skills c. A series of stages, each of which has a unique developmental task to be addressed c. A progression of increasingly abstract understandings of social situations

c. A series of stages, each of which has a unique developmental task to be addressed

Three of the following are accurate statements about the shortcomings of Kohlberg's theory of moral reasoning. Which one is inaccurate? a. Kohlberg is overlooked the importance of caring and compassion in moral reasoning and behavior b. The same child may reason at different levels depending on the situation c. Children often show conventional thinking consistently for several years and then revert back to preconventional thinking when they reach adolescence d. Most elementary school children distinguish between two kinds of "wrong" behaviors- those that are morally wrong and those that violate cultural standards

c. Children often show conventional thinking consistently for several years and then revert back to preconventional thinking when they reach adolescence

Three of the following would be considered moral transgressions. Which one is an example instead of conventional transgression? a. Stealing a fellow student's homework assignment b. Shoving a younger child to the ground c. Forgetting to say "thank you" when getting a gift d. Telling a lie that ruins a classmate's reputations

c. Forgetting to say "thank you" when getting a gift

Three of the following prosocial behaviors are typical for the age group. Which one is NOT typical? a. Fourteen-year-old Rose volunteers to help serve. Thanksgiving dinner at a homeless shelter because she thinks that doing so will make her more popular at school b. Ten-year-old Jack helps his mother organize materials for a school fundraiser c. Four-year-old Molly donates her favorite teddy bear to a toy collection for earthquake victims in Asia d. Two-year-old Mohammed tries to comfort a crying infant by offering her the blanket he usually sleeps with at naptime.

c. Four-year-old Molly donates her favorite teddy bear to a toy collection for earthquake victims in Asia

Which one of the following metacognitive skills related to writing poses the greatest challenge for children and adolescents? a. Writing about a single topic in depth b. Writing complex sentences with one or more dependent clauses c. Identifying problems in their own writing d. Taking the audience into account when writing

c. Identifying problems in their own writing

Which one of the following statements most accurately describes the nature of knowledge transforming in a child's writing? a. It reveals a youngster's ability to form opinions based on factual information, rather than just to recall undisputed facts. b. It reflects a child's ability to engage in abstract thinking and scientific reasoning. c. It reveals a child's attempt to help the reader truly understand the ideas that the child is trying to communicate. d. It is an intentional effort to evoke visual imagery in the reader.

c. It reveals a child's attempt to help the reader truly understand the ideas that the child is trying to communicate

Two 15-year-olds, John and Martha, are deeply engaged in conversation. If typical gender differences in language hold true for John and Martha, we would expect that a. Martha would do most of the talking and John would be tuning out a lot of what she says b. John would be focused on demonstrating his superior verbal ability, whereas Martha would be focused on commending John for his strength and agility c. John would focus on providing information in a fairly blunt manner, whereas Martha would focus on maintaining the relationship through tact and courtesy. d. Martha would be subtly trying to teach John new things, whereas John would be trying to demonstrate how much he already knows.

c. John would focus on providing information in a fairly blunt manner, whereas Martha would focus on maintaining the relationship through tact and courtesy.

Which one of the following statements is most accurate about a typical 5-year-old child's understanding of numbers and/or counting? a. Most 5-year-olds have already had enough experience adding and subtracting objects in their own lives that further work with concrete objects isn't necessary. b. Most 5-year-olds can neither add nor subtract because they have not yet been taught addition or subtraction in school. c. Most 5-year-olds know that when you count a group of objects, you should count each object in the group once and only once. d. Most 5-year-olds do not yet know that a group of objects has the same number of objects regardless of the order in which the objects are counted.

c. Most 5-year-olds know that when you count a group of objects, you should count each object in the group once and only once.

Three of the following high school teachers are using strategies consistent with the textbook's recommendations for teaching history. Which strategy is LEAST likely to be beneficial? a. Mr. Douglas's class is role playing significant events in history b. Ms. Bigley is having her students read novels set in various historical periods c. Mr. Rice is having his students memorize famous speeches and recite them with as much expression as possible d. Ms. Walsh's class is reading journals and letters written by soldiers during the American Civil War and comparing them to newspaper accounts of the time

c. Mr. Rice is having his students memorize famous speeches and recite them with as much expression as possible.

Young children sometimes pretend to write "grocery lists," restaurant "menus," and doctors' "prescriptions" in their sociodramatic play. Parents and preschool teachers are apt to see three of the following characteristics in such pseudo writing. Which one are they LEAST likely to see? a. Small spaces between individual letters b. A few alphabet letters mixed in with other letter like shapes c. Periods or commas at the ends of "sentences" d. Some drawing mixed in the "writing"

c. Periods or commas at the ends of "sentences"

The emotions guilt and shame are different from emotions such as sadness, fear, and anger in that they: a. Don't appear until the upper elementary grades at the earliest b. Are seen in boys far more often than in girls c. Require awareness of society's standards d. Are seen only in industrialized societies

c. Require awareness of society's standards

Tim and Sally are seventh graders at ta school science fair. They both receive As on their science projects. Considering gender differences in children's attributes, how are the two students likely to explain their good grades? a. Tim will think, "My project got an A because I had a lot of help from my friends." Sally will think, "I got an A because I'm smarter than the other kids." b. Tim will think that he is lucky when it comes to projects like this. Sally will think that she succeeded because her father is a scientist and she inherited his ability c. Tim will think, "I got an A because I'm really good in science." Sally will think, "I got an A because I worked really hard on my project." d. Time will attribute his A to his many nights of hard work. Sally will think, "I got an A because I'm good in science."

c. Tim will think, "I got an A because I'm really good in science." Sally will think, "I got an A because I worked really hard on my project"

At a Parent Teacher Association (PTA) meeting at your school, several parents complain about the moral decline of today's youth and argue that the school should be giving regular lectures about the importance of honesty, loyalty, generosity, and so on. If the teachers and school administrators are up to date on research regarding moral development, they should respond by saying that such lecture a. Are likely to be effective for junior high and high school students but not for elementary school students b. Can be effective only if parents urge their children to take lectures seriously c. Would do little if anything to promote moral development d. Are likely to be effective for elementary students but not for junior high and high school students

c. Would do little if anything to promote moral development

Three of the following statements describe developmental trends in self-regulation that researchers have observed. Which statement is NOT necessarily consistent with researchers' findings? a. emotional reactions become more restrained b. external rules and restrictions become internalized c. absent-minded largely disappears d. self-evaluations become more frequent

c. absent-mindedness largely disappears

Compared to preschoolers, children in the elementary grades are more likely to a. form friendships with children of the opposite sex b. abandon old friendships and form new ones fairly often c. choose friends on the basis of similar characteristics and interests d. be friends with the children of their parents' friends

c. choose friends on the basis of similar characteristics and interests

Like authoritative parents, effective teachers generally had an approach that mixes which of the following factors? a. a focus on teacher-centered instruction and structured lessons b. a hands-off approach and emphasis on students solving their own problems c. clear rules and consideration of the students' needs d. strict behavioral guidelines and effective enforcement

c. clear rules and consideration of the students' need

The belief that the person's ability can increase through hard work and persistence is an _____ view of ability. a. efficacy b. attributional c. incremental d. entity

c. incremental

Edward is a timid 8-year-old who is shy around his peers. He gets easily frustrated with challenging school assignments and would much prefer to do simple tasks that he can accomplish quickly. If we were to consider three key dimensions of temperament described in the textbook- extraversion/surgency, negative affectivity, and effortful control- we would rate Edward high on: a. none of these b. effortful control c. negative affectivity d. extraversion/surgency

c. negative affectivity

A community of learners can best be described as: a. A classroom with an elected "government council" that directs learning activities b. A classroom in which students learn almost exclusively through individual and group experimentation c. A small group of students who choose a special topic they want to pursue together d. A classroom in which a cooperative spirit of helping one another learn prevails

d. A classroom in which a cooperative spirit of helping one another learn prevails

Which one of the following alternatives best characterizes a central conceptual structure view of children's mathematical development? a. Even in infancy, children's understanding of quantity has a somewhat abstract quality to it. b. Children have a biologically built-in mechanism that enables them to recognize quantity even in infancy; at around puberty, the rise in certain hormones activates new mathematical capabilities in this mechanisms. c. Children don't acquire a true understanding of the nature of numbers until they learn how to add and subtract. d. Children acquire an understanding of numbers that integrates earlier, separate understandings of quantity, numerals, and counting.

d. Children acquire an understanding of numbers that integrates earlier, separate understandings of quantity, numerals, and counting.

Which one of the following statements is consistent with a sociocultural view of language development? a. From a very early age, children are motivated to learn how to speak, because speech enables them to interact with other people and, ultimately, to get what they want. b. Although children can learn the specific vocabulary and syntax of their native language only by hearing the people around them speak it, they seem to have some built-in knowledge of the form that any language should take. c. To foster children's language development, parents and other adults praise them first for making speech like sounds ('Da-da'), later for saying recognizable words ('More!'), and still later for forming understandable sentences ('Can I have candy?') d. Children initially use language primarily in their interactions with other people, but increasingly they also use it to help them think more effectively.

d. Children initially use language primarily in their interactions with other people, but increasingly they also use it to help them think more effectively.

In fifth grade last year, Elena was a happy, easygoing student. Now that she's moved to junior high school and begun sixth grade, she's becoming increasingly anxious and uptight. Three of the following are probable reasons for her growing anxiety. Which one is LEAST likely to be true? a. She's uncomfortable with the many ways that her body is changing now that she's reached puberty b. It's harder to get the good grades she was used to getting in elementary school c. She is finding that she has to compete with her peers, both for grades and for a place on the girls' basketball team d. Her junior high school teachers want to know more about her than her fifth-grade teacher ever did

d. Her junior high school teachers want to know more about her than her fifth-grade teacher ever did

Which one of the following statements is most accurate regarding gender differences in emotion? a. As early as age 4, more boys than girls show signs of serious depression b. After age 2, girls are more likely to show anger than boys c. On average, male infants are more emotionally volatile than female infants almost from birth d. In the elementary school year, many boys begin to hide their true feelings

d. In the elementary school years, many boys begin to hide their true feelings

Which of the following statements most clearly illustrates self-efficacy? a. Misha thinks he gets poor grades in his French class because his teacher doesn't like him b. Misha is such a warm, outgoing young man that he is quite popular with his peers c. Misha really enjoys listening to rap music d. Misha believes he can do well in his chemistry class is he studies hard

d. Misha believes he can do well in his chemistry class if he studies hard.

A student who has developed learned helplessness about his or her spelling ability is most likely to say which one of the following? a. I can learn how to spell words correctly without even trying b. I have to work harder than my friends to learn to spell c. I would learn to spell eventually, but it's not worth the time it would take to do so. d. No matter how much I study words, I can't remember how to spell them

d. No matter how much I study words, I can't remember how to spell them

As a parent, you are committed to using induction as a way of promoting your children's moral development. You just discovered that one of your children, John, has been teasing another child every day at recess. You should respond by a. Punishing John by sending him to his room when he gets home from school b. Start teasing John at home whenever possible so he can see what it feels like c. Talking with the teacher about an appropriate consequence either at school or home d. Punishing John but also asking him to reflect on the other child's feelings about being teased

d. Punishing John but also asking him to reflect on the other child's feelings about being teased

Three of the following teaching strategies should promote intrinsic motivation in the classroom. Which one will NOT? a. showing how scientific principles explain puzzling phenomena in children's lives b. Having students act our scenes from a play or novel they are reading c. Giving students occasional choices about how to accomplish classroom objectives d. Reminding students how important their grades will be when they apply to college

d. Reminding students how important their grades will be when they apply to college

Four-year-old Rosemary picks up a picture book and pretends to read it to one of her preschool classmates. "Once upon a time," she says, "there was a fairy princess. She was very beautiful. A handsome prince asked her to marry him. They lived happily ever after. The end." Which one of the following is the most reasonable interpretation of Rosemary's behavior? a. Her lack of attention to the words on the page suggests possible dyslexia b. She is engaging in knowledge transforming c. She has a good working sight vocabulary d. She has acquired a story schema for fairytales

d. She has acquired a story schema for fairytales

Which one of the following statements is consistent with B.F. Skinner's view of language development? a. Children initially use language primarily in their interactions with other people, but increasingly they also use it to help them think more effectively. b. From a very early age, children are motivated to learn how to speak, because speech enables them to interact with other people and, ultimately, to get what they want. c. Although children can learn the specific vocabulary and syntax of their native language only by hearing the people around them speak it, they seem to have some built-in knowledge of the form that any language should take. d. To foster children's language development, parents and other adults praise them first for making speech like sounds ('Da-da'), later for saying recognizable words ('More!'), and still later for forming understandable sentences ('Can I have candy?').

d. To foster children's language development, parents and other adults praise them first for making speech like sounds ('Da-da'), later for saying recognizable words ('More!'), and still later for forming understandable sentences ('Can I have candy?').

In the long term, rewarding children for engaging in prosocial behavior leads to: a. a reduction in bullying and other forms of antisocial behavior b. internalization of morals and a desire to help others c. an increase in prosocial behavior as children develop d. a decline in true prosocial behavior and more self-serving behaviors

d. a decline in true prosocial behavior and more self-serving behaviors

As described in the textbook, popular children tend to a. use relational aggression to obtain higher social status b. hold high-status positions in schools, such as being on sport teams c. act prosocially to some children but ignore others d. are socially skilled, showing sensitivity to others and acting cooperatively

d. are socially skilled, showing sensitivity to others and acting cooperatively

Which of the following will be LEAST effective for children who are learning a second language in traditional foreign language instruction? a. cultural awareness lessons b. community involvement lessons c. oral communication lessons d. diagramming sentence for grammar

d. diagramming sentences for grammar

Martin now takes considerable pride in completing his fourth-grade homework assignments and in doing them well. He is quite disappointed when the teacher assigns an "A" to him for a project that he strongly feels deserved an "A+". According to Erikson's theory of psychosocial development, martin is in what stage of development? a. generativity vs. self-adsorption b. autonomy vs. doubt and shame c. identity vs. tole confusion d. industry vs. inferiority

d. industry vs. inferiority

With regard to aggression and prosocial behavior, twin studies suggest that a. boys are more aggressive than girls, and girls are more prosocial than boys b. twins tend to be both more aggressive and more prosocial than non-twin siblings c. aggression and prosocial behavior do not have a noticeable biological or genetic basis d. monozygotic (identical) twins tend to be more similar than dizygotic (fraternal) twins

d. monozygotic (identical) twins tend to be more similar than dizygotic (fraternal) twins