Psychology Deck
Stage 3 of sleep cycle
-Also known as slow wave sleep -Delta waves appear (Low frequency/high voltage waves) -Sleep Talking or Walking may occur
REM sleep or stage 4 of sleep cycle
-Body Paralyzed -Also called paradoxical sleep-Body appears awake but prevented from doing anything
hemispheric lateralization
-Functional differences between left and right hemispheres -Each cerebral hemisphere performs certain functions that are not ordinarily performed by the opposite hemisphere
Stage 1 of sleep cycle
-Light sleep -The brain emits alpha waves and theta waves--> consistent with a relaxed state of wakefulness -Hypnic Jerks or Hallucinations
Stage 2 of sleep cycle
-Sleep spindles and K complex appears -More theta waves
Seyle's General Adaptation Syndrome
-three-stage process describes our body's reaction to stress: -Alarm stage==>Initial reaction to stressor and activation of the SNS (experience decreased resistance to stress.) -Resistance Stage==>Continuous release of hormones allow the SNS to remain engaged to fight the stressor (experience Increased resistance to stress.) -Exhaustion Stage==> Body can no longer maintain an elevated response with SNS to remain engaged to fight stressor (experience decreased resistance to stress.) ***people's response to various stressors is similar***
Consanguineal- Based on genetic relationship (brother, father.etc) Affinal- Based on marriage (wife) Fictive- Social ties that are not consanguineal or affinal (eg, adopted children)
3 Types of Kinship
episodic memory
A category of long-term memory that involves the recollection of specific events, situations and experiences. Also known as Autobiographical memories
Amygdala
A limbic system structure involved in memory and emotion, particularly fear and aggression. helps to store memories of events and emotions so that an individual may be able to recognize similar events in the future.
classical conditioning
A phobia is usually acquired through what type of conditioning?
Gentrification
A process of converting an urban neighborhood from a predominantly low-income renter-occupied area to a predominantly middle-class owner-occupied area. Effects include: -Increased neighborhood stratification -Displacement of lower-income residents -Expanded tax base for local government
Avoidance Learning (Negative Reinforcement)
A type of learning in which something is done to prevent a stimulus that had yet to happen Ex. Studying for exam to avoid getting a bad grade
Escape learning (negative reinforcement)
A type of learning whose purpose is too take away an unpleasant stimulus that exists Ex. Take aspirin to remove headache
inductive reasoning (bottom-up reasoning)
A type of reasoning that reaches conclusions based on a pattern of specific examples or past events. The conclusion may or may not be true Ex. If abu jasim had another daughter, her name would start with an L
Emotional Regulatory Centers of Brain
Amygdala--> conduction and identification emotions Hypothalamus--> creates physiological aspects of emotions Prefrontal cortex--> controls behavioral aspects of emotions
Classes of kinship Primary- First-degree family members (children, mother.etc) Secondary- Primary kin of first-degree family members (eg, mother's brother) (like hefel) Tertiary- Secondary kin of first-degree family members (eg, mother's uncle) (think mohammad al rasheed)
Classes of kinship
CAT scan (CT scan)
Computer combines multiple x-rays taken at different angles Detailed structure of internal organs & tissues at a single point in time
-Occurs between 7-11 years of age -Learn conservation of mass -Develop deductive reasoning (If 1+2=3, 3-2=1)
Concrete Operational stage
biomedical approach
Disease is studied by examining only the biological factors of illness, neglecting contributing factors of psychological life and sociological context. Assumes patient will play passive role The advantages to this approach include increased life expectancy rates, demonstrated effectiveness for many illnesses, and improved quality of life for some patients, particularly those with chronic conditions who greatly benefit from drug therapy. However, this approach is not effective for many individuals with psychological disorders. Disadvantages of this approach include its narrow focus, which ignores other (eg, social) factors, and its reliance on drugs, many of which can produce harmful side effects.
Symbolic Interactionism
Focuses on the smaller scale interactions between individuals in small groups. Through social interactions, individuals develop shared meanings and labels for various symbols. Allows for human agency in creating and changing meaning in society, rather than society acting upon the individual A fundamental concept in symbolic interactionism, the "definition of the situation," describes how people enter into social situations with clearly defined expectations for their own behavior and the behavior of others. An example would be how a white coat symbolizes a doctor Founded by George Mead and charles cooley
-Occurs for children 12 and older -Abstract and moral reasoning/thinking develop
Formal Operational stage
Psychoanalytic theory of personality (Sigmund Freud)
Founded by Sigmund Freud. Personality is determined by a person's unconscious- the flow of psychic energy between three systems in the stream of consciousness (id, ego, and superego) CRUCIAL: Personality processes take place outside of conscious awareness.
1. oral-(0 to 1 years of age) + (Focus is the mouth with development on feeding/nursing) (Developmental failure leads to fixations as an adult such as smoking, nail biting, over-eating, and dependency) 2. anal- (1 to 3 years of age) + (Focus is the anus with development on toilet training) (Developmental failure leads to fixations as an adult such as issues with organization and messiness) 3. phallic- (3 to 6 years of age) + (Focus is on genitals with development on oedipal and electra conflicts (means they focus on development of sexual identity and identifying with same sex parent and also sublimating sexual libido or sex drive by focusing on other things) (Developmental failure leads to sexual dysfunction as an adult) 4. latent- (6 to 12 years of age) + (No focus here but development of social skills takes place in this stage (No developmental failure occurs) 5. genital - (12 through adulthood) + (Focus on genital and development of sexual maturity) (No developmental failure and if one completes each stage, they will be mentally healthy)
Freud's Theory of Developmental Stages
cognitive dissonance
Inner tension that a consumer experiences after recognizing an inconsistency between behavior and values or opinions Cognitive dissonance causes a state of discomfort that results in motivation to reduce the conflict by aligning or changing thoughts and/or behaviors to reduce the discomfort Ex. Smoker who believes smoking is bad for you
The limbic system
Involved in emotion, learning, and memory Includes the amygdala, hippocampus, hypothalamus, cingulate gyrus. and thalamus
dual coding theory
It is easier to recall words that are associated with images
absolute poverty
Lack of essential resources (food, shelter, clothing, hygiene). Most extreme form of poverty
implicit memory
Memories we don't deliberately remember or reflect on consciously Also known as procedural or nondeclaraitive memory Ex.Driving Type of long term memory
semantic memory
Memory of words and phrases (remembering simple facts)
spreading activation
Occurs when you think of one topic and other related topics also come into mind with it Ex. If I thought of a fire engine, I would also think of a big truck, a fire, firefighters, and the color red
bystander effect
Onlookers in a crowd fail to offer assistance to a person who is in trouble because they assume someone else will help. Willingness to help is inversely proportional to # of people present The more people around means the less likely to help
normative organizations
Organizations motivated based on morally relevant goals (ex. Humanitarian organization)
Carl Roger's Theory of Personality or Humanistic Theory of Personality
People continually seek experiences that make them better, more fulfilled individuals motivated by enhancing the organism Shape personality through free will
fundamental attribution error
Peoples behavior is due to their personality and we don't consider situational aspects
Trait theory of personality
Personality consists of a set of traits which are characteristics that vary between people and are STABLE over the course of the lifetime. Key: NO ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCES. Very little personal control over personality, and personality is hereditable. Personality does not change
-Children learn to use language - Begin to think literally and egocentrically (Can't take viewpoints of others) -Symbolic thought - Between 2-7 years of age
Pre-operational stage
-Children learn to separate themselves from the world/ They learn about themselves -occurs between 0-2 years of age -Learn object permanence (This also marks the end of this stage)
Sensorimotor Stage
Symptoms of PTSD
Symptoms of this include *hyperarousal* (eg, exaggerated startle response, insomnia); intrusive symptoms (eg, nightmares, flashbacks); avoiding reminders of the trauma; and negative thoughts and moods.
independent variable
The experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied. Key word- manipulated
hippocampus, prefrontal cortex, amygdala
The following three structures are altered in times of stress
social stratification
The way that people are categorized in society *three factors include: power, social class, and social status* power: the ability to control others. Certain careers (eg, politician) and accomplishments (eg, a large social media following) increase one's power. Social class: refers to one's prestige (reputation). Certain careers (eg, physician), personal characteristics (eg, attractiveness), and achievements (eg, winning an Olympic gold medal) confer status that is not necessarily tied to wealth (although it can be). Social class is largely determined by economic resources (eg, income, property). Wealthy individuals are at the top of the social hierarchy, whereas those in the working and lower classes are at the bottom.
prefrontal cortex
This structure is important for conscious regulation of emotional states, and CRITICAL in temperament and decision making For Example: It prevents us from yelling at our boss when we are angry
Humanistic psychology
Type of psychology that emphasizes the higher aspects of human nature, including the drive toward self-actualization (ie, achieving one's full potential) and personal growth.
deductive reasoning (top-down reasoning)
Type of reasoning in which a conclusion is reached by stating a general principle and then applying that principle to a specific case (The sun rises every morning; therefore, the sun will rise on Tuesday morning.) Conclude a fact from a fact
positive reinforcement
Type of reinforcement that looks to Increase behavior by presenting positive stimuli, such as food. EX. Getting cookies for receiving an A on your test
PET scan
Used for viewing metabolic processes of the body imaging test that helps reveal how your tissues and organs are functioning *Scanner detects radioactive tracer attached to a glucose analog* *Measures glucose metabolism in the brain*
convergence and disparity Disparity - each eye see a slightly different image Convergence - when looking at a close-up object, your eyes angle inwards towards each other (you become slightly cross-eyed). Binocular cues are visual information taken in by two eyes that enable us a sense of depth perception, or stereopsis
What are the two main binocular cues and what do they mean?
measure electric conductivity of the skin
What is a way to measure sympathetic arousal?
variable-ratio schedule
a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable or average number of responses Has high rate of responding and most resistant to extinction Has no predictable pauses Ex.Slot machine because you never know when prize is given
variable-interval schedule
a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable or variable amount of time intervals
fixed-interval schedule
a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified or fixed amount of time has elapsed tend to produce increased behavioral responses just before the reward and a decreased pattern of responding just after the reward is received. For example, people tend to work harder and faster at the end of the week, just before receiving their weekly paychecks, and tend to be slower and more sluggish at the beginning of the week, after receiving their weekly paychecks. Ex. You receive a paycheck every two weeks
fixed-ratio schedule
a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified or fixed number of responses Ex.Must sell five cars to get bonus
Functionalism
analyzes how social structures work together in society to maintain equilibrium does not deal with the creation of agreed-on, shared meaning. Founded by *emilie durkheim* and talcott parsons *Branches into Manifest and latent functions* Unintended consequences may result-Key Phrase
Cognitive-behavioral therapy
attempts to replace negative thoughts and behaviors with healthier thoughts and behaviors techniques include desensitization and self-talk
Key ideas and words of Humanistic Perspective
behavior through self-concept and incongruence
cognitive vs affective process
cognitive process is the way you interpret a situation and affective process is the way you feel about a situation
approach-approach conflict
conflict occurring when a person must choose between two desirable choices
avoidance-avoidance conflict
conflict occurring when a person must choose between two undesirable choices
Habituation
decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a visual stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner.
Conflict theory
examines how inequalities between social classes cause conflict founded by Karl Marx and Max Weber
Type 2 error
failing to reject a false null hypothesis (false negative)
Learned helplessness
feelings of extreme powerlessness along with a perceived lack of control, often resulting from a series of failures or trauma The person will no longer wish to act on something Cannot escape situation
psychodynamic approach/psychoanalytic therapy
focuses on revealing the unconscious and an understanding how previous conflict influences the present.
peripheral route to persuasion
form of persuasion that occurs when people are influenced by incidental cues, such as a speaker's attractiveness or them being an expert rather than the actual content of the message
Central route to persuasion
form of persuasion the occurs when people are influenced by the actual content of the message
long-term potentiation
gradual strengthening of the connections among neurons from repetitive stimulation
negative reinforcement
increasing the strength of a given response by *removing or preventing a painful or undesirable* stimulus when the response occurs Ex. Remove doing dishes for getting an A on report card
Social exchange theory
individuals interact with each other to maximize personal gain and minimize personal cost
latent learning
learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it
PTSD requries traumatic event while GAD does not
main difference between PTSD and GAD (generalized anxiety disorder)?
fertility rate
measure of the number of people being added to a given population through birth, as opposed to immigration
utilitarian organizations
organization in which members are compensated for their involvement, typically through money (eg, paid employment) or certification/diploma (eg, university students).
coercive organizations
organization in which membership is not freely chosen (eg, prisoners) and/or maintained (eg, military service members must be discharged).
punishment vs reinforcement
reinforcement INCREASES behavior and punishment DECREASES behavior
Type 1 error
rejecting the null hypothesis when it is true (false positive)
EEG (electroencephalogram)
shows brain's electrical activity by positioning electrodes over the scalp Voltage fluctuations in the brain over time
Social constructionism
sociological theory suggesting that "reality" is created through interactions, resulting in agreed-on, shared meanings Ex. money has value in society only because everyone has agreed that it has value; this makes money a social construct.
Encoding specificity effect
states that human memories are more easily retrieved if external conditions at the time fo retrieval are similar to those in existence at the time the memory was stored
social facilitation
stronger responses on simple or well-learned tasks in the presence of others predicts that only simple or well-learned tasks improve.
diathesis-stress model
suggests that a person may be genetically predisposed for a mental disorder that remains unexpressed until triggered by stress due to an environmental cause (like losing your job)
group polarization
tendency of group members to move to an extreme position after discussing an issue as a group Individuals attitude toward topic changes or becomes more extreme
primacy effect
tendency to remember words at the beginning of a list especially well
recency effect
tendency to remember words at the end of a list especially well
belief perseverance
tendency to stick to our initial beliefs even when evidence contradicts them
neural plasticity
the ability of the brain to change in response to experience
explicit memory
the act of consciously or intentionally retrieving past experiences Actually have to think to remember Ex. Trying to remember who you went to school with Type of long term memory
positive punishment
the administration or addition of a stimulus to decrease the probability of a behavior's recurring Ex. Add chores when you are rude
institutional discrimination
the denial of opportunities and equal rights to individuals and groups that results from the normal operations of a society unfair treatment of some people, typically lower-income individuals or members of minority groups, by social structures Occurs at the *at the organizational or system level*
motion parallax
the perception of motion of objects in which close objects appear to move more quickly than objects that are farther away
shaping behavior
the process of guiding learning in graduated steps using reinforcement or lack of reinforcement baby steps until to get what you want Type of operant conditioning
negative punishment
the removal of a *desirable* stimulus to decrease the probability of a behavior's recurring Ex. Take away cell phone for being rude
Dishabituation
the restoration to full strength of a response to a stimulus that had previously become weakened through habituation
social loafing
the tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable *more productive alone* The larger the group and less cohesive or unified, the more likely it will occur
Just world phenomenon
the tendency of people to believe the world is just and that people therefore get what they deserve and deserve what they get Ex. Good things happen to good people and bad things happen to people
self-serving bias
the tendency to attribute one's successes to personal factors and one's failures to situational factors
hindsight bias
the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it "The I knew it all along phenomenon"
actor-observer bias
the tendency to blame our actions on the situation and blame the actions of others on their personalities
opponent-process theory
the theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, yellow-blue, white-black) enable color vision. For example, some cells are stimulated by green and inhibited by red; others are stimulated by red and inhibited by green The more a person experiences fear, the less the fear will affect them
beta waves
waves that are present when you are awake and alert have high frequency
self-fulfilling prophecy
we expect something so it comes it true Focuses on yourself and not others
