psychology
how neurotransmitters are related to behavior
Anatomy of a Neuron Information is carried by biochemical substances called neurotransmitters, which we will talk about in more detail shortly. The terminal buttons and the dendrites of other neurons do not touch, but instead pass the information containing neurotransmitters through a Synapse. Once the neurotransmitter leaves the axon, and passes through the synapse, it is caught on the dendrite by what are termed Receptor Sites. Neurotransmitters have been studied quite a bit in relation to psychology and human behavior. What we have found is that several neurotransmitters play a role in the way we behave, learn, the way we feel, and sleep. And, some play a role in mental illnesses. The following are those neurotransmitters which play a significant role in our mental health. Acetylcholine - involved in voluntary movement, learning, memory, and sleep § Too much acetylcholine is associated with depression, and too little in the hippocampus has been associated with dementia. Dopamine - correlated with movement, attention, and learning § Too much dopamine has been associated with schizophrenia, and too little is associated with some forms of depression as well as the muscular rigidity and tremors found in Parkinson's disease. Norepinephrine - associated with eating, alertness § Too little norepinephrine has been associated with depression, while an excess has been associated with schizophrenia. Epinephrine - involved in energy, and glucose metabolism § Too little epinephrine has been associated with depression. Serotonin - plays a role in mood, sleep, appetite, and impulsive and aggressive behavior § Too little serotonin is associated with depression and some anxiety disorders, especially obsessive-compulsive disorder. Some antidepressant medications increase the availability of serotonin at the receptor sites. GABA (Gamma-Amino Butyric Acid) - inhibits excitation and anxiety § Too little GABA is associated with anxiety and anxiety disorders. Some antianxiety medication increases GABA at the receptor sites. Endorphins - involved in pain relief and feelings of pleasure and contentedness
what is the stimulus and response elements of classical conditoning
Classical conditioning is a technique used in behavioral training. A naturally occurring stimulus is paired with a response. Then, a previously neutral stimulus is paired with the naturally occurring stimulus. Eventually, the previously neutral stimulus comes to evoke the response without the presence of the naturally occurring stimulus. The two elements are then known as the conditioned stimulus and the conditioned response.
definition of debriefing and purpose of debriefing
Debriefing is a process of receiving an explanation of a study or investigation after participation is complete. The first form of preventive treatment is that of a psychological debriefing.[95] Psychological debriefing is the most often used preventive measure. One of the main reasons for this is the relative ease with which this treatment can be given to individuals directly following an event. It consists of interviews that are meant to allow individuals to directly confront the event and share their feelings with the counselor and to help structure their memories of the event. However, while this form of therapy is the most often used, it is the least effective
what is deception and why is it used
Deception in psychology is when a participant is deceived in a research study. Many think it is wrong because it can cause psychological harm.
Dependent variable
Dependent Variable: A dependent variable is what you measure in the experiment and what is affected during the experiment. The dependent variable responds to the independent variable. It is called dependent because it "depends" on the independent variable. In a scientific experiment, you cannot have a dependent variable without an independent variable. Example: You are interested in how stress affects heart rate in humans. Your independent variable would be the stress and the dependent variable would be the heart rate. You can directly manipulate stress levels in your human subjects and measure how those stress levels change heart rate.
stimulus generalization
In conditioning, stimulus generalization is the tendency for the conditioned stimulus to evoke similar responses after the response has been conditioned. For example, if a child has been conditioned to fear a stuffed white rabbit, it will exhibit fear of objects similar to the conditioned stimulus such as a white toy rat.
how a classical conditioning response is extinguished
In psychology, extinction refers to the gradual weakening of a conditioned response that results in the behavior decreasing or disappearing
independent variable in hypothesis
Independent Variable: An independent variable is the variable you have control over, what you can choose and manipulate. It is usually what you think will affect the dependent variable. In some cases, you may not be able to manipulate the independent variable. It may be something that is already there and is fixed, something you would like to evaluate with respect to how it affects something else, the dependent variable like color, kind, time. Example: You are interested in how stress affects heart rate in humans. Your independent variable would be the stress and the dependent variable would be the heart rate. You can directly manipulate stress levels in your human subjects and measure how those stress levels change heart rate
definition and example of negative reinforcement
Negative reinforcement is a term described by B. F. Skinner in his theory of operant conditioning. In negative reinforcement, a response or behavior is strengthened by stopping, removing or avoiding a negative outcome or aversive stimulus.
neurons
Neurons are the basic building blocks of the nervous system. These specialized cells are the information-processing units of the brain responsible for receiving and transmitting information. Each part of the neuron plays a role in the communication of information throughout the body.
strength and limitations of descriptive correlational designs
Positive Correlations: Both variables increase or decrease at the same time. A correlation coefficient close to +1.00 indicates a strong positive correlation. Negative Correlations: Indicates that as the amount of one variable increases, the other decreases (and vice versa). A correlation coefficient close to -1.00 indicates a strong negative correlation. No Correlation: Indicates no relationship between the two variables. A correlation coefficient of 0 indicates no correlation. Limitations of Correlational Studies: While correlational studies can suggest that there is a relationship between two variables, they cannot prove that one variable causes a change in another variable. In other words, correlation does not equal causation. For example, a correlational study might suggest that there is a relationship between academic success and self-esteem, but it cannot show if academic success increases or decreases self-esteem. Other variables might play a role, including social relationships, cognitive abilities, personality, socio-economic status, and myriad other factor
definition and example of punishment
Positive punishment is a concept used in B. F. Skinner's theory of operant conditioning. The goal of punishment is to decrease the behavior that it follows. In the case of positive punishment, it involves presenting an unfavorable outcome or event following an undesirable behavior.
definition and example of positive reinforcement
Positive reinforcement is anything added that follows a behavior that makes it more likely that the behavior will occur again in the future. One of the easiest ways to remember this is to think of something being added to the situation After you execute a turn during a skiing lesson, your instructor shouts out, "Great job!"
components of an operant contigency
Reinforcement and punishment are the core tools of operant conditioning. It is important to realise that some terminology in operant conditioning is used in a way that is different to everyday use. Positive means a stimulus is delivered following a response Negative means a stimulus is withdrawn following a response Reinforcement is a consequence that causes a behavior to occur with greater frequency. Punishment is a consequence that causes a behavior to occur with less frequency. There are an additional fifth and sixth procedures Antecedent stimuli (Precede): Occurs before a behavior happens. Extinction is caused by the lack of any consequence following a behavior. When a behavior is inconsequential (i.e., producing neither favorable nor unfavorable consequences) it will occur less frequently. When a previously reinforced behavior is no longer reinforced with either positive or negative reinforcement, it leads to a decline (extinction) in that behavio
discrimination
Stimulus generalization can occur in both classical conditioning and operant conditioning. However, a subject can be taught to discriminate between similar stimuli and to only respond to a specific stimulus. For example, imagine that a dog has been trained to run to his owner when he hears a whistle. After the dog has been conditioned, he might respond to a variety sounds that are similar to the whistle. Because the trainer wants the dog to respond only to the specific sound of the whistle, the trainer can work with the animal to teach him to discriminate between different sounds. Eventually, the dog will respond only to the whistle and not to other tones
structure and function of the major regions of the brain
The brain has three main parts, the cerebrum, the cerebellum, and the brain stem. The brain is divided into regions that control specific functions. THE CEREBRUM: Frontal Lobe Behavior Abstract thought processes Problem solving Attention Creative thought Some emotion Intellect Reflection Judgment Initiative Inhibition Coordination of movements Generalized and mass movements Some eye movements Sense of smell Muscle movements Skilled movements Some motor skills Physical reaction Libido (sexual urges) Occipital Lobe Vision Reading Parietal Lobe Sense of touch (tactile senstation) Appreciation of form through touch (stereognosis) Response to internal stimuli (proprioception) Sensory combination and comprehension Some language and reading functions Some visual functions Temporal Lobe Auditory memories Some hearing Visual memories Some vision pathways Other memory Music Fear Some language Some speech Some behavior amd emotions Sense of identity
how information is transmitted in the nervous system
The nervous receives information about conditions both within and around the body. It processes and integrates this information on a variety of levels, and directs the body to respond appropriately. The basic organization of the nervous system follows this flow of information: Afferent or sensory neurons collect stimuli received by receptors throughout the body, including the skin, eyes, ears, nose, tongue as well as pain and other receptors in the internal organs. Sensory information is transmitted to the central nervous system, which includes the brain and spinal cord. The CNS is responsible for integrating the sensory information and directing any necessary response. The CNS controls the rest of the body via efferent neurons, of which there are two subdivisions: Efferent neurons to the skeletal muscles, which are under voluntary or conscious control, comprise the somatic motor division. Efferent neurons which direct contraction and secretion in the internal organs fall within the autonomic division. The autonomic division is in turn divided into the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions. The neuron, or nerve cell, is the basic functional unit of the nervous system. There are many types of neurons throughout the nervous system, but they share some common features: The cell body contains the nucleus and other organelles essential for the survival of the neuron. It is usually small compared to the rest of the neuron. One or more dendrites extend like tendrils from the cell body. The dendrites serve to receive incoming electrical signals from other neurons. Most neurons have a single axon to transmit outgoing signals. Axons vary in length from micrometers to over a meter. Portions of the axon are insulated by supporting cells with myelin, a phospolipid membrane
neuron as the basis for neural communication
This essentially happens by means of the nerve impulse. A nerve impulse is the transmission of a coded signal from a given stimulus along the membrane of the neuron, starting in the point where it was applied. Nerve impulses can pass from one cell to another, thus creating a chain of information within a network of neurons. Two types of phenomena are involved in processing the nerve impulse: electrical and chemical. Electrical events propagate a signal within a neuron, and chemical processes transmit the signal from one neuron to another or to a muscle cell. The chemical process of interaction between neurons and between neurons and effector cells occur at the end of the axon, in a structure called synapse. Touching very close against the dendrite of another cell (but without material continuity between both cells), the axon releases chemical substances called neurotransmitters, which attach themselves to chemical receptors in the membrane of the following neuron and promote excitatory or inhibitory changes in its membrane.
