Psychology Deck

Stage 3 of sleep cycle

-Also known as slow wave sleep -Delta waves appear (Low frequency/high voltage waves) -Sleep Talking or Walking may occur

REM sleep or stage 4 of sleep cycle

-Body Paralyzed -Also called paradoxical sleep-Body appears awake but prevented from doing anything

hemispheric lateralization

-Functional differences between left and right hemispheres -Each cerebral hemisphere performs certain functions that are not ordinarily performed by the opposite hemisphere

Stage 1 of sleep cycle

-Light sleep -The brain emits alpha waves and theta waves--> consistent with a relaxed state of wakefulness -Hypnic Jerks or Hallucinations

Stage 2 of sleep cycle

-Sleep spindles and K complex appears -More theta waves

Seyle's General Adaptation Syndrome

-three-stage process describes our body's reaction to stress: -Alarm stage==>Initial reaction to stressor and activation of the SNS (experience decreased resistance to stress.) -Resistance Stage==>Continuous release of hormones allow the SNS to remain engaged to fight the stressor (experience Increased resistance to stress.) -Exhaustion Stage==> Body can no longer maintain an elevated response with SNS to remain engaged to fight stressor (experience decreased resistance to stress.) ***people's response to various stressors is similar***

Consanguineal- Based on genetic relationship (brother, father.etc) Affinal- Based on marriage (wife) Fictive- Social ties that are not consanguineal or affinal (eg, adopted children)

3 Types of Kinship

episodic memory

A category of long-term memory that involves the recollection of specific events, situations and experiences. Also known as Autobiographical memories

Amygdala

A limbic system structure involved in memory and emotion, particularly fear and aggression. helps to store memories of events and emotions so that an individual may be able to recognize similar events in the future.

classical conditioning

A phobia is usually acquired through what type of conditioning?

Gentrification

A process of converting an urban neighborhood from a predominantly low-income renter-occupied area to a predominantly middle-class owner-occupied area. Effects include: -Increased neighborhood stratification -Displacement of lower-income residents -Expanded tax base for local government

Avoidance Learning (Negative Reinforcement)

A type of learning in which something is done to prevent a stimulus that had yet to happen Ex. Studying for exam to avoid getting a bad grade

Escape learning (negative reinforcement)

A type of learning whose purpose is too take away an unpleasant stimulus that exists Ex. Take aspirin to remove headache

inductive reasoning (bottom-up reasoning)

A type of reasoning that reaches conclusions based on a pattern of specific examples or past events. The conclusion may or may not be true Ex. If abu jasim had another daughter, her name would start with an L

Emotional Regulatory Centers of Brain

Amygdala--> conduction and identification emotions Hypothalamus--> creates physiological aspects of emotions Prefrontal cortex--> controls behavioral aspects of emotions

Classes of kinship Primary- First-degree family members (children, mother.etc) Secondary- Primary kin of first-degree family members (eg, mother's brother) (like hefel) Tertiary- Secondary kin of first-degree family members (eg, mother's uncle) (think mohammad al rasheed)

Classes of kinship

CAT scan (CT scan)

Computer combines multiple x-rays taken at different angles Detailed structure of internal organs & tissues at a single point in time

-Occurs between 7-11 years of age -Learn conservation of mass -Develop deductive reasoning (If 1+2=3, 3-2=1)

Concrete Operational stage

biomedical approach

Disease is studied by examining only the biological factors of illness, neglecting contributing factors of psychological life and sociological context. Assumes patient will play passive role The advantages to this approach include increased life expectancy rates, demonstrated effectiveness for many illnesses, and improved quality of life for some patients, particularly those with chronic conditions who greatly benefit from drug therapy. However, this approach is not effective for many individuals with psychological disorders. Disadvantages of this approach include its narrow focus, which ignores other (eg, social) factors, and its reliance on drugs, many of which can produce harmful side effects.

Symbolic Interactionism

Focuses on the smaller scale interactions between individuals in small groups. Through social interactions, individuals develop shared meanings and labels for various symbols. Allows for human agency in creating and changing meaning in society, rather than society acting upon the individual A fundamental concept in symbolic interactionism, the "definition of the situation," describes how people enter into social situations with clearly defined expectations for their own behavior and the behavior of others. An example would be how a white coat symbolizes a doctor Founded by George Mead and charles cooley

-Occurs for children 12 and older -Abstract and moral reasoning/thinking develop

Formal Operational stage

Psychoanalytic theory of personality (Sigmund Freud)

Founded by Sigmund Freud. Personality is determined by a person's unconscious- the flow of psychic energy between three systems in the stream of consciousness (id, ego, and superego) CRUCIAL: Personality processes take place outside of conscious awareness.

1. oral-(0 to 1 years of age) + (Focus is the mouth with development on feeding/nursing) (Developmental failure leads to fixations as an adult such as smoking, nail biting, over-eating, and dependency) 2. anal- (1 to 3 years of age) + (Focus is the anus with development on toilet training) (Developmental failure leads to fixations as an adult such as issues with organization and messiness) 3. phallic- (3 to 6 years of age) + (Focus is on genitals with development on oedipal and electra conflicts (means they focus on development of sexual identity and identifying with same sex parent and also sublimating sexual libido or sex drive by focusing on other things) (Developmental failure leads to sexual dysfunction as an adult) 4. latent- (6 to 12 years of age) + (No focus here but development of social skills takes place in this stage (No developmental failure occurs) 5. genital - (12 through adulthood) + (Focus on genital and development of sexual maturity) (No developmental failure and if one completes each stage, they will be mentally healthy)

Freud's Theory of Developmental Stages

cognitive dissonance

Inner tension that a consumer experiences after recognizing an inconsistency between behavior and values or opinions Cognitive dissonance causes a state of discomfort that results in motivation to reduce the conflict by aligning or changing thoughts and/or behaviors to reduce the discomfort Ex. Smoker who believes smoking is bad for you

The limbic system

Involved in emotion, learning, and memory Includes the amygdala, hippocampus, hypothalamus, cingulate gyrus. and thalamus

dual coding theory

It is easier to recall words that are associated with images

absolute poverty

Lack of essential resources (food, shelter, clothing, hygiene). Most extreme form of poverty

implicit memory

Memories we don't deliberately remember or reflect on consciously Also known as procedural or nondeclaraitive memory Ex.Driving Type of long term memory

semantic memory

Memory of words and phrases (remembering simple facts)

spreading activation

Occurs when you think of one topic and other related topics also come into mind with it Ex. If I thought of a fire engine, I would also think of a big truck, a fire, firefighters, and the color red

bystander effect

Onlookers in a crowd fail to offer assistance to a person who is in trouble because they assume someone else will help. Willingness to help is inversely proportional to # of people present The more people around means the less likely to help

normative organizations

Organizations motivated based on morally relevant goals (ex. Humanitarian organization)

Carl Roger's Theory of Personality or Humanistic Theory of Personality

People continually seek experiences that make them better, more fulfilled individuals motivated by enhancing the organism Shape personality through free will

fundamental attribution error

Peoples behavior is due to their personality and we don't consider situational aspects

Trait theory of personality

Personality consists of a set of traits which are characteristics that vary between people and are STABLE over the course of the lifetime. Key: NO ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCES. Very little personal control over personality, and personality is hereditable. Personality does not change

-Children learn to use language - Begin to think literally and egocentrically (Can't take viewpoints of others) -Symbolic thought - Between 2-7 years of age

Pre-operational stage

-Children learn to separate themselves from the world/ They learn about themselves -occurs between 0-2 years of age -Learn object permanence (This also marks the end of this stage)

Sensorimotor Stage

Symptoms of PTSD

Symptoms of this include *hyperarousal* (eg, exaggerated startle response, insomnia); intrusive symptoms (eg, nightmares, flashbacks); avoiding reminders of the trauma; and negative thoughts and moods.

independent variable

The experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied. Key word- manipulated

hippocampus, prefrontal cortex, amygdala

The following three structures are altered in times of stress

social stratification

The way that people are categorized in society *three factors include: power, social class, and social status* power: the ability to control others. Certain careers (eg, politician) and accomplishments (eg, a large social media following) increase one's power. Social class: refers to one's prestige (reputation). Certain careers (eg, physician), personal characteristics (eg, attractiveness), and achievements (eg, winning an Olympic gold medal) confer status that is not necessarily tied to wealth (although it can be). Social class is largely determined by economic resources (eg, income, property). Wealthy individuals are at the top of the social hierarchy, whereas those in the working and lower classes are at the bottom.

prefrontal cortex

This structure is important for conscious regulation of emotional states, and CRITICAL in temperament and decision making For Example: It prevents us from yelling at our boss when we are angry

Humanistic psychology

Type of psychology that emphasizes the higher aspects of human nature, including the drive toward self-actualization (ie, achieving one's full potential) and personal growth.

deductive reasoning (top-down reasoning)

Type of reasoning in which a conclusion is reached by stating a general principle and then applying that principle to a specific case (The sun rises every morning; therefore, the sun will rise on Tuesday morning.) Conclude a fact from a fact

positive reinforcement

Type of reinforcement that looks to Increase behavior by presenting positive stimuli, such as food. EX. Getting cookies for receiving an A on your test

PET scan

Used for viewing metabolic processes of the body imaging test that helps reveal how your tissues and organs are functioning *Scanner detects radioactive tracer attached to a glucose analog* *Measures glucose metabolism in the brain*

convergence and disparity Disparity - each eye see a slightly different image Convergence - when looking at a close-up object, your eyes angle inwards towards each other (you become slightly cross-eyed). Binocular cues are visual information taken in by two eyes that enable us a sense of depth perception, or stereopsis

What are the two main binocular cues and what do they mean?

measure electric conductivity of the skin

What is a way to measure sympathetic arousal?

variable-ratio schedule

a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable or average number of responses Has high rate of responding and most resistant to extinction Has no predictable pauses Ex.Slot machine because you never know when prize is given

variable-interval schedule

a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable or variable amount of time intervals

fixed-interval schedule

a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified or fixed amount of time has elapsed tend to produce increased behavioral responses just before the reward and a decreased pattern of responding just after the reward is received. For example, people tend to work harder and faster at the end of the week, just before receiving their weekly paychecks, and tend to be slower and more sluggish at the beginning of the week, after receiving their weekly paychecks. Ex. You receive a paycheck every two weeks

fixed-ratio schedule

a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified or fixed number of responses Ex.Must sell five cars to get bonus

Functionalism

analyzes how social structures work together in society to maintain equilibrium does not deal with the creation of agreed-on, shared meaning. Founded by *emilie durkheim* and talcott parsons *Branches into Manifest and latent functions* Unintended consequences may result-Key Phrase

Cognitive-behavioral therapy

attempts to replace negative thoughts and behaviors with healthier thoughts and behaviors techniques include desensitization and self-talk

Key ideas and words of Humanistic Perspective

behavior through self-concept and incongruence

cognitive vs affective process

cognitive process is the way you interpret a situation and affective process is the way you feel about a situation

approach-approach conflict

conflict occurring when a person must choose between two desirable choices

avoidance-avoidance conflict

conflict occurring when a person must choose between two undesirable choices

Habituation

decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a visual stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner.

Conflict theory

examines how inequalities between social classes cause conflict founded by Karl Marx and Max Weber

Type 2 error

failing to reject a false null hypothesis (false negative)

Learned helplessness

feelings of extreme powerlessness along with a perceived lack of control, often resulting from a series of failures or trauma The person will no longer wish to act on something Cannot escape situation

psychodynamic approach/psychoanalytic therapy

focuses on revealing the unconscious and an understanding how previous conflict influences the present.

peripheral route to persuasion

form of persuasion that occurs when people are influenced by incidental cues, such as a speaker's attractiveness or them being an expert rather than the actual content of the message

Central route to persuasion

form of persuasion the occurs when people are influenced by the actual content of the message

long-term potentiation

gradual strengthening of the connections among neurons from repetitive stimulation

negative reinforcement

increasing the strength of a given response by *removing or preventing a painful or undesirable* stimulus when the response occurs Ex. Remove doing dishes for getting an A on report card

Social exchange theory

individuals interact with each other to maximize personal gain and minimize personal cost

latent learning

learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it

PTSD requries traumatic event while GAD does not

main difference between PTSD and GAD (generalized anxiety disorder)?

fertility rate

measure of the number of people being added to a given population through birth, as opposed to immigration

utilitarian organizations

organization in which members are compensated for their involvement, typically through money (eg, paid employment) or certification/diploma (eg, university students).

coercive organizations

organization in which membership is not freely chosen (eg, prisoners) and/or maintained (eg, military service members must be discharged).

punishment vs reinforcement

reinforcement INCREASES behavior and punishment DECREASES behavior

Type 1 error

rejecting the null hypothesis when it is true (false positive)

EEG (electroencephalogram)

shows brain's electrical activity by positioning electrodes over the scalp Voltage fluctuations in the brain over time

Social constructionism

sociological theory suggesting that "reality" is created through interactions, resulting in agreed-on, shared meanings Ex. money has value in society only because everyone has agreed that it has value; this makes money a social construct.

Encoding specificity effect

states that human memories are more easily retrieved if external conditions at the time fo retrieval are similar to those in existence at the time the memory was stored

social facilitation

stronger responses on simple or well-learned tasks in the presence of others predicts that only simple or well-learned tasks improve.

diathesis-stress model

suggests that a person may be genetically predisposed for a mental disorder that remains unexpressed until triggered by stress due to an environmental cause (like losing your job)

group polarization

tendency of group members to move to an extreme position after discussing an issue as a group Individuals attitude toward topic changes or becomes more extreme

primacy effect

tendency to remember words at the beginning of a list especially well

recency effect

tendency to remember words at the end of a list especially well

belief perseverance

tendency to stick to our initial beliefs even when evidence contradicts them

neural plasticity

the ability of the brain to change in response to experience

explicit memory

the act of consciously or intentionally retrieving past experiences Actually have to think to remember Ex. Trying to remember who you went to school with Type of long term memory

positive punishment

the administration or addition of a stimulus to decrease the probability of a behavior's recurring Ex. Add chores when you are rude

institutional discrimination

the denial of opportunities and equal rights to individuals and groups that results from the normal operations of a society unfair treatment of some people, typically lower-income individuals or members of minority groups, by social structures Occurs at the *at the organizational or system level*

motion parallax

the perception of motion of objects in which close objects appear to move more quickly than objects that are farther away

shaping behavior

the process of guiding learning in graduated steps using reinforcement or lack of reinforcement baby steps until to get what you want Type of operant conditioning

negative punishment

the removal of a *desirable* stimulus to decrease the probability of a behavior's recurring Ex. Take away cell phone for being rude

Dishabituation

the restoration to full strength of a response to a stimulus that had previously become weakened through habituation

social loafing

the tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable *more productive alone* The larger the group and less cohesive or unified, the more likely it will occur

Just world phenomenon

the tendency of people to believe the world is just and that people therefore get what they deserve and deserve what they get Ex. Good things happen to good people and bad things happen to people

self-serving bias

the tendency to attribute one's successes to personal factors and one's failures to situational factors

hindsight bias

the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it "The I knew it all along phenomenon"

actor-observer bias

the tendency to blame our actions on the situation and blame the actions of others on their personalities

opponent-process theory

the theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, yellow-blue, white-black) enable color vision. For example, some cells are stimulated by green and inhibited by red; others are stimulated by red and inhibited by green The more a person experiences fear, the less the fear will affect them

beta waves

waves that are present when you are awake and alert have high frequency

self-fulfilling prophecy

we expect something so it comes it true Focuses on yourself and not others