psych230finalterms
Traditional measurement
"In general, I like my job"
Valence
"Value;" expected level of satisfaction to be derived from some outcome
Organizational justice
(fairness in the workplace) Distributive justice Procedural justice Interactional justice (interpersonal, informational)
Steers and Rhodes (1978) model of absenteeism
- Both ability to attend and pressure to attend matter Mixed results for the job satisfaction-absenteeism relationship
Elder-Care Assistance
-22.4 million U.S. households providing care to elderly relatives or friends, half the workforce will be caregivers in the very near future -Sandwiched generation - Baby boomers caring for elderly parents and their own children under 18 -50% of employers offer some type of elder-care services -Most prevalent: resource and informational assistance, dependent-care accounts, seminars, counseling, long-term insurance Fastest-growing benefit is geriatric care management
Organizational Commitment Components-Meyer and Allen
-Affective commitment -Continuance commitment -Normative commitment
Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire
-Based on theory of work adjustment -Contains 100 items on 20 facets; also a short form of 20 items—successfully measures overall satisfaction
Family-Leave Policies
-Family and Medical Leave Act (FMLA) - Employee can take job-protected, unpaid leave for up to 12 weeks Problem: 40% of those who take FMLA must cut leave short, cannot afford not working -Parental leave (Europe) - First introduced in Hungary, enables employees to combine work and family responsibilities, Belgium allows for a "career break"
Perceived behavioral control
-Individual's belief as to how easy/difficult performance of the behavior is likely to be -Even if an employee intends to exhibit the behavior, if she perceives she cannot do so because of a lack of control, she will not -This is a step beyond expectancy/VIE theory -Relates back to theory of planned behavior
General Stress Model
-Intrinsic factors such as poor working conditions, long hours, excessive travel lead to perceived stress -Lack of control plays an especially important role in employee stress -Interpersonal relationships with supervisors and coworkers can also lead to stress
Three Types of Strain
-Job-related: Low satisfaction, lack of motivation, ineffective performance, increased absence -Emotional: Less patience, increased irritability -Burnout: Emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, reduced personal accomplishment -Physiological: Life and work stress predicts frequency of serious illness
Child-Care Benefits
-Many companies have begun to give serious attention to child-care benefits and other child-care programs -Onsite child-care center is a popular feature Can be a recruitment/retention tool; seen as positive for users
Faces Scale
-Measures affective component, used to measure overall satisfaction -Can be used in many situations, nonverbal, easily adapted for measuring facets of satisfaction
Antecedents of Organizational Commitment
-Organizational mechanisms - Company merchandise, newsletters, reward systems Lead to affective commitment -Individual/personal characteristics Individual differences related to affective commitment—age (.15), tenure (.16) Stronger relationship between tenure and continuance commitment (.21) than tenure and affective commitment—sunk costs -Social factors Organizational support is one of the strongest predictors of affective and normative commitment
Consequences of Job Satisfaction
-Performance -Withdrawal behaviors -Turnover -Counterproductive work behaviors
Consequences of Organizational Commitment
-Performance Tough to find a strong direct relationship Affective commitment-performance r ranges from .15 to .25 -Withdrawal behaviors Much stronger correlations (-.40 to -.50) are found between affective commitment and intentions to leave a job Little research on organizational commitment and counterproductive behavior -Absence Affective commitment and absence have a small relationship (-.18 to -.22) Continuance commitment does not appear related to absence; too little research on normative commitment-absence relationship
job loss
-Unemployed individuals' perceptions of time use and negative life events were strong predictors of depressive symptoms which predicted negative behaviors -Employees' ability to distance themselves from the ___ was negatively related to distress about ____ and positively related to reemployment Layoff survivors tend to be less productive, less trusting, more angry/anxious, low morale, low job satisfaction
Two main antecedents of turnover
1. Perceived ease of movement 2. Perceived desirability of movement -Modest relationship in job satisfaction and turnover, correlations between −.20 and −.30
Withdrawal behaviors
A Consequence of Job Satisfaction - Absenteeism Costs companies a lot of $$$ ($789 per employee per year) Only 33 percent of scheduled time off due to personal illness, 67% for other reasons (family issues, etc.) -Lateness According to Blau (1994), chronic lateness is predicted by job satisfaction r = -.39 Steers and Rhodes model also has been applied to lateness Motivation to be on time and the ability to be on time are important determinants of lateness
Counterproductive work behaviors
A Consequence of Job Satisfaction Any behaviors that bring, or intend to bring, harm to an organization, its employees, or its stakeholders Examples: arson, blackmail, bribery, sabotage, theft Correlation between job satisfaction and counterproductive behavior ranges from -.10 to -.25
Turnover
A Consequence of Job Satisfaction Expensive for companies
Performance
A Consequence of Job Satisfaction Is a "satisfied worker" a "productive worker"? Good general estimate is around r = .30, although a recent meta-analysis found .59 Correlation tends to be stronger for complex jobs Cultures high on individualism, low on uncertainty avoidance have stronger satisfaction-performance relationship
Punctuated equilibrium
Alternative model in which groups fluctuate more quickly between the stages of development
Organizational Behavior Management
An approach to improving motivation and performance in organizations based largely on reinforcement theory (rewarding desired behaviors)
Stress
Any force that pushes a psychological function or physical function beyond its range of stability, producing a strain -Stress leads to strain
Cognitive choice theories
Assumption is that people are active decision makers who strive to be rational in choosing what to do, how much effort to exert, etc.
Problem-focused
Behaviors or actions targeted toward solving or handling the stress-inducing problem itself
Emotion-focused
Cognitive (thought-related) strategies that minimize the emotional effects of stress-inducing events (e.g., silver lining)
Management teams
Coordinate workers to ensure production
Dual-Earner Couples
Couples in which both members are employed and maintain a family life "Third job" - taking care of home and family Men do 7+ hours of housework per week (doubled from 1968)
Organizational Commitment
Defined as the relative strength of an individual's identification with, attachment to, and involvement in a particular organization _______-job satisfaction relationship is moderate (~.30 to .40) Some suggest ____ is broader and more stable over time than job satisfaction
Work centrality
Degree of importance that work, in general, holds in an employee's life Develops from socialization Related to affective commitment
Attitude
Degree of positive or negative feeling a person has toward a particular person, place, or thing
Informal groups
Develop apart from the official organizational structure; exist relatively independently of the organization Often form among those working in close proximity who interact frequently -Satisfy social needs such as friendship and companionship -Satisfy security needs; make employees feel safe and connected -Facilitate cooperation among employees -Regulate social and task behaviors
Emotional labor
Effort, planning, and control required by employees to express organizationally desired emotions during interpersonal interactions -Customer service
Need-motive-value theories
Emphasize the role of personality traits, stable dispositions, needs, and values (maslow's, but is too rigid, aldefers ERG is more flexible) also includes herzberg's two factor theory job characteristics theory (but if this is high, job characteristics don't matter)
Growth Opportunities
Employee's perception that there is potential to grow, advance, or be promoted Examples - being paid well, provided excellent benefits, offered opportunities to advance Pay for performance increases job satisfaction, but pay level is only weakly correlated with satisfaction; attitudes about pay relate to job satisfaction
Project teams
Employees who carry out specific projects only; are dissolved upon completion Cross-functional teams: Represent various departments
Production teams
Employees who produce output (front-line employees)
Advisory teams
Employees who work in parallel to production processes
Service teams
Employees who work together to attend to customers' needs
Affective commitment
Employees' emotional attachment to organization -Strong belief in and acceptance of organization's goals and values -Willingness to exert effort on behalf of organization -Strong desire to remain part of organization
Perceived Organizational Support (POS)
Employees' global beliefs concerning the extent to which the organization values their contributions, cares about their well-being -Antecedents: fair procedures, supervisor support, favorable rewards/job conditions -Consequences: commitment, increased performance, reduced withdrawal behaviors
Workaholic
Enjoys the act of working, obsessed, devotes personal time at the expense of other important life roles
Work-family conflict
Exists when work and family domains do not fit well; results in one role having a negative effect on the other Kossek and Ozeki (1998) - High ___ associated with less job satisfaction (-.31) and life satisfaction (-.36) than those with low ___ Considered a bidirectional concept
Job involvement
Extent to which employee is cognitively engaged in the job Moderates the effect of job insecurity on negative job attitudes, health problems, distress
Group Decision Making
Five steps to effective group decision making 1. Diagnose the problem - Group comes to agreement on problem, obstacles; prepares to overcome 2. Generate solutions - Communication to process problem and goals while trying to identify solutions Brainstorming: All members of group generate potential solutions without fear of criticism by other members 3. Evaluate solutions - Group critically evaluates each of the solutions 4. Choose a solution - Group compares the remaining solutions, chooses one Common approaches: delegating, averaging individual inputs, majority rules, group consensus 5. Develop an action plan and implementation of solution - Develop detailed action steps and methods for monitoring/evaluating progress
Work Motivation
Force that drives people to behave in a way that energizes, directs, and sustains their work behavior
Tuckman's 5 stages
Forming=members get acquainted Storming=interactions are characterized by disagreement Norming=Unity is established Performing=Members become focused on productivity and goal achievement Adjourning=Roles are terminated
Turnover models
Hom and Griffeth -Job satisfaction --> thoughts of quitting --> quitting -Job satisfaction --> attitude about quitting --> job search --> compare alternatives --> quitting Unfolding model (Lee and colleagues) -"Shock to the system" (e.g., unsolicited job offer, change in marital status, transfer, merger) propels turnover -Recent study: Half of voluntary turnover was due largely to family reasons or an unsolicited job offer
organization's purpose
How to measure? Broad attitude or specific facets? ...Depends on the _____
Equity Theory
Idea is that people's perceptions and beliefs about the fairness of their treatment at work affect their motivation, attitudes, and behaviors What employees can do to reduced inequity: Change inputs Change outcomes Alter perceptions
telecommuting
In a study, ____ reduced WIF (work interfered w/ family) but increased FIW (family interfered w/ work)
Job Characteristics
Include Hackman and Oldham's ___ theory of core job dimensions AND stress and workload Research has demonstrated consistent relationship between employee perceptions of ___and job satisfaction Meta-analysis of this relationship ranged from .32 (task identity) to .46 (autonomy)
Role conflict
Inconsistent role expectations
Expectancy
Individual's belief about the likelihood of achieving a desired performance level when exerting a certain amount of effort
Subjective norm
Individual's perception of the social pressures to perform or not perform a particular behavior -relates back to Theory of Planned Behavior
Affective disposition
Individual/Personal Characteristics cont.. Tendency to respond to classes of environmental stimuli in predetermined, affect-based ways Genetics - Arvey and colleagues (1989) twins studies Self-esteem/core self-evaluations relate to both job and life satisfaction; organization-based self-esteem is strongly related to job satisfaction (r = .58)
Cognitive evaluation theory
Individuals adopt either an intrinsic or extrinsic motivational orientation
Job attitudes are important because
Job attitudes influence work behavior Improving job attitudes is a desirable goal They can help us understand the complexities of work and nonwork life
Antecedents of Job Satisfaction
Job characteristics Individual/personal characteristics Social factors Growth opportunities
goal setting
MBO is a practical application of
Self-regulation theories
Manner in which individuals monitor their own behaviors and make adjustments to those behaviors in pursuit of goals
Job Diagnostic Survey (JDS)
Measures satisfaction as a function of pay, security, social factors, supervision, and growth (and overall)
Groupthink
Mode of thinking that individuals engage in when the desire to agree becomes so dominant in a cohesive group that it tends to override the realistic appraisal of alternative courses of action (e.g., Pearl Harbor, Vietnam, Watergate) Antecedents Cohesion; isolation from dissenting opinions; strong, biased leadership; high decisional stress
Normative commitment
Moral obligation to continue employment with organization
Job Descriptive Index (JDI)
Most frequently used, best-validated -Five dimensions: satisfaction with type of work, pay, promotion opportunities, supervision, and coworkers (and overall)
Goal-Setting Theory
Motivation is enhanced when employees accept and are committed to specific, difficult goals and when feedback about progress toward those goals is provided
Control Theory
Negative feedback loop results from comparison of performance feedback with some goal or standard
Social Influence in Groups
Norms Roles Cohesion Group development Social loafing
Workplace Violence risk factors
O'Leary-Kelly, Griffin, and Glew (1996) -Organization-motivated aggression - Attempts by someone inside or outside the organization to cause injury or to be destructive as a result of some organizational factor -Organization-motivated violence - Negative effects on people or property that result from aggression Importance of both environment and individual characteristics; rigid, punitive, and aggressive organizations may encourage employee aggression
Expectancy Theory
People's behaviors result from conscious choices among alternatives, which are evaluated on V, I, and E
Instrumentality
Perceived relationship between performance of a particular behavior and likelihood that a certain outcome will result
Job Satisfaction
Pleasurable, positive emotional state resulting from the cognitive appraisal of one's job or job experiences (Locke, 1976) Stems from perception that our jobs are fulfilling -Antecedents -Measurement and dimensions -Consequences
Role differentiation
Process by which a group or organization establishes distinct roles for various group or organization members
Job Enrichment
Process of increasing the motivating potential of jobs by strengthening the key motivating characteristics identified by job characteristics theory
Overjustification effect
Provision of external reinforcement reduces intrinsic motivation
stage model
Punctuated equilibrium describes discontinuous changes in a group's pacing and task activities over time, but the ___ describes the continuous manner in which a group's structure changes over time
Social Loafing
Reduction in individual effort that occurs when people work in groups Free riding - Happens when employees perceive their efforts are not necessary to group success and rewards Sucker effect - Occurs when group members decide they will no longer be a "sucker" and reduce their effort
Social Factors
Relationships with managers and coworkers are important -Research supports these influences Social roles - Ambiguity negatively affects job satisfaction Organizational justice - Perceptions of fairness affect attitudes, behaviors, and performance
Hindrance-related stress
Results from constraints that interfere with one's work (e.g., red tape, politics) (−) job satisfaction, (+) searching for a new job, voluntary turnover
Challenged-related stress
Results from time pressures at work, high levels of responsibility, job overload (+) job satisfaction, (−) searching for a new job
Group composition
Role of personality Teams with high variability on extraversion and low variability on conscientiousness are most effective When an individual perceives a team member needs help (backup behavior), the personalities of the helper and recipient play a role Team performance improves when members have high cognitive ability, favorable personality traits, and relevant experience Demographic diversity among team members is unrelated to team effectiveness However, diversity related to the task (expertise, education) is positively related to team effectiveness
stress
Role variables such as role ambiguity and role conflict are important for
norms
Shared expectations about appropriate ways of responding in a group Descriptive ___ - What most people do, feel or think in a particular situation Violators are seen as unusual, different Prescriptive ____ - What people should do, feel, or think in a particular situation Violators are seen as dysfunctional, bad employees
Individual/Personal Characteristics
Some people tend to be satisfied with their jobs over the course of their careers while others are dissatisfied
Recent measurement
Specific facets of satisfaction with pay, supervisor, etc. -May be useful in diagnosing organizational problems or developing interventions
Cohesion
Strength of members' motivation to maintain membership in a group as well as the links or bonds that have developed among members
Formal groups
Subunits established by the organization
Continuance commitment
Sunk costs associated with leaving
Theory of Planned Behavior
The determinants of an action are one's intentions to perform the action -Attitudes and subjective norms affect intentions, which in turn affect behaviors
Social Cognitive Theories
Three components of self-regulation (Bandura): Self-observation: Extent to which we pay attention to specific aspects of our behavior Self-evaluation: Attention that individuals devote to feedback processes Self-reactions: Internal responses to self-evaluation Final element is self-efficacy expectations: individual's perception of his ability to successfully complete a task or attain a goal
team behaviors
Two types of ____(McIntyre & Salas, 1995): Taskwork - Task-oriented aspects of the work Teamwork - Process-oriented aspects of the work
Role ambiguity
Unclear role expectations
Strain
Undesirable personal outcomes resulting from the combined stressful experiences of various life domains
Emotion regulation
Ways in which individuals monitor their emotions -Amplification: Faking/exaggerating pleasant emotion (can lead to job satisfaction) -Suppression: Hiding displays of felt emotions such as anger, jealousy (can lead to job dissatisfaction)
Emotional dissonance
When employees' true feelings are different from the emotions they project on the job -Related to higher levels of stress, burnout -Inauthentic emotion displays lead to less positive customer impressions
important
Why are jobs ____to us? Provide financial means Provide time structure to our day Provide opportunity to use existing skills and develop new ones Provide social interaction with people outside family Help provide a purpose to our lives Give a sense of identity and prestige
spillover model
Work-family enrichment: attitudes and behaviors have positive carryover from one domain to the other; bidirectional; ____
Job involvement
___, work centrality, and organizational commitment are moderately intercorrelated—from .25 to .45
Growth opportunities
can conflict with nonwork life (e.g., work-family conflict is negatively related to job satisfaction)
Work centrality
is positively related to salary level, number of promotions, and career satisfaction (recent meta-analysis
Organizational justice
predicts affective and normative commitment (~.30s)
Ineffective Decision Making
process loss, process gain, social facilitation, unshared information leads to
