PSYCH TEST CH 5 AND 6

working memory

a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory A more detailed version of short-term memory that includes the mechanisms that allow short-term memory to accomplish its tasks. active maintenance of information in short-term storage baddeley's 4 components of working memory: 1. a phonological loop: -Allows you to work with verbal information for a short period of time. As donna is taking notes in class, this aspect of working memory will be most important 2. a visuospatial sketchpad 3. an episodic buffer 4. a central executive

Relearning aka Savings Method

a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material for a second time measures retrieval -a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material for a second time -Aka savings method -The savings method of measuring long-term memory retrieval in which the measure is the amount of time saved when learning information for the second time. -In relearning, the time one saves in relearning information is the measure of memory -ex.studying for a comprehensive final examination in a course. You must relearn the material. It will take you less time to relearn it, but how much less depends upon how well you learned it the first time -ebbinghaus Conducted the first experimental studies on human memory using the relearning method. His stimulus materials were lists of nonsense syllables, groupings of three letters (consonant-vowel-consonant such as BAV) that were not words or acronyms. He used meaningless nonsense syllables because he wanted to study pure memory for the list items.He would study a list of nonsense syllables until he could correctly recite the complete list without any hesitations. He then put the list aside and waited some period of time (from 20 minutes up to 31 days) and then relearned the list to the same criterion (one complete recitation without any hesitations). To get a measure of relearning, Ebbinghaus computed what he called a savings score—the reduction in the number of trials it took him to reach criterion.

ill-defined problem

a problem lacking clear specification of the start state, goal state, or the processes for reaching the goal state. Ex. getting your roommate to clean the apartment Most probs we confront are ill defined and to solve them we need to define the missing parts Everyday problems tend to be ill-defined; therefore, interpreting the problem is necessary. Such interpretation may block problem solving.

well-defined problem

a problem with clear specifications of the start state, goal state, and the processes for reaching the goal state Ex. monopoly and scrabble

physical level of level of processing theory

lowercase letters

levels of processing theory

proposes that deeper levels of processing result in longer-lasting memory codes Info encoded at a deeper level is easier to recall Describes what types of encoding lead to better retrieval A theory of information processing in memory that assumes that semantic processing, especially elaborative semantic processing, leads to better long-term memory. This theory assumes that incoming information can be processed at different levels, from the simplistic physical level to the semantic level, and that semantic processing, especially elaborative semantic processing, leads to better memory. According to the levels-of-processing theory, the retrieval of information depends on how well it was encoded. predicts that memory for the words that had to be processed semantically should be best, those processed acoustically next best, and those only processed physically worst This theory assumes that the strength of the memory trace is a function of the depth of processing involved. Shallow processing that only involves surface details (e.g., whether a word is italicized or not) leads to fragile memory traces and poor memory, whereas deeper processing that involves semantic details and elaboration upon these details leads to strong, durable memory traces and good memory. According to this theory, there are three general levels of processing—physical, acoustic, and semantic. physical level-lowercase letters acoustic level-how word sounds semantic level-the meaning

sheingold

replicated Sperling's findings with children ages 5, 8, and 11 years old and with adults. He argued that the initial capacity of iconic memory was invariant across age.

insight

solving a problem Sometimes when searching for new approaches to a problem, we may experience what has been called insight When someone suddenly realizes how to solve a problem a new way to interpret a problem that immediately gives the solution This rapid understanding is the key to the solution. Insight is sometimes referred to as an "Aha!" or "Eureka!" experience.

retroactive interference

the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information -the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information -new blocks old -Where you learn something in past and something new that is similar and so new info blocks our old info. New blocks old -the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information -Ex. learn new language cant remember the old one Ex. get a new phone number and hard to remember old number -Backward acting interference

proactive interference

the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information -blocking new info -the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information -old blocks new -forward acting -Ex. Think about changing phone numbers after having a particular number for many years. When asked for your phone number, remembering the old one interferes with retrieving the new one -older information interfering with the retrieval of new information

procedural memory

the gradual acquisition of skills as a result of practice, or "knowing how" to do things type of implicit long term memory. Not all implicit memories, however, are procedural memories. In contrast with declarative explicit memories, procedural implicit memories are like knowing "how" versus knowing "what." Motor and cognitive skills involving procedures Implicit and this prob processed in the cerebellum Ex. driving a car, typing, tying our shoes hitting a tennis ball. Have a physical procedural aspect(the execution of an ordered set of movements) to them.

hindsight bias

the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it The tendency after finding out about an event or outcome, to be confident you could have predicted it beforehand We tend to be overconfident about our ability to see things play out who they do The tendency for us to take a look at something that just happened or an outcome like something in the news and look at it and say well I kind of would have predicted that Very common and pervasive just like confirmation bias leary: -Did research on hindsight bias and looked at sporting events -Went to a football game and went up to people and asked them how they thought the game would play out

first letter technique

uses the first letters of a set of items to spell out words that form a sentence Mnemonics that involve little elaboration have not been found to be very effective like this one In the first-letter technique, you compose a word, acronym, or sentence from the first letters of the words you want to remember. Ex. ROYGBV Not as effective as more elaborative mnemonics

blaser and kaldy

using a modified partial-report technique, found that by 6 months of age, infants' iconic memory capacity nearly matches that of adults.

spacing effect

the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice The concept that memory is improved when information is learned over a long period of time rather than crammed into a small amount of time

Tower of Hanoi problem

uses means end analysis to solve it -Well defined problem -The start state, the goal state, and the rules for moving from the start state to the goal state are all clearly specified -Using means−end analysis to solve this problem leads to a recursive subgoaling process. For example, solving the 3-disk version requires solving two 2-disk problems; solving the 4-disk version requires solving two 3-disk problems, each of which requires solving two 2-disk problems, and so on. -Using means-end analysis (setting up subgoals and so on) to solve the Tower of Hanoi problem obviously involves planning, and remember from Chapter 2, the frontal lobes play a major role in planning. Thus, patients with frontal lobe damage might have difficulty solving this problem

classical conditioning

-2nd type of implicit memory -Type of long term implicit/nondeclarative memory -Conditioned responses automatically elicited by conditioned stimuli -We can have reactions w/o conscious awareness -Classically conditioned responses elicited automatically by conditioned stimuli are also implicit memories

priming

-Influence of an earlier presented stimulus on the response to a later stimulus -Something that we learned before impacts us afterwards -type of implicit long term memory -Something that happened to you earlier on can prepare us/impact future responses -The implicit influence of an earlier presented stimulus on the response to a later stimulus. This influence is independent of conscious memory for the earlier stimulus. -priming occurs when explicit memory for the word does not, which means that priming is an involuntary, nonconscious implicit process -priming is an implicit, nonconscious type of memory repetition priming: -In repetition priming, a person first studies a list of words and then at some later time is asked to complete a list of word fragments with the first word that comes to mind for each fragment. For example, the fragment s _ c _ _ _ might be presented. The likelihood that the person answers "s o c i a l" (the primed word because the word social was on the earlier word list) is much higher than for unprimed words, such as s o c c e r or s o c k e t, that fit the fragment but were not on the list.

self-reference effect

-It is easier to remember information that you have related to yourself -Relates to method of loci(memory palace) and mnemonics -If you make something personal and connect it to you, it will be a lot easier to remember -Elaboration is most effective when we relate the new information to ourselves, the self-reference effect. -The superior long-term memory for information related to oneself at time of encoding into long-term memory. -researchers have found that people can remember more words from a list if they related the words to themselves

content validity

-The former type of validity Experts agree that the test measures what it is supposed to measure -Does this test capture the diff pieces of the abstract idea of what you are trying to measure or not -means that the test covers the content that it is supposed to cover Experts decide this. All course exams should have content validity (be on the content that was assigned) -expert based

predictive validity

-The test significantly predicts what a theory says it should predict Correlational based -means that the test predicts behavior that is related to what is being measured by the test -for example, an intelligence test should predict how well a child does in school -0It is important to note that if a test is valid, then it will also be reliable. However, the reverse is not true. A test may be reliable, but not valid. -Psychologists agree on what an intelligence test should predict, but they do not agree on how intelligence should be defined.

Nickerson & Adams (1979) penny study

-conducted an experiment where participants were asked to identify true US penny - most failed because they did not encode info to long term memory

primacy effect

-part of serial position effect --The superior recall of the early portion of the list -Due to maintenance rehearsal into LTM -People tend to do well at remembering words from beginning. Improved recall for initial items on the list -(1) In memory, the superior recall of the early portion of a list relative to the middle of the list in a one-trial free recall task. (2) In impression formation, information gathered early is weighted more heavily than information gathered later in forming an impression of another person -First few names likely to be remembered -The superior recall of the first few items presented relative to those in the middle of the list is primacy effect. This effect is due to the fact that the primary items in the list are studied more and so have a higher probability of being in long-term memory for later recall -The first few names are also highly likely to be remembered -When there is a time delay between meeting the people and recalling their names, the primacy effect remains but the recency effect diminishes

episodic memory

-personal experiences -long term memory -Explicit memory for personal experiences. -Things that happen to you in your life ex. First kiss, bday party autobiographical memory: a special form of episodic memory, consisting of a person's recollections of his or her life experiences Semantic and episodic memories blend together in autobiographical memory Autobiographical memories obviously include episodic memories of your past personal experiences, but they can also be about factual, semantic aspects of your personal history, such as remembering your birth date or what high school you attended

long-term memory

3rd and final stage the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences. the relatively permanent storage of information elaborative rehearsal is best for LTM Unlike sensory/photographic memory, long term memory is manipulative. Short term usually very accurate The amount of information that can be held in long-term memory seems to be limitless Can be broken down into 2 diff kinds-explicit memory and implicit memory LTM is not a single, unified system. Instead there are 2-explicit and implicit If attended to and studied, information in short-term memory will be encoded into long-term memory where it is stored for later use. If not attended to, the information will be forgotten. To use the information stored in long-term memory, we bring it back into short-term memory (a process called retrieval). If we cannot retrieve such information, it is said to be forgotten. duration-A long time (perhaps permanently) Top down input. Top down processing uses the info our long term knowledge base to interpret the bottom up input. Long term memory can be thought of as providing top down input bc it is the repository of our knowledge base and past experiences types of long term memories: explicit: -Long-term memory for factual knowledge and personal experiences. This type of memory requires a conscious effort to remember and entails making declarations about the information remembered. -Things we consciously pulled out of LTM and we are aware that we remembered something. -Memory that requires conscious recall -These memories are processed in the hippocampus and stored in various areas across the brain's cerebral cortex. Individuals w damage to the hippocampus cannot form new explicit memories -Ex. if someone asked you, "Who was the first president of the United States?" You would retrieve the answer from your long-term memory and consciously declare, "George Washington." 2 types of explicit memory: 1. episodic memory: -personal experiences -Explicit memory for personal experiences. -Things that happen to you in your life ex. First kiss, bday party 2. semantic memory: -factual knowledge -Memories for pieces of info. Not things that happen to you but are more factual. Memory for facts -Ex. who is bart simpson's father? Remembering the piece of info itself. Factual knowledge implicit memory(non-declarative memory): -retention of learned skills or classically conditioned associations independent of conscious recollection -Memory that does not require conscious recall -Long-term memory for procedural tasks, classical conditioning, and priming effects. This type of memory does not require conscious awareness or the need to make declarations about the information remembered. -mplicit memory happens automatically, without deliberate conscious effort. For example, you remember how to drive a car and you do so without consciously recalling and describing what you are doing as you drive -processed by cerebellum -3 types- classical conditioning, procedural memory, priming -procedural memory: -the gradual acquisition of skills as a result of practice, or "knowing how" to do things -Motor and cognitive skills involving procedures -Memory for skills/how to perform tasks -Implicit and this prob processed in the cerebellum -Ex. driving a car, typing, tying our shoes hitting a tennis ball. Have a physical procedural aspect(the execution of an ordered set of movements) to them. -In contrast with declarative explicit memories, procedural implicit memories are like knowing "how" versus knowing "what." -Not all implicit memories, however, are procedural memories. Researchers have demonstrated that the primacy effect and the recency effect can be manipulated independently, indicating that different memory stages are involved. Anterograde amnesics have little recall for the primacy portion of the free recall list because of their explicit long-term memory impairment, but they show a recency effect because it depends upon recall from short-term memory, which is still intact and functioning. more rehearsal leads to better long-term memory

durations of memory

< 1 sec for iconic memory 4-5 secs for echoic memory < 2 secs for haptic memory

dread risk

A low-probability, high-consequence event, such as the terrorist attack on September 11, 2001. Availability in memory also plays a key role in what is termed a dread risk. a low-probability but high-damage (many people are killed at one point in time) risk that people have a strong aversion to, typically because of feelings of fear and loss of control. Ex. terrorist attacks and plane crashes are low-probability events with high damage. Not only is there high, direct damage in the event, but there is secondary, indirect damage mediated through how we psychologically react to the event

recall

A measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test. -a measure of retrieval that requires the reproduction of the information with essentially no retrieval cues -An essay test measures recall -Recall does not provide retrieval cues -In recall, the information has to be reproduced

free recall task

A memory task in which a list of items is presented one at a time and then the participant is free to recall them in any order. Introduced by Kirkpatrick,noting that some word positions are recalled much better than others. If recall performance for the words is plotted in terms of the order the words were presented (their position in the list—first, second, ..., last), the figure has a very distinctive shape The ends of the list are recalled much more often than the middle of the list

distractor task

A memory task in which a small amount of information is briefly presented and then the participant is distracted from rehearsing the information for a variable period of time, after which the participant has to recall the information. used to assess short term memory Distracted by counting backwards

memory span task

A memory task in which the participant is given a series of items one at a time and then has to recall the items in the order in which they were presented. used to assess the capacity of short term memory In this task, the participant is presented a series of items one at a time and has to remember the items in the order that they were presented. The list items could be any of several types of stimuli such as unrelated letters or words. memory span: -the average number of items an individual can remember across a series of memory span trials -Humans remember 7 ± 2 (5 to 9) chunks of information on memory span tasks.

peg-word system

A mnemonic in which the items in a list to be remembered are associated with the sequential items in a memorized jingle and then the list is retrieved by going through the jingle and retrieving the associated items. both method of loci and peg word system relate the new info to a well known sequence. In each mnemonic you step through the sequence and retrieve the list item tied to that step. In the case of the method of loci, sequential locations within a well known room or place are used, whereas in the peg word system, the steps are part of a well learned jingle(one is a bun, two is a shoe...). Thus both use elaborative rehearsal

Hippocampus

A neural center located in the limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage. long term explicit memories are processed in the hippocampus and stored in various areas across the brain's cerebral cortex. Individuals w damage to the hippocampus cannot form new explicit memories There is some evidence from the studies of amnesics that explicit and implicit memories are processed in different parts of the brain.Research findings with amnesics who have suffered hippocampal damage indicate that the hippocampus is important for explicit memory formation but not implicit memory formation. These findings also support the distinctiveness of short-term and long-term memories because these amnesics have relatively normal short-term memory

working backward heuristic

A problem-solving heuristic in which one attempts to solve a problem by working from the goal state back to the start state. Another example of a heuristic-a solution strategy that seems reasonable given your past experiences with solving problems, especially similar problems a heuristic that you may have learned to use in your math classes A problem-solving heuristic in which one attempts to solve a problem by working from the goal state back to the start state. The working backward heuristic is especially useful for problems that have many paths going forward from the start state but only one (or a few) going backward from the goal state

means-end analysis heuristic

A problem-solving heuristic in which the distance to the goal state is decreased systematically by breaking the problem down into subgoals and achieving these subgoals. A good heuristic for working forward on a problem is means-end analysis. Means-end analysis is a useful heuristic for almost any type of problem Ex. the tower of hanoi problem: -Well defined problem -The start state, the goal state, and the rules for moving from the start state to the goal state are all clearly specified -Using means−end analysis to solve this problem leads to a recursive subgoaling process. For example, solving the 3-disk version requires solving two 2-disk problems; solving the 4-disk version requires solving two 3-disk problems, each of which requires solving two 2-disk problems, and so on. -Using means-end analysis (setting up subgoals and so on) to solve the Tower of Hanoi problem obviously involves planning, and remember from Chapter 2, the frontal lobes play a major role in planning. Thus, patients with frontal lobe damage might have difficulty solving this problem

Wason's 2-4-6 task

A specific rule was used to generate this 3 digit sequence: 2-4-6 confirmation bias The rule is 3 numbers that go up. Any 3 numbers that increase in value ex. 1,2,3 ex. 5, 32, 3000 Told participants he came up w a rule for generating numbers and there was one series of 3 numbers that fit this so asked participants to come up with a rule to try to get what his rule is and once they said what the sequence was, researcher would say if they got it right or not In the 2-4-6 task, you are presented the number sequence "2-4-6" and asked to name the rule that the experimenter used to generate that sequence In the 2-4-6 task, participants demonstrate confirmation bias in testing their hypotheses Before presenting your hypothesized rule (your answer), you are allowed to generate as many sequences of three numbers as you want and get feedback on whether each conforms to the experimenter's rule they test their hypotheses by trying to confirm them The 2-4-6 task serves to highlight the inadequacy of the confirmation bias as a way to test a hypothesis.(confirmation bias-The tendency for us to seek out evidence that lines up with our pre existing beliefs about people, facts, etc) To truly test a hypothesis, we must try to disconfirm it. We should attempt to disconfirm each hypothesis that we generate. The experimenter's rule for the 2-4-6 task was a very simple, general rule, so most sequences that people generated conformed to it. What was it? The rule was simply any three increasing numbers; how far apart the numbers were did not matter.

cue-dependent theory

A theory of forgetting that proposes that forgetting is due to the unavailability of the retrieval cues necessary to locate the information in long-term memory. why we forget lack of retrieval cues for memory in the environment match learning and retrieval context, mnemonics, self reference Ex. roygbv gives you cues for color A theory of forgetting that proposes that forgetting is due to the unavailability of the retrieval cues necessary to locate the information in long-term memory. also assumes that forgetting stems from not gaining access to the desired information According to cue-dependent theory, we forget because the cues necessary for retrieval are not available. The information is available, but we cannot access it because we cannot find it. ex. tip of the tongue (TOT) phenomenon: -The failure to recall specific information from memory combined with partial recall and the feeling that recall is imminent. -we can almost recall something, but the memory eludes us -"It's on the tip of my tongue." You feel like you know the inaccessible information and are on the brink of retrieving it.

representativeness heuristic

Basing the estimated probability of an event on how similar it is to the typical prototype of that event. Used to decide which alternative is more probable judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead us to ignore other relevant information a mental shortcut whereby people classify something according to how similar it is to a typical case A heuristic for judging the probability of membership in a category by how well an object resembles (is representative of) that category (the more representative, the more probable). Likelihood judged by how closely it resembles a mental prototype in our head Ex. if say picture a bird, we pic a bird that looks very bird-y The linda problem- the description of linda fits your prototype Leads us to judge the probability of category membership by resemblance to the category a rule of thumb for judging the probability of membership in a category by how well an object resembles (is representative of) that category. Prob that rises from representative heuristic-conjunction fallacy-judging 2 uncertain events to be more likely than either of them alone Simply put, the rule is—the more representative, the more probable When using the representativeness heuristic, we judge the likelihood of category membership by how well an object resembles a category (the more representative, the more probable). This heuristic can lead us to ignore extremely relevant probability information such as the conjunction rule. People are so prone to using the representativeness heuristic and making judgments based only on categorical resemblance bc the mind categorizes information automatically. The brain constantly recognizes (puts into categories) the objects, events, and people in our world. Categorization is one of the brain's basic operational principles, so it shouldn't be surprising that we may judge categorical probabilities in the same way that we recognize patterns. In addition to probability judgments, the representativeness heuristic can lead us astray in judging the people we meet because our first impression is often based on categorical resemblance. We tend to categorize the person based on the little information we get when we meet him or her. Remember that this initial judgment is only an anchor, and we need to process subsequent information carefully in order to avoid misjudgment of the person. In addition, the long run is indeed very long—infinity. The representativeness heuristic leads us to forget this. representativeness heuristic also leads to gamblers fallacy-the belief that the odds of a chance event increase if the event hasn't occurred recently

mental age vs chronological age

Binet also came up with concepts of mental age vs chronological age IQ scores were based on the following formula IQ=(mental age/chronological age) x 100. Mental age- when you take your tests and you get a score what does your score look like in terms of how others your age score. Ex. you are a kid in france and take a test and your test score looks like the score of an average 10 year old. No matter what your actual age is, you would be 10. Your mental age is what your performance look like. Chronological age- your actual physical age. Ex. if you are 6 years old and get score of an 8 year old, you have a chronological age of 6 and mental age of 8. Testing like an older child so average. If you are 6 and test like a younger child, maybe need better education.

illusory correlation

Confirmation bias can lead to the perception of illusory correlation by leading us to confirm our belief about the correlation by focusing only on events that confirm th belief and not on those that disconfirm the belief. To test to see if a relationship exists, we must consider the probabilities of both types of events. Mistakenly believing that 2 events are related is called illusory correlation The belief that 2 variables are related, when they actually are not Ex. belief- i think that connecticut drivers are the worst. If a connecticut driver w license plate cuts in front of you that confirms your belief that they are bad driver.but if ct lets you cut in front of them then that makes you change your belief If we believe a relationship exists between two things, then we will tend to notice and remember instances that confirm this relationship.

Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)

Declared the Problems w stanford binet-Only provided one overall score IQ score doesn't work for adults Instead wechsler took the IQ and created the deviation IQ score: Compare test score to a set of norms Separate norm groups for various ages Deviation IQ score is based on a set of norms He said mean=100 and SD=15 he created 3 tests Wechsler adult intelligence scale (WAIS)- test for adults. There are lots of subtests.like the block design subtest One for school-age children (WISC) and another for younger children (WPPSI) Like Binet, Wechsler thought that intelligence was nurtured by one's environment

sperling's memory procedure

Demo of iconic memory is sperling's memory procedure- flash a pic quickly and see what people can remember. Called iconic memory bc it relates to vision

Deviation IQ

Deviation IQ score-100 plus or minus (15 × the number of standard deviations the person is from the raw score mean for their standardization group).

Sir Frederic Bartlett

Discovered that memory recall is flawed -The first experimental work on schemas and their effects on memory was conducted by Sir Frederick Bartlett in the first half of the twentieth century -Told people a story and then asked them to tell him about it. Immediate recall left out details.Omission of details(simplification process).Normalization to fit schema -Bartlett had his participants study some stories that were rather unusual. He then tested their memory for these stories at varying time intervals. Bartlett's participants had reconstructed the stories using their schemas and did not even realize it. -The main point to remember is that they distorted the stories in line with their schemas. Why? Schemas allow us to encode and retrieve information more efficiently. It would be impossible to encode and retrieve the exact details of every event in our lives. That's why we need organizing schemas to guide us in this task, even though they do not provide an exact copy of what happened. This seems a small cost given the benefits provided by organizing memory in terms of schemas.

short term memory (working memory)

Duration is limited- less than 30 seconds but can be longer with attention activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing, before the information is stored or forgotten Yvonne is driving and realizes that she made a wrong turn. She stops at a gas station to ask for directions. In trying to remember the information she is given, Yvonne utilizes her working memory our present awareness 2nd stage Information in short-term memory already has been attended to and interpreted Capacity is limited-there is only so much we can hold at one time. Its hard to multitask. Magic number: 7+-2 units(miller) Top-down processing (using information stored in long-term memory) guides this encoding of sensory input from sensory memory into short-term memory. Has a longer duration Within a matter of seconds, info stored in STM fades unless we are actively thinking about that info or using rehearsal to maintain it in our conscious memory. Even then, anything that distracts our attention can force STM to discard that info in order to make room for something new The memory stage with a small capacity (7 ± 2 chunks) and brief duration (< 30 seconds) that we are consciously aware of and in which we do our problem solving, reasoning, and decision making. the memory stage in which the recognized information from sensory memory enters consciousness Capacity- 7 ± 2 chunks The information that we attend to gets recognized and moves into our short-term memory, the second stage in the three-stage memory model. Short-term memory is like our conscious workspace. It has a small capacity (7 ± 2 chunks of information) and a brief duration (less than 30 seconds). Short-term memory is often referred to as working memory, because it is here that we do the work necessary to encode new information into long-term memory and to accomplish all of our other conscious activities, such as problem solving and decision making. Working memory can be thought of as the collection of mechanisms in short-term memory that allows it to accomplish these tasks. We rehearse the information in short-term memory so we can transfer it into more permanent storage (long-term memory) and remember it at some later time. We also bring information from long-term memory back into short-term memory to use it to facilitate rehearsal, solve problems, reason, and make decisions; thus, short-term memory is often thought of as working memory where you are doing your present conscious cognitive processing What you're thinking about right now as you read this sentence is in your short-term memory The capacity of this type of memory is rather small. new information in this stage is in a rather fragile state and will be quickly lost from memory (in less than 30 seconds) if we do not concentrate on it. This is why it is called short-term memory memory span task: -In this task, the participant is presented a series of items one at a time and has to remember the items in the order that they were presented. The list items could be any of several types of stimuli such as unrelated letters or words. -Used to assess the capacity of short term memory memory span: -Humans remember 7 ± 2 (5 to 9) chunks of information on memory span tasks. -The average number of items an individual can remember across a series of memory span trials duration of short term memory is less than 30 seconds distractor task: -A memory task in which a small amount of information is briefly presented and then the participant is distracted from rehearsing the information for a variable period of time, after which the participant has to recall the information. -used to assess short term memory -Distracted by counting backwards rehearsal- actively maintaining info in short term memory, by mentally repeating it or by making meaningful connections to other information. a way of keeping information in short-term memory maintenance rehearsal: -How to prevent it from being lost -Used in short term memory -the repetitive cycling of information in short-term memory -A type of rehearsal in short-term memory in which the information is repeated over and over again in order to maintain it -Processing and manipulating info working memory: -A more detailed version of short-term memory that includes the mechanisms that allow short-term memory to accomplish its tasks. -a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory -active maintenance of information in short-term storage recency effect is due to the easy immediate recall of the items currently in short-term memory (those recently presented)

craik and tulving

Experiment. presented participants with a long list of words one at a time, but manipulated the level of processing of the words by manipulating the task to be performed on each word This is exactly what was found (see Figure 5.7). Long-term recognition memory was the best for the words encoded semantically, next best for those encoded acoustically, and worst for those only encoded physically.

cognitive schemas

Frameworks of knowledge about the world around us Networks of info that help us understand the world in a very efficient way but can sometimes get us into trouble Our retrieval reconstruction is guided by schemas Memory is a reconstructive process guided by our schemas—organized frameworks of our knowledge about the world. The use of schemas along with source misattribution problems, imagination and observation inflation, and the misinformation effect can lead to false memories, inaccurate memories that feel as real as accurate memories Frameworks for our knowledge about people, objects, events, and actions that allow us to organize and interpret information about our world. These schemas allow us to organize our world. Help to create false memories bc in using them, we tend to replace the actual details of what happened with what typically happens in the event that the schema depicts Schemas tend to normalize our memories and lead us to remember what usually happens and not exactly what did happen The schemas tell us what normally happens. These schemas allow us to encode and retrieve information about the world in a more organized, efficient manner sir frederick bartlett: -The first experimental work on schemas and their effects on memory was conducted by Sir Frederick Bartlett in the first half of the twentieth century -Told people a story and then asked them to tell him about it. Immediate recall left out details.Omission of details(simplification process).Normalization to fit schema -Bartlett had his participants study some stories that were rather unusual. He then tested their memory for these stories at varying time intervals. Bartlett's participants had reconstructed the stories using their schemas and did not even realize it. -The main point to remember is that they distorted the stories in line with their schemas. Why? Schemas allow us to encode and retrieve information more efficiently. It would be impossible to encode and retrieve the exact details of every event in our lives. That's why we need organizing schemas to guide us in this task, even though they do not provide an exact copy of what happened. This seems a small cost given the benefits provided by organizing memory in terms of schemas. -he discovered that memory recall is flawed

Validity

In addition to reliability, a test should have validity. About whether the results are accurate Accuracy of test results The extent to which a test measures what it is supposed to measure or predicts what it is supposed to predict. The former type of validity is called content validity, and the latter is predictive validity Two types- content validity and predictive content validity: -The former type of validity Experts agree that the test measures what it is supposed to measure -Does this test capture the diff pieces of the abstract idea of what you are trying to measure or not -means that the test covers the content that it is supposed to cover Experts decide this. All course exams should have content validity (be on the content that was assigned) -expert based predictive validity: -The test significantly predicts what a theory says it should predict Correlational based -means that the test predicts behavior that is related to what is being measured by the test -for example, an intelligence test should predict how well a child does in school -0It is important to note that if a test is valid, then it will also be reliable. However, the reverse is not true. A test may be reliable, but not valid. -Psychologists agree on what an intelligence test should predict, but they do not agree on how intelligence should be defined.

repetition priming

In repetition priming, a person first studies a list of words and then at some later time is asked to complete a list of word fragments with the first word that comes to mind for each fragment. For example, the fragment s _ c _ _ _ might be presented. The likelihood that the person answers "s o c i a l" (the primed word because the word social was on the earlier word list) is much higher than for unprimed words, such as s o c c e r or s o c k e t, that fit the fragment but were not on the list. amnesics: Research found A person with severe memory deficits following brain surgery or injury who had no explicit memory for new information could perform as well as normal adults on a repetition priming-word fragment task even though the amnesics had no conscious memory of having seen the words before

Wason's 4-card selection task

In the 4 card selection task, the best strategy is to test options that would provide contradictory evidence someone puts 4 cards in front of you Rule- "If a card has an even number on one side, then its opposite side is red". Asked which card is important to validate or invalidate that claim Research on the 2-4-6 task and the four-card selection task clearly shows that people typically try to confirm hypotheses.Confirmation bias, however, is not limited to the 2-4-6 and four-card selection tasks, but extends to many aspects of our daily lives such as jury decisions, physicians' diagnoses, and the justification of governmental policies

infantile/child amnesia

Our inability as adults to remember events that occurred in our lives before about 3 years of age. During infancy, neurogenesis levels are high because the hippocampus is developing. We don't have memories from the first few years of our life. Has to do with hippocampus bc it was still developing

Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences

Seven defined types of intelligence: linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, visual-spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal Others thought he took intelligence too far Multiple intelligences more like multiple abilities proposed a theory of eight independent types of intelligence, but critics view some of these as talents or skills and not really types of intelligence. linguistic-Language ability as in reading, writing, and speaking Finding the right words to express what you mean logical mathematical-Mathematical problem solving and scientific analysis Qualifying things,making hypotheses and proving them spatial-Reasoning about visual-spatial relationships musical-Musical skills such as the ability to compose and understand music. Discerning sounds, their pitch, tone, rhythm and timbre bodily-kinesthetic- Skill in body movement and handling objects Coordinating your mind with your body intrapersonal-Understanding yourself, what you feel and what you want existensial- Tackling the questions of why we live and why we die interpersonal-Understanding other people Sensing people's feelings and motives naturalist-Ability to discern patterns in nature Understanding living things and reading nature

How to improve memory/encoding

Spacing effect ex. Spreading out studying time Testing effect-says after reading textbook, you should test yourself. The deeper you engage with info, the better you remember it. Engage in self testing mnemonics-memory aids -peg word system(jingles), first letter technique, and method of loci(memory palace, location) There are three concepts that extensive research has shown will help: (1) distributed study is better than cramming, (2) practice makes perfect, and (3) continual testing enhances memory

mood congruence effect

Tendency to retrieve experiences and information that are congruent with a person's current mood. A particular mood cues memories that are consistent with that mood We tend to remember more positive events when we are feeling good and more negative events when we are feeling down. These events have been associated with the accompanying emotions. Thus, the emotions serve as retrieval cues for the events. This congruence effect may hinder recovery in depressed people because they will tend to remember negative events and not positive ones

retrogade amnesia

The disruption of memory for the past, especially episodic information for events before, especially just before, surgery or trauma to the brain. an inability to retrieve information from one's past loss of memories from our past Such amnesia is typical in cases of brain concussions. Can make new memories but can't remember old ones

Reliability

The extent to which the scores for a test are consistent. The consistency of test results types: A person will get similar scores over time-called test retest reliability A person will get similar scores across different forms of the test The items within a test correlate highly This consistency may be assessed in various ways:. test retest method-the test is given twice to the same sample, and the correlation coefficient for the two sets of scores is computed.If the test is reliable, this coefficient should be strongly positive.It is important to note that if a test is valid, then it will also be reliable. However, the reverse is not true. A test may be reliable, but not valid. alternate form reliability-determined by giving different forms of the test to the same sample at different times and computing the correlation coefficient for performance on the two forms. consistence within the tests-If the test is internally consistent, then performance on the two halves of the test (odd vs. even items) should be strongly positively correlated.This type of reliability is called split-half reliability because performance on half of the test items (the odd-numbered items) is compared to performance on the other half (the even-numbered items).

thinking

The processing of information to solve problems, reason, and make judgments and decisions.

Nature vs. Nurture

The relative impact of your genetics vs your environment and your development and upbringing Debate had to do w if you believed your genes or environment and what you experience in your life is more important Galton was for nature/genes. Thought genes/heredity had big impact on the kind of person we end up being. More important than what happens during the course of your life He was the pioneer of the field of eugenics Eugenics-people should breed if they have good genetic stock to improve the human race so the people with the best genes reproduce binet and wechsler on nurture side

Heritability

The results of genetic similarity studies of intelligence can also be used to estimate its heritability, an index of the degree that variation of a trait within a given population is due to heredity the ability of a trait to be passed down from one generation to the next An index of the degree that variation of a trait within a given population is due to heredity. These estimates vary, usually in the range from around 50% up to 70% Thus, for a given population, 50-70% of the variation in their intelligence test scores is estimated to be due to heredity. However, because heritability is not 100%, this means that heredity and environment work together to determine intelligence (though heredity may make a larger contribution). it is a group statistic and is not relevant to individual cases. reaction range: -Heredity gives a reaction range -The genetically determined limits for an individual's intelligence -a theory of intelligence that emphasizes the roles of both genetic and environmental constraints. -Heredity places upper and lower limits on a person's intelligence, but the quality of the person's environment determines where the individual falls within this range -the higher the environmental quality, the higher the person's intelligence within the reaction range.

the flynn effect

The rise in average IQ scores that has occurred over the decades in many nations The finding that the average intelligence test score in the United States and other industrialized nations has improved steadily over the last century. Refers to the observation that average intelligence test scores in the US and other western industrialized nations have increased over the past century Indicates that intelligence test performance has been improving refers to the fact that in the United States and other Western developed nations, average intelligence scores have improved steadily over the past century For example, the average score in 1918 would be equivalent to a score of 76 when compared to recent standardization norms. This translates to a gain on average of about 3 points per decade on both the Stanford-Binet and Wechsler intelligence scales Proposed explanations for the Flynn effect involve a broad range of environmental factors, from improved nutrition, hygiene, and availability of medical services to better education and smaller average family size, but the explanation of the effect still remains a source of debate, with multiple factors likely contributing to it Flynn has recently proposed that the effect is not due to people getting smarter overall but rather to the fact that they are getting smarter at skills that have become more important in our society over the past century, especially abstract, scientific thinking Our society has changed from agriculture-based to industry-based to information-based. Thus, the need to develop abstract, scientific thinking has grown as the nature of our society has changed.

state-dependent memory

The theory that information learned in a particular state of mind (e.g., depressed, happy, somber) is more easily recalled when in that same state of mind. encoding specificity principle Broader internal environmental factors, such as a person's physiological state or mood, also impact encoding and retrieval Long-term memory retrieval is best when a person's physiological state at the time of encoding and retrieval of the information is the same memory that depends upon the relationship of one's physiological state at time of encoding and retrieval. The best memory occurs when people are in the same state at retrieval as they were at encoding, and memory is hindered by state differences ex. alcohol under the influence

Cattell and Horn's Fluid and Crystallized Theory of Intelligence

They proposed that the g factor should be viewed as 2 types of intelligence- fluid intelligence and crystallized intelligence crystallized intelligence: -refers to accumulated knowledge and verbal and numerical skills -crystallized intelligence increases with experience and formal education and grows as we age, whereas fluid intelligence is not influenced by these factors and actually declines with age. -the ability to retain and use knowledge that was acquired through experience -increases with age fluid intelligence: -abilities independent of acquired knowledge, such as abstract reasoning, logical problem solving, and speed of information processing -our ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease during late adulthood -crystallized intelligence increases with experience and formal education and grows as we age, whereas fluid intelligence is not influenced by these factors and actually declines with age.

Split-half reliability (internal consistency)

This type of reliability is called split-half reliability because performance on half of the test items (the odd-numbered items) is compared to performance on the other half (the even-numbered items). If the test is internally consistent, then performance on the two halves of the test (odd vs. even items) should be strongly positively correlated. involves consistency within the test

alfred binet

Thought intelligence was nurtured in ones environment (like wechsler) On the nurture side of nature vs nurture debate Based on the Stanford-Binet, a person's IQ would automatically go down with age regardless of one's mental abilities. Focus on ability to benefit from formal education Saw intelligence as "The ability to judge well, to understand well, reason well" Compared to galton, galton more about how keen your senses are and how physically adept you are. Binet has definition of how we think of intelligence today binet ssimon intelligence scale First modern test- ex. Follow a moving object w the eyes. Binet also came up with concepts of mental age vs chronological age

false memories

Using imagination to create inaccurate memories Source misattribution results in what is called a false memory, an inaccurate memory that feels as real as an accurate memory. memories for events that never happened, but were suggested by someone or something False memories can also be the result of imagination and observation inflation and the misinformation effect. Elizabeth loftus's research Loftus asked people to watch a video of a car accident and later reported on it. Everyone saw same accident and later got questioned but asked same ? with a different Source misattribution leads to false memories bc we don't really know the source of a memory. The event may have never occurred but we think that it did bc we misattributed the source of the memory Misinformation effect leads to false memories through the effect of misleading information being given at the time of retrieval. We incorporate this misleading information for an event into our memory and thus create a false memory for it The use of schemas along with source misattribution problems, imagination and observation inflation, and the misinformation effect can lead to false memories, inaccurate memories that feel as real as accurate memories

functional fixedness

a block to problem solving that comes from thinking about objects in terms of only their typical functions Ex. the failure to realize that a ruler can be used to measure the length of an object The inability to see that an object can have a function other than its typical one in solving a problem. the tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions; an impediment to problem solving In functional fixedness, we fixate on the normal function of an object given our past experiences with that object. Our past experience with the object may block us from seeing how to use it in a novel way. Similarly, mental set leads us to approach a problem in the same way we have approached similar problems in the past, especially the recent past. We tend to block developing a new approach because our mental set keeps us locked into the old approach based on our past experiences. The tendency to think of only the most typical uses of objects in a problem setting We fixate on the normal function of an object given our past experiences w that object. Our past experience w the object may block us from seeing how to use it in a novel way Negative impact of past experience(so is mental set) Problem misinterpretation and functional fixedness are good examples of the negative impact that our past experiences can have on our ability to solve current problems.

suppression

a deliberate attempt to not think about and remember specific information

intelligence tests

a method for assessing an individual's mental aptitudes and comparing them with those of others, using numerical scores The first attempts to develop intelligence tests took place in late nineteenth-century England and in early twentieth-century France. Intelligence test scores are among the most valid predictors of academic performance and job performance across just about every major occupation studied Not only do intelligence tests have good predictive validity, but they also are not biased against women or minorities. The tests' predictive validity applies equally to all. Psychologists agree on what an intelligence test should predict, but they do not agree on how intelligence should be defined. history of tests: -In late nineteenth-century England, Sir Francis Galton was trying to develop an intelligence test for the purpose of eugenics, selective reproduction to enhance the capacities of the human race -The next major figure in intelligence test development, Lewis Terman, had Galton's nature bias, but he used Binet and Simon's test. Working at Stanford University, Terman revised the intelligence test for use with American schoolchildren. This revision, first published in 1916, became known as the Stanford-Binet -Problems with stanford binet-only provided one overall score and IQ score doesn't work for adults -Intelligence tests began in 1800s with sir francis galton

test-retest method

a method of calculating reliability by repeating the same measure at two or more points in time the test is given twice to the same sample, and the correlation coefficient for the two sets of scores is computed.If the test is reliable, this coefficient should be strongly positive. It is important to note that if a test is valid, then it will also be reliable. However, the reverse is not true. A test may be reliable, but not valid.

elaborative rehearsal

a method of transferring information from STM into LTM by making that information meaningful in some way Used once at the semantic processing level the most effective strategy for encoding. Relates to method of loci and mnemonics Says that if you can take new info and link it up to old info in long term memory, it is easier to remember Leads to the best long term memory elaborative rehearsal is better for encoding into long-term memory rehearsing by relating the new material to information already in long-term memory. A type of rehearsal in short-term memory in which incoming information is related to information from long-term memory to encode it into long-term memory. The memory organization created by the integration of the new information with existing information leads to more successful retrieval of the information than shallower processing. This organization provides more retrieval cues (links with other information in long-term memory) for the new information, thereby facilitating its retrieval. Elaborative encoding is more effective than just memorizing bc the process of elaboration ties the new information to older, well known information Important in studying . ex. Testing yourself, taking notes on laptop vs phone Very effective for encoding integrating information that you are trying to learn with as much other information in your knowledge base as you can. In elaborative rehearsal, the key then is to relate new information to information in long-term memory that you know well. Studying- Minimally, you should space your readings over time and not mass them together, but elaborative rehearsal is the real key to more effective learning. elaborative rehearsal leads to better memory because we create good retrieval cues when we integrate the new information with older, well-known information self reference effect: -It is easier to remember information that you have related to yourself -Relates to method of loci(memory palace) and mnemonics -If you make something personal and connect it to you, it will be a lot easier to remember -Elaboration is most effective when we relate the new information to ourselves, the self-reference effect. -The superior long-term memory for information related to oneself at time of encoding into long-term memory. -researchers have found that people can remember more words from a list if they related the words to themselves

echoic memory / auditory sensory register

a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli about 3-5 seconds Processes auditory info and has a duration of around 4 seconds, slightly longer than the duration of iconic memory The longer duration of echoic memory is due to the nature of auditory information Auditory information is not present all at once like visual information. It is stretched out over time. Hence, it must stay in echoic memory longer so that it can be properly analyzed Lamaar's girlfriend is talking to him, and he asks her to repeat what she just asked him. But before she does so, he realizes what she said and responds with his answer of "Yes." This is likely due to echoic memory

alternate forms reliability

a reliability coefficient determined by assessing the degree of relationship between scores on two equivalent tests

Heuristic

a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but also more error-prone than algorithms A problem-solving strategy that seems reasonable given one's past experience with solving problems, especially similar problems, but does not guarantee a correct answer to a problem. Guidelines for quickly making judgements about the world Mental shortcuts that lead us to decent and quick answer, which saves us cognitive energy/thinking a solution strategy that seems reasonable given your past experiences with solving problems, especially similar problems. Think of a heuristic as an educated guess a heuristic makes no guarantees Examples of heuristics-anchoring and adjustment, working backward, means end anaylsis We prefer to use heuristics because they are less time-consuming. In addition, we may not know the appropriate algorithm for a problem or one may not even exist. Sometimes heuristics can lead to errors. A good example is the anchoring and adjustment heuristic for making estimates. The error in this case stems from our failure to adjust our initial anchor sufficiently. We rely upon heuristics so often bc they are adaptive and often serve us well and lead to a correct judgement and they stem from what cognitive psychologists call system1 (automatic) processing Examples of heuristics-anchoring and adjustment, working backward, means end anaylsis anchoring and adjustment heuristic: -adjusts a previously existing value or starting point to make a decision -A heuristic for estimation problems in which one uses his or her initial estimate as an anchor estimate and then adjusts the anchor up or down (often insufficiently). -When estimating amounts, we begin w a starting point or anchor. We then adjust up or down based on other information but we often adjust too little.the adjustments we make arent big enough. -an initial estimate is used as an anchor and then this anchor is adjusted up or down. -The error in this case stems from our failure to adjust our initial anchor sufficiently. -May lead you to make a serious error in estimation when we fail to adjust our initial anchor sufficiently either up or down in magnitude. The paper folding problem is an example of such a failure -the anchoring and adjustment heuristic leads us to fail to adjust the anchor enough. -The difficulty in using the anchoring and adjustment heuristic is that we tend to attach too much importance to the starting anchor amount and do not adjust it sufficiently working backward heuristic: -A problem-solving heuristic in which one attempts to solve a problem by working from the goal state back to the start state. The working backward heuristic is especially useful for problems that have many paths going forward from the start state but only one (or a few) going backward from the goal state means end analysis heuristic: - problem-solving heuristic in which the distance to the goal state is decreased systematically by breaking the problem down into subgoals and achieving these subgoals. -A good heuristic for working forward on a problem is means-end analysis.Means-end analysis is a useful heuristic for almost any type of problem

autobiological memory

a special form of episodic memory, consisting of a person's recollections of his or her life experiences Semantic and episodic memories blend together in autobiographical memory Autobiographical memories obviously include episodic memories of your past personal experiences, but they can also be about factual, semantic aspects of your personal history, such as remembering your birth date or what high school you attended

factor analysis

a statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related items (called factors) on a test thurstone used this to come up with 7 primary abilities of intelligence Thurstone identified these primary abilities by using factor analysis, a statistical technique that identifies clusters of test items that measure the same ability (factor).

mental set

a tendency to approach a problem in a particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past Our past experience with problem solving can also lead to a phenomenon known as mental set the tendency to use previously successful solution strategies without considering others that are more appropriate for the current problem. also example of the negative impact of past experience Leads us to approach a problem in the same way we have approached similar probs in the past, especially the recent past. We tend to block developing a new approach bc our mental set keeps us locked into the old approach based on our past experiences The tendency to use previously successful problem-solving strategies without considering others that are more appropriate for the current problem.

confirmation bias

a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence wason's 2-4-6 task The tendency to seek evidence that confirms one's beliefs Takes a variety of forms. Theres lots of things that lead to confirmation bias The tendency for us to seek out evidence that lines up with our pre existing beliefs about people, facts, etc To truly test a hypothesis, we must try to disconfirm it. We should attempt to disconfirm each hypothesis that we generate. The experimenter's rule for the 2-4-6 task was a very simple, general rule, so most sequences that people generated conformed to it. What was it? The rule was simply any three increasing numbers; how far apart the numbers were did not matter. This bias is pervasive in our everyday hypothesis testing, so it is not surprising that it occurs on the 2-4-6 task. Confirmation bias is likely responsible for many of our erroneous beliefs. Science provides better answers than informal, biased hypothesis testing. The 2-4-6 task serves to highlight the inadequacy of the confirmation bias as a way to test a hypothesis. ways we favor confirmation bias: -We are more likely to see out confirmatory information. Seen in 2 4 6 task we tend to come up w 3 digit sequences of numbers that fit our hypothesis. -Interpret ambiguous information favorably. We tend to interpret ambiguous information with our pre existing beliefs -When we are faced with information that fits our beliefs we are not that critical of it but when we are faced with information that might challenge our beliefs we are critical of it -Lord, ross and lepper capital punishment study. Conducted studies about capital punishment. -Recall it better. We tend to recall things that fit our beliefs confirmation bias may lead us to perceive illusory correlations between events in our environment illusory correlations-Mistakenly believing that 2 events are related is called illusory correlation

algorthm

a well-defined sequence of procedures or rules that guarantees a solution to a problem A step-by-step problem-solving procedure that guarantees a correct answer to a problem. -A step-by-step problem-solving procedure that guarantees a correct answer to a problem. -Benefit- solves problem accurately. -Computers-have fast speed and are accurate drawback-labor/time intensive. Our brains much more slower than computers -A set of instructions for systematically coming up with answer for a problem -Ex. when you solve a math problem with long division, you are using an algorithm. If you execute the steps correctly, you will get the correct answer -If you compute the area of a room by using the formula length x width= area, you are using an algorithm -For many problems, however, you may not know the algorithm or an algorithm for the problem may not exist. To solve the prob in such cases, you have to use a heuristic -An algorithm guarantees a correct answer (if it's the correct algorithm for the problem and you execute it correctly),

rehearsal

actively maintaining info in short term memory, by mentally repeating it or by making meaningful connections to other information. a way of keeping information in short-term memory

anchoring and adjustment heuristic

adjusts a previously existing value or starting point to make a decision May lead you to make a serious error in estimation when we fail to adjust our initial anchor sufficiently either up or down in magnitude. The paper folding problem is an example of such a failure the anchoring and adjustment heuristic leads us to fail to adjust the anchor enough. A heuristic for estimation problems in which one uses his or her initial estimate as an anchor estimate and then adjusts the anchor up or down (often insufficiently). an initial estimate is used as an anchor and then this anchor is adjusted up or down. When estimating amounts, we begin w a starting point or anchor. We then adjust up or down based on other information but we often adjust too little.the adjustments we make arent big enough. The error in this case stems from our failure to adjust our initial anchor sufficiently. The difficulty in using the anchoring and adjustment heuristic is that we tend to attach too much importance to the starting anchor amount and do not adjust it sufficiently Ex. the folding problem- If you double the thickness of the sheet of paper a few times, you still have a rather small thickness. Using this small thickness as an anchor for making your estimate, you do not adjust the estimate sufficiently and usually guess only a few yards. In this case, the anchoring and adjustment heuristic leads us to ignore the fact that the powers of 2 grow exponentially and become very large very quickl

solution strategies

algorithms and heuristics algorithms: -A step-by-step problem-solving procedure that guarantees a correct answer to a problem. -Benefit- solves problem accurately. -Computers-have fast speed and are accurate drawback-labor/time intensive. Our brains much more slower than computers -A set of instructions for systematically coming up with answer for a problem -Ex. when you solve a math problem with long division, you are using an algorithm. If you execute the steps correctly, you will get the correct answer -If you compute the area of a room by using the formula length x width= area, you are using an algorithm -For many problems, however, you may not know the algorithm or an algorithm for the problem may not exist. To solve the prob in such cases, you have to use a heuristic -An algorithm guarantees a correct answer (if it's the correct algorithm for the problem and you execute it correctly) heuristic: -a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but also more error-prone than algorithms -A problem-solving strategy that seems reasonable given one's past experience with solving problems, especially similar problems, but does not guarantee a correct answer to a problem. -Guidelines for quickly making judgements about the world -Mental shortcuts that lead us to decent and quick answer, which saves us cognitive energy/thinking -Benefit- quick, efficient, often works well -Drawback- bc they are shortcuts, they can lead us astray, occasional systematic bias -We prefer to use heuristics because they are less time-consuming. In addition, we may not know the appropriate algorithm for a problem or one may not even exist. Sometimes heuristics can lead to errors. A good example is the anchoring and adjustment heuristic for making estimates. The error in this case stems from our failure to adjust our initial anchor sufficiently. -We rely upon heuristics so often bc they are adaptive and often serve us well and lead to a correct judgement and they stem from what cognitive psychologists call system1 (automatic) processing -a solution strategy that seems reasonable given your past experiences with solving problems, especially similar problems. Think of a heuristic as an educated guess

temporal integration procedure

an experimental procedure in which 2 meaningless visual patterns that produce a meaningful pattern if integrated are presented sequentially with the time delay between their presentations varied In the temporal integration procedure, two meaningless dot patterns are presented sequentially at the same visual location with a brief time delay between them When these two meaningless patterns are integrated, a meaningful pattern is produced. So, if the meaningful pattern is recognized, this means that the two patterns must have been integrated in our memory system (since the two patterns were not presented simultaneously). Dot patterns.| In this experimental procedure, two meaningless patterns (such as a and b) are shown sequentially at the same visual location. If the time interval between the two patterns is less than a second, a meaningful pattern (in this example, the letters V O H) is seen. The meaningful pattern can only be perceived when the two other patterns are integrated, so this integration must be taking place within our memory system, in what we call the visual sensory register or iconic memory.

anterograde amnesia

an inability to form new memories refers to the inability to form new explicit long-term memories The inability to form new explicit long-term memories for events following surgery or trauma to the brain. Explicit memories formed before the surgery or trauma are left intact. HM has inability to make new long term memories. Cant make new explicit memory HM had this, but retains normal recall of stuff that occured before getting amnesia the inability to form new explicit long-term memories following surgery or trauma to the brain Contrasted w retrograde amnesia hm Could form new implicit but not explicit memories Researchers have demonstrated that the primacy effect and the recency effect can be manipulated independently, indicating that different memory stages are involved. Anterograde amnesics have little recall for the primacy portion of the free recall list because of their explicit long-term memory impairment, but they show a recency effect because it depends upon recall from short-term memory, which is still intact and functioning. more rehearsal leads to better long-term memory

bottom up

analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain's integration of sensory information sensory memory is bottom up sensory input that hasnt been recognized yet You can think of the info in sensory memory as bottom up input. Bottom up processing is the processing of incoming sensory info from the physical environment. This is what occupies sensory memory so it is bottom up input Sensory information that is not attended to is quickly forgotten.

Sternberg's Triarchic Theory of Intelligence

analytical, creative, practical Intelligence is defined as three types of abilities—analytical, creative, and practical analytical intelligence: -what is measured by standard intelligence tests, the skills necessary for good academic performance -"Academic" thinking -Being able to problem solve and think about complex ideas practical intelligence: -could be equated with good common sense or "street smarts." -Handling real life problems Handle complex real-life tasks creative intelligence: -concerned with the ability to solve novel problems and deal with unusual situations -Our ability to deal w novel or unusual problems. Thinking outside of the box

spearman

argued that intelligence test performance is a function of two types of factors: (1) the g factor (general intelligence) and (2) the s factors (specific intellectual abilities). Spearman thought that the g factor was more important because it was relevant across the various mental abilities that make up an intelligence test and that the s factors were more pertinent to specific subtests of an intelligence test. Spearman-Intelligence is mainly a function of a general intelligence (g) factor -Mental ability theories of intelligence began with Charles Spearman (1927), who argued that intelligence test performance is a function of two types of factors: (1) the g factor (general intelligence) and (2) the s factors (specific intellectual abilities). g factor: -General intelligence -He thought that a general intelligence factor (the g factor) was most important but other theorists like Thurstone, emphasized multiple, more specific abilities in their definitions. -Spearman thought that the g factor was more important because it was relevant across the various mental abilities that make up an intelligence test -Contemporary research has shown the g factor to be a good predictor of performance both in school and at work -Siad g factor more important bc it affects all pf the s factors s factor: -Specific intellectual abilities -Spearman thought that the s factors were more pertinent to specific subtests of an intelligence test. Individuals did not do equally well on all of the various subtests, however, indicating the secondary effects of the s factor or specific abilities on the various subtests. Thurstone emphasized the specific factor clusters, whereas Spearman emphasized the correlations across the various clusters.

kevin stanovich

argues that intelligence is a meaningful, useful construct and, unlike Gardner and Sternberg, is not interested in expanding the definition of intelligence. Rather he argues that intelligence is only one component of good thinking and thus by itself is not sufficient to explain such thinking. Stanovich does not want to expand the definition of intelligence but rather argues that rationality in addition to intelligence are necessary for good thinking. Intelligence is not sufficient for good thinking; rationality, which is independent of intelligence, is also necessary "Dysrationalia": -Stanovich coined the term "dysrationalia" to describe this failure to think and behave rationally despite having adequate intelligence. -One cause of dysrationalia is that we tend to be cognitive misers, using System 1 (fast, nonreflective processing) too much. This is the reason we have developed a whole set of heuristics and biases (many, such as the anchoring and adjustment heuristic, the representativeness heuristic, and confirmation bias, were discussed earlier in this chapter) to limit the amount of reflective, analytical thinking that we need to engage in.

hypotheses

beliefs about the relationships between the variables in our environment. We collect data to test these beliefs To answer such questions, we develop and test hypotheses about how the events in our world are related. Such hypothesis testing allows us to learn about the world. we conduct subjective, informal tests of our hypotheses We test hypotheses through the 2 4 6 task and the 4 card selection task

belief perseverance

clinging to one's initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited the tendency to cling to our beliefs in the face of contradictory evidence Related to confirmation bias The tendency to cling to one's beliefs even when faced with evidence that they aren't true When we have a belief we tend to cling onto it and it is hard to give up We remember things more when things fit our beliefs Hard to change peoples beliefs about things We suffer from this

fighting bias

consider the opposite What are some reasons why my belief or judgement might be wrong? Works better than simply trying to be unbiased

Ebbinghaus

created the forgetting curve and serial position effect in memory Ebbinghaus's major contribution to the study of memory was to show that humans show a basic pattern of rapid forgetting followed by stability of remaining memories. The forgetting curve for long term memory in ebbinghaus relearning studies w nonsense syllables indicates that the greatest amount of forgetting occurs rather quickly and then it levels off forgetting curve-the course of forgetting is initially rapid, then levels off with time. usually takes on the shape of this figure—a rapid steep decrease that then levels off. -ebbinghaus Conducted the first experimental studies on human memory using the relearning method. His stimulus materials were lists of nonsense syllables, groupings of three letters (consonant-vowel-consonant such as BAV) that were not words or acronyms. He used meaningless nonsense syllables because he wanted to study pure memory for the list items.He would study a list of nonsense syllables until he could correctly recite the complete list without any hesitations. He then put the list aside and waited some period of time (from 20 minutes up to 31 days) and then relearned the list to the same criterion (one complete recitation without any hesitations). To get a measure of relearning, Ebbinghaus computed what he called a savings score—the reduction in the number of trials it took him to reach criterion.

Standardization

defining meaningful scores by comparison with the performance of a pretested group Like IQs, deviation IQs involve standardization Standardization of a test is necessary for the interpretation of test performance. In the standardization process, a representative sample of the relevant population takes the test and their scores are used as the norms for the test. test takers scores are compared to those of the standardization group in order to determine an index of performance. For ex, on intelligence tests a person's performance s compared to the scores for a representative sample of the persons age group the process that allows test scores to be interpreted by providing test norms To standardize a test, the test must be given to a representative sample of the relevant population The scores of this sample then serve as the test norms for interpretation. Because of the problems in the IQ formula for adults, however, Wechsler decided to use his standardization data differently. He collected standardization data for various adult age groups. The data for each age group formed a normal distribution To calculate a person's deviation IQ, Wechsler compared the person's raw test score to the normal distribution of raw scores for that person's standardization age group. He calculated how far the raw score was from the mean raw score in terms of standard deviation units from the mean.

why we forget

encoding failure, storage decay, interference/retrieval failure, cue dependent theory/insufficient cues encoding failure-material from STM to LTM never encoded storage decay-forgetting is due to the decay of the biological representation of the information in long-term memory. memory decayed from LTM due to lack of use interference/retrieval problems: -the theory that people forget not because memories are lost from storage but because other information gets in the way of what they want to remember two types of interference: retroactive(new blocks old) and proactive(old blocks new) cue dependent theory/insufficient cues-A theory of forgetting that proposes that forgetting is due to the unavailability of the retrieval cues necessary to locate the information in long-term memory.

effortful processing

encoding that requires attention and conscious effort

availability heuristic

estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common words that are more available in memory are more probable Likelihood judged by how easily we can bring examples to mind. Easier you can think of things, the more common they are. Ex. percentage contribution to keeping house tidy often biased due to we get exposed to some things and not others, unequal exposure, unbalanced exposure to examples Causes judgment that people make when they make a decision based on how easy it is to think of examples. Overestimating the probability of dying in an airplane crash is likely the result of using the availability heuristic the rule of thumb that the more available an event is in our memory, the more probable it is The availabilty heuristic can lead to the misjudgement of the probabilities of various causes of death and overestimate the risks of causes of death that are highly publicized(ex. Airplane crashes, fires, and shark attacks) and underestimate those that are less publicized and not as dramatic(such as diabetes and emphysema). bc the highly publicized causes are more available in our memories, we misjudge them to be more probable than the less publicized causes Using these heuristics arises from System 1 (automatic, intuitive) processing We can think of more words beginning with the letter r than with r in the third position because we organize words in our memories by how they begin. The opposite is the case—words with r in the third position are more frequent. dread risk-a low-probability but high-damage (many people are killed at one point in time) risk that people have a strong aversion to, typically because of feelings of fear and loss of control.

Blocks to problem solving

fixation, functional fixedness, mental set Problem solving can be divided into two general steps: (1) interpreting the problem and (2) trying to solve the problem. For many problems, the path to a solution is blocked in the first step by incorrectly interpreting the problem. This is like answering a test question too quickly, only to find out later that you misinterpreted the question Blocks can be caused by problem misinterpretation, functional fixedness, or mental set. These blocks are all examples of the negative impact of our past experience with problem solving. We must make a mindful effort to overcome these blocks or our problem solving will suffer. The two nine-circle problems are good examples of problems that often lead to misinterpretations interpreting the problem fixation:In problem solving, the inability to create a new interpretation of a problem. functional fixedness: a block to problem solving that comes from thinking about objects in terms of only their typical functions. The inability to see that an object can have a function other than its typical one in solving a problem. mental set: a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past

storage decay theory

forgetting is due to the decay of the biological representation of the information in long-term memory memory decayed from LTM due to lack of use Strategy-spaced study suggests that forgetting occurs because of a problem in the storage of the information A theory of forgetting that proposes that forgetting is due to the decay of the biological representation of the information and that periodic usage of the information will help to maintain it in storage. Memories fade and cease to exist in brain, so when you look for it, its not there anymore Ex. ask what you had for lunch last monday dont remember Argues that the forgotten information was in long term memory but is no longer available the information is encoded but that it decays during storage so that it is no longer available to be retrieved. This latter assumption reflects the "use it or lose it" principle. This theory proposes that we forget because the information is no longer available in long-term memory. We forget because we cannot possibly remember it. The memory trace has decayed away. This would be like trying to get a particular book from a library, but finding that its pages had rotted away. Whereas there is experimental evidence that storage decay does contribute to forgetting from sensory and short-term memory, there is no reliable evidence that such decay is a cause of forgetting from long-term memory

encoding failure theory

forgetting is due to the failure to encode the information into long-term memory material from STM to LTM never encoded Strategy- process at deep level, elaborative rehearsal, self reference states that occasionally forgetting is not really forgetting but rather encoding failure (sometimes called pseudoforgetting) The information in question never entered long-term memory. We can't forget information that we never encoded into long-term memory. The information was never there. causes one to forget something because the data never enter long-term memory Zandra's teacher tells her that she cannot forget something if she never "got it" in the first place. MOST likely, Zandra's teacher is referring to a failure in encoding This would be like trying to locate a particular book in a library when the library never purchased it assumes that the information is never encoded into long-term memory, so it is not there to be retrieved

no correlation to intelligence: Being a "good parent" Having musical or artistic ability Being happy in life Having athletic ability Having successful marriage

have correlation to intelligence: Being above the poverty line Having high high school GPA Graduating from college Being less likely to be incarcerated for a crime Not being a long term welfare recipient Avoiding long term unemployment Performing well on one's job and earning a high salary

acoustic level of level of processing theory

how words sound

top-down processing

information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations used when sensory memory turns into short term memory. also used by long term memory Top-down processing (using information stored in long-term memory) guides this encoding of sensory input from sensory memory into short-term memory. Long term memory is top down input. Top down processing uses the info our long term knowledge base to interpret the bottom up input. Long term memory can be thought of as providing top down input bc it is the repository of our knowledge base and past experiences

system 1 processing(automatic processing)

judgement and reasoning that is fast and effortless but prone to error Using the representative heuristic and the availability heuristic result in system 1 processing fast, intuitive, and largely unconscious thinking part of a dual processing system and is contrasted with System 2 (reflective) processing. One cause of dysrationalia is that we tend to be cognitive misers, using System 1 (fast, nonreflective processing) too much. This is the reason we have developed a whole set of heuristics and biases (many, such as the anchoring and adjustment heuristic, the representativeness heuristic, and confirmation bias, were discussed earlier in this chapter) to limit the amount of reflective, analytical thinking that we need to engage in.

system 2 processing(reflective processing)

judgement and reasoning that requires time but is less prone to error slow, analytical, and consciously effortful thinking Although System 2 is responsible for more rational processing and can override System 1, it is also lazy. System 2 is willing to accept the easy but possibly unreliable System 1 answer. We need to slow down our thinking and engage System 2 (effortful, analytical) processing to improve our judgment Clearly there are shortcomings with the System 1 heuristics that we use to judge probabilities (uncertainties). Thus, you should work to engage System 2 processing. Slow down your thinking; be more analytical.

iconic(vision) memory

less than a second type of sensory memory An exact copy of the visual information exists in iconic memory, but only for a very brief period of time. We cannot attend to everything we see; therefore, the visual information in iconic memory that we attend to gets recognized and goes on to short-term memory, and the unattended information in the register fades away and is quickly forgotten (iconic memory-The visual sensory register that holds an exact copy of the incoming visual input but only for a brief period of time, less than 1 second.) vision is dominant sense Demo is sperling's memory procedure- flash a pic quickly and see what people can remember. Called iconic memory bc it relates to vision Sensory memory The visual sensory register that holds an exact copy of the incoming visual input but only for a brief period of time, less than 1 second. The duration of iconic memory must be very brief bc if it were not, our visual sensory register would get overloaded quickly leading to successive visual images overlapping in the register. the capacity of iconic memory is large, but its duration is very brief, less than a second present participants with a different 3 x 3 matrix of unrelated consonants (a total of 9) for 50 ms across numerous experimental trials shows results for the capacity and duration of iconic memory On each trial in Sperling's research, participants were presented with a different display of unrelated consonants for 50 milliseconds (1/20th of a second), a very brief interval but long enough to process visual information.Unrelated consonants were used so that the letter displays did not contain any acronyms, syllables, or words. The task was to report the letters in the display briefly flashed on each trial, but Sperling used two different report procedures. full report procedure: -the participant had to try to report the entire display of letters. A different 3 × 3 letter display was used on each trial so that the subject could not learn the letters in the display -An experimental procedure in which, following the brief presentation of a display of unrelated consonants, the participant has to attempt to recall all of the letters in the display. -Sperling indirectly demonstrated through inference that the remaining unreported letters had been in iconic memory by using his partial-report procedure Used 3 x 3 letter display On each trial, a different letter display of unrelated consonants is shown for 50 milliseconds. partial report procedure: -the participant only had to report a small part of the presented letter display, a row indicated by an auditory cue on each trial. A high-pitched tone indicated that the top row was to be recalled, a medium-pitched tone the middle row, and a low-pitched tone the bottom row. These tones were easy to discriminate, so the participant had no difficulty in determining which row was indicated for recall. As in the full-report procedure, the letter display was different on every trial. -An experimental procedure in which, following the brief presentation of a display of unrelated consonants, the participant is given an auditory cue about which row of the display to recall. -Recall does not provide retrieval cues

Probability

likelihood that a particular event will occur Everything that happens has a probability. For example, there is a probability for whether it will rain today and another probability for whether you will get an "A" in this class. An event with a probability of 0.5 is maximally uncertain because it is equally likely to occur and to not occur. Probabilities range from 0 (never happens) to 1 (always happens), but they are usually uncertain, somewhere between 0 and 1.

mnemonics

memory aids Acronyms such as roy g bv techniques that improve memory involve the use of a mnemonic Mnemonics are useful for remembering lists of items, especially ordered lists, speeches, and long passages of text. Mnemonics that involve little elaboration have not been found to be very effective. Ex. first letter technique Sample mnemonics(applying mnemonics to types of long term memory)-procedural memory, semantic memory types - method of loci, peg word system, first letter technique method of loci: -Mnemonic used by greek orators to remember speeches -Loci-place, location -associating a sequence of information with a sequence of locations in a familiar place -When trying to remember a list of things start with location that you are familiar with and eventually pair place with object -In the method of loci, the sequential pieces of information to be remembered are first associated with sequential locations in a very familiar room or place. Then, when retrieving the information, one would merely mentally go around the room (or place) and retrieve the item stored at each sequential location. -The Greek orators would mentally store the major points of a speech at sequential locations in the room where they were speaking. Then, during the speech an orator would go from location to location within the room to retrieve the key points of his speech. -The method of loci is a type of elaborative rehearsal using mental imagery. -You elaborate upon items that you want to remember by visually associating them with a series of locations that you already know well or that will be available at the time of recall. peg word system: -A mnemonic in which the items in a list to be remembered are associated with the sequential items in a memorized jingle and then the list is retrieved by going through the jingle and retrieving the associated items. -you visually associate the items in a list with a jingle that you first memorize. both method of loci and peg word system relate the new info to a well known sequence. In each mnemonic you step through the sequence and retrieve the list item tied to that step. In the case of the method of loci, sequential locations within a well known room or place are used, whereas in the peg word system, the steps are part of a well learned jingle(one is a bun, two is a shoe...). Thus both use elaborative rehearsal first letter technique: -uses the first letters of a set of items to spell out words that form a sentence -Mnemonics that involve little elaboration have not been found to be very effective like this one -In the first-letter technique, you compose a word, acronym, or sentence from the first letters of the words you want to remember. -Ex. ROYGBV -not as effective as more elaborative mnemonics

vision

our dominant sense iconic memory- the visual sensory register

serial position effect

our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list When the time comes to retrieve the information from memory,the serial position effect predicts that we will be more likely to recall the last and first items in the list. Middle most likely to forget Is actually 2 separate effects. Ex. recency effect and primacy effect Researchers have demonstrated that the primacy effect and the recency effect can be manipulated independently, indicating that different memory stages are involved. Anterograde amnesics have little recall for the primacy portion of the free recall list because of their explicit long-term memory impairment, but they show a recency effect because it depends upon recall from short-term memory, which is still intact and functioning. more rehearsal leads to better long-term memory primacy effect: -The superior recall of the early portion of the list -Due to maintenance rehearsal into LTM -People tend to do well at remembering words from beginning. Improved recall for initial items on the list -(1) In memory, the superior recall of the early portion of a list relative to the middle of the list in a one-trial free recall task. (2) In impression formation, information gathered early is weighted more heavily than information gathered later in forming an impression of another person -First few names likely to be remembered -The superior recall of the first few items presented relative to those in the middle of the list is primacy effect. This effect is due to the fact that the primary items in the list are studied more and so have a higher probability of being in long-term memory for later recall -The first few names are also highly likely to be remembered -When there is a time delay between meeting the people and recalling their names, the primacy effect remains but the recency effect diminishes recency effect: part of serial position effect The superior recall of the latter portion of the list People tend to do well art remembering word to word ends. Improved recall for final items at list. Final pieces still in short term memory. Still fresh. Due to current storage in STM. Due to maintenance rehearsal into LTM Due to current storage in STM When there is a time delay between meeting the people and recalling their names, the primacy effect remains but the recency effect diminishes This effect is due to the easy immediate recall of the items currently in short-term memory (those recently presented) The recency effect is caused by recall from short-term memory. Items at the end of the list, the most recent items, have a high probability of still being in short-term memory, so they can be recalled immediately and very well. Ex. when introduced to a group of ppl, the last few names you hear prob will be remembered the best

recency effect

part of serial position effect The superior recall of the latter portion of the list People tend to do well art remembering word to word ends. Improved recall for final items at list. Final pieces still in short term memory. Still fresh. Due to current storage in STM. Due to maintenance rehearsal into LTM Due to current storage in STM When there is a time delay between meeting the people and recalling their names, the primacy effect remains but the recency effect diminishes This effect is due to the easy immediate recall of the items currently in short-term memory (those recently presented) The recency effect is caused by recall from short-term memory. Items at the end of the list, the most recent items, have a high probability of still being in short-term memory, so they can be recalled immediately and very well. Ex. when introduced to a group of ppl, the last few names you hear prob will be remembered the best

amnesics

people with severe memory deficits following brain surgery or injury Research found A person with severe memory deficits following brain surgery or injury who had no explicit memory for new information could perform as well as normal adults on a repetition priming-word fragment task even though the amnesics had no conscious memory of having seen the words before

maintenance rehearsal

practice of saying some information to be remembered over and over in one's head in order to maintain it in short-term memory How to prevent it from being lost Used in short term memory the repetitive cycling of information in short-term memory Processing and manipulating info

Sperling's full and partial report procedures

present participants with a different 3 x 3 matrix of unrelated consonants (a total of 9) for 50 ms across numerous experimental trials shows results for the capacity and duration of iconic memory On each trial in Sperling's research, participants were presented with a different display of unrelated consonants for 50 milliseconds (1/20th of a second), a very brief interval but long enough to process visual information.Unrelated consonants were used so that the letter displays did not contain any acronyms, syllables, or words. The task was to report the letters in the display briefly flashed on each trial, but Sperling used two different report procedures. full report procedure: -the participant had to try to report the entire display of letters. A different 3 × 3 letter display was used on each trial so that the subject could not learn the letters in the display -An experimental procedure in which, following the brief presentation of a display of unrelated consonants, the participant has to attempt to recall all of the letters in the display. -Sperling indirectly demonstrated through inference that the remaining unreported letters had been in iconic memory by using his partial-report procedure Used 3 x 3 letter display On each trial, a different letter display of unrelated consonants is shown for 50 milliseconds. partial report procedure: -the participant only had to report a small part of the presented letter display, a row indicated by an auditory cue on each trial. A high-pitched tone indicated that the top row was to be recalled, a medium-pitched tone the middle row, and a low-pitched tone the bottom row. These tones were easy to discriminate, so the participant had no difficulty in determining which row was indicated for recall. As in the full-report procedure, the letter display was different on every trial. -An experimental procedure in which, following the brief presentation of a display of unrelated consonants, the participant is given an auditory cue about which row of the display to recall. -Recall does not provide retrieval cues sheingold- replicated Sperling's findings with children ages 5, 8, and 11 years old and with adults. He argued that the initial capacity of iconic memory was invariant across age. blaser and kaldy-using a modified partial-report technique, found that by 6 months of age, infants' iconic memory capacity nearly matches that of adults.

L.L. Thurstone

proposed that intelligence consisted of 7 different primary mental abilities argued that specific mental abilities (like Spearman's s factors) were more important Said Intelligence is a function of seven primary mental abilities—verbal comprehension, number facility, spatial relations, perceptual speed, word fluency, associative memory, and reasoning Emphasized multiple,more specific abilities in their definitions Based on his research, he argued that there were seven primary mental abilities—verbal comprehension, number facility, spatial relations, perceptual speed, word fluency, associative memory, and reasoning factor analysis: -Thurstone identified these primary abilities by using factor analysis, a statistical technique that identifies clusters of test items that measure the same ability (factor). -a statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related items (called factors) on a test Thurstone emphasized the specific factor clusters, whereas Spearman emphasized the correlations across the various clusters.

interference theory

proposes that people forget information because of competition from other material why we forget info blocked by other info in LTM proposes that other information interferes and makes the forgotten information inaccessible to remember 1 thing but something comes out instead Retrieval problems the theory that people forget not because memories are lost from storage but because other information gets in the way of what they want to remember A theory of forgetting that proposes that forgetting is due to other information in memory interfering and thereby making the to-be-remembered information inaccessible. Interference theory assumes that the retrieval failure is due to other information blocking our retrieval. in our library book example, this would be comparable to boxes of books blocking access to the location where the book is located. Forgetting is due to the interference of other information in long-term memory, making the forgotten information inaccessible 2 types of interference: proactive and retroactive proactive interference: -blocking new info -the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information -old blocks new -forward acting -Ex. Think about changing phone numbers after having a particular number for many years. When asked for your phone number, remembering the old one interferes with retrieving the new one -older information interfering with the retrieval of new information retroactive interference: -the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information -new blocks old -Where you learn something in past and something new that is similar and so new info blocks our old info. New blocks old -the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information -Ex. learn new language cant remember the old one Ex. get a new phone number and hard to remember old number -Backward acting interference

person-who reasoning

questioning a well-established research finding because one knows a person who violates the finding A good example is questioning the validity of the finding that smoking leads to health problems, because we know someone who has smoked most of his or her life and has no health problems. Such reasoning also likely indicates a failure to understand that these research findings are probabilities. Such research findings are not certain; they do not hold in absolutely every case. Exceptions to these sorts of research findings are to be expected. Person-who reasoning is not valid, and we shouldn't engage in it. even in the face of contradictory evidence, we tend to persevere in our beliefs and ignore the evidence, or we engage in denial through invalid person-who statistical reasoning thinking that a well-established finding should not be accepted because there are some exceptions to it

implicit memory (nondeclarative memory)

retention of learned skills or classically conditioned associations independent of conscious recollection type of long term memory -retention of learned skills or classically conditioned associations independent of conscious recollection -Memory that does not require conscious recall -Long-term memory for procedural tasks, classical conditioning, and priming effects. This type of memory does not require conscious awareness or the need to make declarations about the information remembered. -mplicit memory happens automatically, without deliberate conscious effort. For example, you remember how to drive a car and you do so without consciously recalling and describing what you are doing as you drive -processed by cerebellum -3 types- classical conditioning, procedural memory, priming procedural memory: -1st type of implicit memory -the gradual acquisition of skills as a result of practice, or "knowing how" to do things -Motor and cognitive skills involving procedures -Memory for skills/how to perform tasks -Implicit and this prob processed in the cerebellum -Ex. driving a car, typing, tying our shoes hitting a tennis ball. Have a physical procedural aspect(the execution of an ordered set of movements) to them. -In contrast with declarative explicit memories, procedural implicit memories are like knowing "how" versus knowing "what." -Not all implicit memories, however, are procedural memories. 2. classical conditioning -2nd type of implicit memory -Type of long term implicit/nondeclarative memory -Conditioned responses automatically elicited by conditioned stimuli -We can have reactions w/o conscious awareness -Classically conditioned responses elicited automatically by conditioned stimuli are also implicit memories

recognition

selecting previously remembered information from an array of options measures retreieval a measure of long-term memory retrieval that requires the identification of information in the presence of retrieval cues. Provides a retrieval cue Multiple choice measures recognition a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test the ability to match a piece of information or a stimulus to a stored image or fact In a recognition test, you do not have to reproduce the information—you only have to identify it. Multiple-choice and matching test questions are examples of recognition test questions.Usually such questions are easier because retrieval cues (the answers themselves) are present to help you remember the information. The info only has to be identified

haptic memory/ haptic sensory register

sensory memory for touch that lasts for the least amount of time--about a quarter of a second < 2 secs for haptic memory processes touch/tactile info

chunks

sensory memory is 7 ± 2 chunks a meaningful unit in our memory. For example, a single letter, an acronym, and a word each comprise one chunk. We have a memory span of 7 +- 2 unrelated letters, acronyms, or words units are called chunks. The act of combing multiple pieces of info so you can remember individual things

3 stage model of memory

sensory memory, short-term memory, long-term memory Starts with the environment The environment to sensory memory to encoding to short term memory to encoding and retrieval to long term memory storage In general, information enters from the physical environment through our senses into sensory memory and flows from sensory memory to short-term memory to long-term memory and then back to short-term memory when we need to use it. Information from the physical environment enters the sensory registers through each of our senses (vision, hearing, taste, smell, and touch). the stages interact to provide us with memory.

memory span

the average number of items an individual can remember across a series of memory span trials

Gambler's Fallacy

the belief that the odds of a chance event increase if the event hasn't occurred recently Using the representativeness heuristic also leads to the gambler's fallacy When you have a streak, you are overdue for a correction Belief that chance is "self correcting" The incorrect belief that a chance process is self-correcting, in that an event that has not occurred for a while is more likely to occur. People commit the gamblers fallacy bc they are using the representative heuristic People believe that short sequences (the series of eight coin tosses or the 26 spins of the roulette wheel) should reflect the long-run probabilities Simply put, people believe random sequences, whether short or long, should look random. This is not the case. Probability and the law of averages only hold in the long run, not the short run. In addition, the long run is indeed very long—infinity. The representativeness heuristic leads us to forget this.

encoding specificity principle

the idea that cues and contexts specific to a particular memory will be most effective in helping us recall it The principle that the environmental cues (both internal and external) present at the time information is encoded into long-term memory serve as the best retrieval cues for the information. proposes that the cues present during encoding serve as the best cues for retrieval State dependent memory and mood dependent memory stem from the encoding specificity principle bc they in both cases, maximal similarity in study-test physiological states or moods leads to the best long term memory states that the best retrieval cues are those present during encoding The deeper we process info on front end, the easier it is for us to remember on the back end Recall is greater when the encoding context matches the retrieval context State-dependent memory, mood-dependent memory, and mood-congruent memory are special cases of this principle.the physiological state and the emotional mood provide strong cues that enhance retrieval. This is why the various concepts and examples that you relate to a new concept during elaborative rehearsal help you remember the concept.They were present during encoding so they serve as good retrieval cues. Such cues are internal environmental cues; they refer to internal cognitive processing, what you were thinking about during rehearsal. also applies to the external environmental cues present during encoding 3 contexts: 1. physical environment 2. state dependent memory: -Current feeling/physiological state ex. If ill and learn something, more likely to remember it when ill again -Long-term memory retrieval is best when a person's physiological state at the time of encoding and retrieval of the information is the same -Broader internal environmental factors, such as a person's physiological state or mood, also impact encoding and retrieval

sensory memory

the immediate, initial recording of sensory information in the memory system first stage Roughly comparable to sensation the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system A type of storage that holds sensory information for a few seconds or less. We have a register for each of our senses—vision, hearing, taste, smell, and touch. Information in this stage is bottom-up sensory input that hasn't been recognized yet Capacity is large and accuracy is high capacity 7 ± 2 chunks (chunk- a meaningful unit in our memory. For example, a single letter, an acronym, and a word each comprise one chunk. We have a memory span of 7 +- 2 unrelated letters, acronyms, or words) duration is limited iconic (vision)-less than a second echoic(sound)-about 3-4 seconds haptic (touch)-< 2 secs sensory information enters the sensory registers that comprise the first stage of processing A temporary memory store for each sense Capacity is large and accuracy is high but duration is super short(limited. Way to get important stuff into short term memory). Holds sensory input until we can attend to and recognize it Has the shortest duration Information from the physical environment enters the sensory registers through each of our senses (vision, hearing, taste, smell, and touch). This set of registers is referred to collectively as sensory memory. These registers are temporary storage places for sensory information until it can be attended to, recognized, and moved further along in the memory system these temporary storage registers have large capacities and hold essentially exact copies of the information until we can attend to it and process it further. The duration of these registers is very brief, however. For example, the duration of the visual sensory register (iconic memory) is less than a second. We can only attend to part of the information in each register to process it farther into the memory system. The rest of the information fades quickly from the register and is forgotten. You can think of the info in sensory memory as bottom up input. Bottom up processing is the processing of incoming sensory info from the physical environment. This is what occupies sensory memory so it is bottom up input Sensory information that is not attended to is quickly forgotten. An exact copy of the visual information exists in iconic memory, but only for a very brief period of time. We cannot attend to everything we see; therefore, the visual information in iconic memory that we attend to gets recognized and goes on to short-term memory, and the unattended information in the register fades away and is quickly forgotten (iconic memory-The visual sensory register that holds an exact copy of the incoming visual input but only for a brief period of time, less than 1 second.) Recognition process is perception.the mechanism for encoding information from iconic memory into short-term memory. Many sensory stimuli never catch one's attention, but some are being registered in sensory memory_, which is the first stage of memory. Two types are echoic(sound) and iconic(vision)

source misattribution

the inability to distinguish an actual memory of an event from information you learned about the event elsewhere occurs when we do not remember the true source of a memory and attribute the memory to the wrong source memory distortion that occurs when people misremember the time, place, person, or circumstances involved with a memory the inability to distinguish an actual memory of an event from information you learned about the event elsewhere Attributing a memory to the wrong source, resulting in a false memory Maybe you dream something and then later misremember that it actually happened. You misattribute the source to actual occurrence rather than occurrence in a dream. When we have a memory of something and we can't place where it is coming from. When you have a memory that you think came from one source but it actually came from another source. Ex. mail study a lot being lost in mail You have a feeling of familiarity because you have previously experienced elements in the situation in other contexts, but you cannot make the correct source attributions for them. Thus, déjà vu may result from feelings of familiarity that occur in a new situation without proper identification of their sources Source misattribution leads to false memories bc we don't really know the source of a memory. The event may have never occurred but we think that it did bc we misattributed the source of the memory Misinformation effect leads to false memories through the effect of misleading information being given at the time of retrieval. We incorporate this misleading information for an event into our memory and thus create a false memory for it

fixation

the inability to see a problem from a new perspective; an impediment to problem solving the inability to create a new interpretation of a problem This inability to "think outside the box" and create a new interpretation of a problem

amnesia

the loss of long term memory There is some evidence from the studies of amnesics that explicit and implicit memories are processed in different parts of the brain.Research findings with amnesics who have suffered hippocampal damage indicate that the hippocampus is important for explicit memory formation but not implicit memory formation. These findings also support the distinctiveness of short-term and long-term memories because these amnesics have relatively normal short-term memory

semantic level of level of processing theory

the meaning

Retrieval

the process of bringing to mind information that has been previously encoded and stored Long term goes back to short term the process of getting information out of memory storage To use the information stored in long-term memory, we bring it back into short-term memory. If we cannot retrieve such information, it is said to be forgotten. Broader internal environmental factors, such as a person's physiological state or mood, also impact encoding and retrieval(encoding specificity principle, state dependant memory) how one gets information from memory. Getting info out of memory storage so it can be used When we need the info, we retrieve it from LTM and move it back into STM so it can be used how to measure retrieval:- recall, recognition, and relearning. For all three retrieval measures, forgetting from long-term memory levels off after a rapid initial burst of forgetting.: recall: -a measure of retrieval that requires the reproduction of the information with essentially no retrieval cues -A measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test. -An essay test measures recall -Recall does not provide retrieval cues -In recall, the information has to be reproduced recognition: -selecting previously remembered information from an array of options -a measure of long-term memory retrieval that requires the identification of information in the presence of retrieval cues. Provides a retrieval cue -Multiple choice measures recognition -a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test -the ability to match a piece of information or a stimulus to a stored image or fact -In a recognition test, you do not have to reproduce the information—you only have to identify it. Multiple-choice and matching test questions are examples of recognition test questions.Usually such questions are easier because retrieval cues (the answers themselves) are present to help you remember the information. -The info only has to be identified relearning: -a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material for a second time -Aka savings method -The savings method of measuring long-term memory retrieval in which the measure is the amount of time saved when learning information for the second time. -In relearning, the time one saves in relearning information is the measure of memory -ex.studying for a comprehensive final examination in a course. You must relearn the material. It will take you less time to relearn it, but how much less depends upon how well you learned it the first time -ebbinghaus Conducted the first experimental studies on human memory using the relearning method. His stimulus materials were lists of nonsense syllables, groupings of three letters (consonant-vowel-consonant such as BAV) that were not words or acronyms. He used meaningless nonsense syllables because he wanted to study pure memory for the list items.He would study a list of nonsense syllables until he could correctly recite the complete list without any hesitations. He then put the list aside and waited some period of time (from 20 minutes up to 31 days) and then relearned the list to the same criterion (one complete recitation without any hesitations). To get a measure of relearning, Ebbinghaus computed what he called a savings score—the reduction in the number of trials it took him to reach criterion.

encoding

the processing of information into the memory system—for example, by extracting meaning when we are focusing our attention on something in the environment. Taking something from 1 memory phase and moving t to the next memory phase The process of transferring info from 1 memory stage to the next (from sensory into short-term memory and from short-term into long-term memory) Encoding and retrieval determine the flow of info within the 3 stage system Registering info in memory so that it will be available later Automatic vs effortful processing: automatic processing: -processing that occurs subconsciously and does not require attention -For a particular type of processing to become automatic, much practice is needed. A good example is reading. At first, learning to read is very effortful, but after years of practice it becomes easier and more automatic effortful processing: encoding/processing that occurs consciously and requires attention how to improve encoding: -Spacing effect ex. Spreading out studying time -Testing effect-says after reading textbook, you should test yourself. The deeper you engage with info, the better you remember it. Engage in self testing -mnemonics-memory aids

storage

the retention of encoded information over time the process of maintaining information in a particular stage

Stanford-Binet

the widely used American revision (by Terman at Stanford University) of Binet's original intelligence test. Lewis Terman, had Galton's nature bias, but he used Binet and Simon's test. Working at Stanford University, Terman revised the intelligence test for use with American schoolchildren. This revision, first published in 1916, became known as the Stanford-Binet Problems with stanford binet-only provided one overall score and IQ score doesn't work for adults To report Stanford-Binet scores, Terman used the classic intelligence quotient formula suggested by William Stern IQ intelligence quotient formula: -IQ=(mental age/chronological age) × 100. -Verbal intelligence tasks + performance intelligence tasks =IQ score -Both environment and genes play a role -The IQ formula, however, is no longer used to compute a person's intelligence test score on the Stanford-Binet. It is a confounded measure because a year's growth doesn't have a constant meaning from year to year for mental ability. Mental growth levels off, but age keeps increasing. -How intelligence test scores are computed is explained in our discussion of the next major figure of intelligence testing, David Wechsler

semantic memory

type of long term explicit memory(semantic and episodic) Memories for pieces of info. Not things that happen to you but are more factual. Memory for facts

explicit memory (declarative memory)

type of long term memory Long-term memory for factual knowledge and personal experiences. This type of term-21memory requires a conscious effort to remember and entails making declarations about the information remembered. Things we consciously pulled out of LTM and we are aware that we remembered something. Memory that requires conscious recall These memories are processed in the hippocampus and stored in various areas across the brain's cerebral cortex. Individuals w damage to the hippocampus cannot form new explicit memories Ex. if someone asked you, "Who was the first president of the United States?" You would retrieve the answer from your long-term memory and consciously declare, "George Washington." 2 types of explicit memory are episodic memory and semantic memory: episodic: --personal experiences -Explicit memory for personal experiences. -Things that happen to you in your life ex. First kiss, bday party semantic memory: -Ex. who is bart simpson's father? Remembering the piece of info itself. Factual knowledge -Memories for pieces of info. Not things that happen to you but are more factual. Memory for facts autobiographical memory: -a special form of episodic memory, consisting of a person's recollections of his or her life experiences -Semantic and episodic memories blend together in autobiographical memory -Autobiographical memories obviously include episodic memories of your past personal experiences, but they can also be about factual, semantic aspects of your personal history, such as remembering your birth date or what high school you attended

method of loci

type of mnemonic -Loci-place, location -associating a sequence of information with a sequence of locations in a familiar place -When trying to remember a list of things start with location that you are familiar with and eventually pair place with object -In the method of loci, the sequential pieces of information to be remembered are first associated with sequential locations in a very familiar room or place. Then, when retrieving the information, one would merely mentally go around the room (or place) and retrieve the item stored at each sequential location. -The Greek orators would mentally store the major points of a speech at sequential locations in the room where they were speaking. Then, during the speech an orator would go from location to location within the room to retrieve the key points of his speech. -The method of loci is a type of elaborative rehearsal using mental imagery. -You elaborate upon items that you want to remember by visually associating them with a series of locations that you already know well or that will be available at the time of recall.

Thinking Under Uncertainty

we suffer from an illusion of certainty—an emotional need for certainty when none exists. We also suffer from statistical innumeracy—the inability to reason from uncertainties and risk. Thus, our reasoning under uncertainty often goes awry. Such reasoning requires an understanding of probabilities and the ability to make judgments about probabilities. In addition to judging the uncertainty of events in our environment, we attempt to reduce our uncertainty about the world by trying to find out how various events are related to each other.For example, is the amount of arthritis pain related to the weather? To answer such questions, we develop and test hypotheses about how the events in our world are related. Such hypothesis testing allows us to learn about the world. we conduct subjective, informal tests of our hypotheses

mood-dependent memory

when learning occurs during a particular emotional state, it is most easily recalled when one is again in that emotional state There are similar effects on memory that depend on the relationship between a person's emotional states, such as being happy or sad, at the time of encoding and retrieval. Because one's mood is involved, these effects are referred to as mood-dependent memory. Like state-dependency effects, mood-dependency effects furnish support for the encoding specificity principle—context is important for successful memory retrieval.

misinformation effect

when misleading information has corrupted one's memory of an event Misinformation effect leads to false memories through the effect of misleading information being given at the time of retrieval. We incorporate this misleading information for an event into our memory and thus create a false memory for it incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event occurs when erroneous information received after an event leads to distorted or false memories of the event.occurs when a memory is distorted by subsequent exposure to misleading information. Verb used plays a part Ex. car accident study The way in which you are prompted to remember something changes the memory when it comes out of long term memory. Verb shifted memory Long term memories don't come out the way they went in. affected by time, experience, etc The use of schemas along with source misattribution problems, imagination and observation inflation, and the misinformation effect can lead to false memories, inaccurate memories that feel as real as accurate memories occurs when a memory is distorted by subsequent exposure to misleading information The distortion of a memory by exposure to misleading information. Such false memories create questions about the accuracy of eyewitness testimony and the validity of supposed repressed memories of childhood abuse.

conjunction fallacy

when people think that two events are more likely to occur together than either individual event judging 2 uncertain events to be more likely than either of them alone arises from representativeness heuristic(a rule of thumb for judging the probability of membership in a category by how well an object resembles (is representative of) that category.) Judging that it is more likely that Linda is a bank teller and active in the feminist movement illustrates the conjunction fallacy If you have 2 uncertain events we think more specific one is correct incorrectly judging the overlap of two uncertain events to be more likely than either of the two events By using the representativeness heuristic, we overlook a very simple principle of probability, the conjunction rule.

baddeley's 4 components of working memory

working memory: active maintenance of information in short-term storage. A more detailed version of short-term memory that includes the mechanisms that allow short-term memory to accomplish its tasks. baddeley's 4 components of working memory: 1. a phonological loop: -Allows you to work with verbal information for a short period of time. As donna is taking notes in class, this aspect of working memory will be most important 2. a visuospatial sketchpad 3. an episodic buffer 4. a central executive