psychology chapter 6- week 7

___________________________________ a stimulus that elicits an automatic response without prior conditioning (ex. meat powder).

unconditional stimulus (UCS)

what are some examples of applications of Classical Conditioning to Daily Life?

- advertising - Acquisition of fears: Little Albert - Drug Tolerance - Acquisition of fetishes - Disgust reactions

Schedules of reinforcement Vary along two dimensions: _______________________________________________ and ________________________________________________

1. Consistency of administering reinforcement (fixed or variable) 2. The basis of administering reinforcement (ratio or interval)

what are the classical conditioning steps?

1. Neutral stimulus (NS): does not elicit a particular response - Metronome 2. Pair the NS repeatedly with the unconditioned stimulus (UCS), which elicits an unconditioned response (UCR) - Meat powder (UCS) and salivation (UCR) 3. Eventually, the NS becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS), eliciting a conditioned response (CR)- Metronome and salivation

- Learning phase during which a conditioned response is established - The closer in time the pairing of CR and UCR, the faster the learning occurs - About a half a second delay is typically the optimal pairing for learning .....describes.....

Acquisition

____________________________________________________ a set of techniques, pioneered by Ivar Lovaas at UCLA, and based on operant conditioning principles, that relies on the careful measurement of behaviour before and after implementing interventions - Shaping techniques with primary reinforcers - Children with autism treated with it show significant progress in language and intellectual skills - Before Lovaas, many of these children would have been institutionalized

Applied behavior analysis (ABA)

______________________________________- a response previously associated with a nonneutral stimulus that is elicited by a neutral stimulus through conditioning - learned response

conditioned response (CR)

_________________________________ - classical conditioning to an unpleasant UCS Avoidance response

Aversive conditioning

_______________________ following up on Watson and Thorndike's work, developed a highly efficient conditioning chamber (Skinner box)

B.F. Skinner

_________________________________- believed that we acquire virtually all of our knowledge by connecting one stimulus with another (e.g., mother's face and voice; e.g., John Stuart Mill)

British associationists

_______________________= linking a number of interrelated behaviours to form a longer series

Chaining

Who came up with the idea of Latent learning?

Edward Chance Tolman

___________________________________ initially neutral stimulus that comes to elicit a response due to association with an unconditional stimulus

conditioned stimulus (CS)

_____________________________________ - classical conditioning can lead us to develop avoidance reactions to the taste of food -Challenges the concept of equipotentiality (e.g., don't develop it to sounds) - Requires only one trial - CS-UCS delay can be 6-8 hours Very specific with little stimulus generalization - Belongingness suggests that certain stimuli are more likely to go with certain responses

Conditioned taste aversion

____________________________- stimulus associated with the presence of reinforcement o According to behavioralists we are responding to it virtually all the time Ex. (e.g., whistle for dog, gets treat when approaches)

Discriminative Stimulus

- Gradual reduction and eventual elimination of the conditioned response after the conditioned stimulus is presented repeatedly without the unconditional stimulus - an active process - During ________________ a new response gradually "writes over" or inhibits the CR - The CR doesn't fully disappear but is replaced by a new behavior ......describes ......

Extinction

______________________sexual attraction to nonliving things

Fetishism

___________________________ gradient - the more similar to the original CS the new CS is, the stronger will be the CR

Generalization

________________________: process of responding less strongly over time to repeated stimuli

Habituation

__________________________= developing a conditioned response to a conditioned stimulus by virtue of its association with another conditioned stimulus - Ex. if after conditioning a dog to salivate to a tone, we pair a picture of a circle with that tone, a dog eventually salivates to the circle as well as the tone. - Each progressive level results in weaker conditioning (fourth order is difficult or impossible) - It allows us to extend classical conditioning to a host of new stimuli

High order conditioning

who studied digestion in dogs, noted associative conditioning between neutral stimuli and meat powder, 1904 Nobel Prize

Ivan Pavlov

___________________= when we've experienced a CS alone many times, it's difficult to classically condition it to another stimulus (e.g., highly known vs. novel brands) ex. when you hear the Mcdonalds theme song

Latent inhibition

___________________________________= learning that isn't directly observable; - we learn many things without showing them (Tolman) Emphasizes the difference between competence (what we know) and performance (showing what we know) Challenge to radical behaviourism, implies reinforcement isn't necessary: rats learn about the environment without rewards - Cognitive maps

Latent learning

___________________________= principle asserting that if a stimulus followed by a behavior results in a award, the stimulus is more likely to give rise to the behavior in the future. - E. L. Thorndike (1898) studied cats in puzzle boxes, - discovered cats do not learn by insight

Law of effect

___________________________: change in an organism's behavior or thought as a result of experience

Learning

_________________________________- cell in the prefrontal cortex that becomes activated by specific motions when an animal both performs and observes the action

Mirror neurons

_______________________________- pleasant stimulus is removed to strengthen the probability of a response (e.g., Aidan's mother's takes away money when he doesn't clean up his room)

Negative punishment

___________________________________- unpleasant stimulus is removed to strengthen the probability of a response/ behavior - (e.g., Aidan's mother's nagging stops when he picks up his room)

Negative reinforcement

______________________________________ is learning controlled by the consequences of the organism's behavior - Aka instrumental conditioning - The organism "gets something" out of the response (e.g., using biscuits as a treat, a trainer teaches a dog to sit)

Operant conditioning

_____________________________________- is only occasional reinforcement of a behavior, resulting in slower extinction than if the behavior had been reinforced continually

Partial reinforcement (aka intermediate reinforcement)

_________________________= intense and irrational fears - Some acquired via classical conditioning - Subject to spontaneous recovery and renewal

Phobias

____________________________ - unpleasant stimulus is given to weaken the probability of a response - e.g., Aidan's mother scolds him for bad grades

Positive punishment

___________________________________- pleasant stimulus is given to strengthen the probability of a response/ behavior -(e.g., Aidan's mother gives him money for good grades)

Positive reinforcement

_________________________________- a less frequently performed behaviour can be increased by reinforcing it with a more frequent behaviour Grandma's rule - vegetables before dessert Overcoming procrastination

Premack principle

_______________________regarding phobias suggests that we're evolutionarily predisposed to fear certain stimuli more than others - Monkeys are predisposed to become afraid of things such as toy snakes and alligators, but not toy flowers or rabbits - About half of people with dog phobias have never had direct negative experience with a dog Classical conditioning does not account for all phobias

Preparedness

_____________________________= outcome or consequence that weakens the probability of a response/ behavior

Punishment

_____________________________- outcome or consequence that strengthens the probability of a response/behavior

Reinforcement

______________________________= We can train animals by means of a procedure called shaping by successive approximation- conditioning a target behavior by progressively reinforcing behaviors that's come closer and closer to the target

Shaping

- Sudden re-emergence of an extinct conditional response after a delay following an extinction procedure - Related is the renewal effect - Is adaptive - Ex. bitten by a snake in one part of the forest, and years later we feel fear again in that forest

Spontaneous recovery

- Process by which conditioned stimuli similar, but not identical, to the original conditioned stimulus elicit a conditioned response - occurs along a generalization gradient: the more similar to the original CS the new CS is, the stronger the CR will be. - Is adaptive Ex. learn how to drive on car, learn how to drive many

Stimulus Generalization

- Process by which organisms display a less pronounced conditioned response to conditioned stimuli that differ from the original conditioned stimulus - opposite of stimulus generalization - Ex. why we can enjoy scary movies - Usually adaptive

Stimulus discrimination

_____________________________________________________theorists focus on how the organism interprets the stimulus before generating a response They contend that behaviour is not automatic or inflexible, rather, classical and operant conditioned responses usually depend on thinking

Stimulus-Organism-Response (S-O-R)

______________________________- behaviour linked to reinforcement by sheer coincidence (e.g., lucky charm effect) Pigeons, athletes, etc.

Superstitious behaviour

______________________________- mental hospital staff can reinforce patients who behave in a desired fashion using tokens, chips, points, or other secondary reinforcers Secondary reinforcers - neutral objects that patients can later trade in for...

Token economies

Pavlov described classical conditioning, involving:

UCS, UCR, NS, CS, CR

__________________________schedules usually yield the highest rates of responding of all (ex. casinos)

Variable ratio (VR)

who found that chimpanzees experience the "aha reaction" as well- insight learning

Wolfgang Kohler (1925)

Classical conditioning is______________________in preparing the organism for the impending US - Psychopathic personalities - indifferent to signals of threat

adaptive

As a result of the longitudinal, correlational, laboratory and field studies all giving the same type of results, most psychologists today agree that media violence contributes to ___________________ in at least some circumstances, but only a small piece in the puzzle.

aggression

_______________________________________________________ a form of learning in which animals come to respond to a previously neutral stimulus that had been paired with another stimulus that elicits and automatic response

classical conditioning (or Pavlovian conditioning)

According to Tolman the rats developed a ________________________________- mental representation of how physical space is organized

cognitive map

______________________________________: a CR that is the opposite of the UCR and serves to compensate for the UCR. - ex. Drug use in a particular setting can develop an enhanced tolerance to the drug in that setting Taking the same amount of a drug in an unfamiliar setting can increase the effects of the drug

conditioned compensatory response

Differences Between Operant & Classical Conditioning : Behavior Classical: Is a function of stimuli that precede the behaviour Operant: Is a function of ___________________ that follow the behaviour

consequences

________________________________________= reinforcing a behavior every time is occurs, resulting in faster learning but faster extinction than only occasional reinforcement

continuous reinforcement

In a ________________________schedule- pattern in which we provide reinforcement for the first response following a specified time interval (ex. on a FI two-minutes schedule-rat presses on a lever the first time and gets a candy, for the next to minutes any level pressed will be ineffective)

fixed interval (FI)

In a___________________________ schedule- pattern in which we provide reinforcement after a regular number of responses (ex. you make one dollar for every 3 bushels of apples you pick)

fixed ratio (FR)

what are the 4 basic schedules of reinforcement?

fixed ratio, variable ratio, fixed interval, variable interval

__________________- grasping the underlying nature of a problem

insight

_________________________= Tendency for animals to return to innate behaviours following repeated reinforcement - Breland's "coin washing" raccoons

instinctive drift

Differences Between Operant & Classical Conditioning : Reward Classical: Independent of what the animal does Operant: Organism must ___________________________

make response

______________________ - stimulus that produces no response

neutral stimulus (NS)

why does punishment tend to be ineffective? (4 points)

o Tells what not to do, but not what to do o Encourages sneakiness o Can interfere with future learning o Provides model for aggressive behavior

_________________________________________ - learning by watching others - This allow us to learn without reinforcement - this type of learning spares us the expense of having to learn everything firsthand - It can spare us from serous mistakes, and can contribute to our learning of maladaptive habits

observational learning

___________________________= small animal chamber constructed by skinner to allow sustained periods of conditioning to be administered and behaviors to be recorded (electronically) unsupervised

operant chamber aka Skinner Box

McConnell (1955) gave light-shock (CS-UCS) pairings to _________________________________ Then fed those flatworms to other flatworms Those that ate the shocked planaria learned faster, and McConnell became convinced he could transfer learning (but pseudoconditioning?) - couldnt be replicated

planaria flatworms

_______________________________- item or outcome that naturally increases the target behavior (ex. food)

primary reinforcers

______________________= sudden re-emergence of a conditioned response following extinction when an animal is returned to the environment in which he conditioned response was acquired.

renewal effect

_________________________________________- pattern of reinforcing behavior

schedule of reinforcement

__________________________- neutral object that becomes associated with a primary reinforcer

secondary reinforcers

Differences Between Operant & Classical Conditioning :Response Classical: Elicited by UCS or CS automatically Operant: Organism emits response in a seemingly____________________fashion

seemingly voluntary fashion

________________________________= We notice changes more than we notice stability - process by which we respond more strongly over time (especially for dangerous, irritating stimuli) ex. Aplysia (the sea slug)

sensitization

Differences Between Operant & Classical Conditioning : Body System Classical: Often involves autonomic nervous system Operant: Often involves the _______________________________

skeletal muscles

S-R theorists believed that all learning occurs by ______________ and _______________

trial and error

The ___________________________ says that we need both classical and operant conditioning to explain the existence of anxiety disorders- phobias are caused by classical conditioning and continue over time with by avoiding the phobias and negatively reinforcing the behavior and therefore remain afraid.

two process theory

_______________________________________= automatic response to a nonneutral stimulus that does not need to be learned (salivation)

unconditional response (UCR)

In a __________________________schedule- we provide reinforcement for the 1st response after a variable time interval, with the actual intervals varying randomly around some average.

variable interval (VI)

In a __________________________schedule- we provide reinforcement for a variable number of responses, with the number varying randomly around some average.

variable ratio (VR)