Psychology Exam
What psychologists do
1.Conduct Research: Pure and applied 2.Practice Psychology 3.Teach
Scientific Method
1.Formulate a research question 2. State the hypothesis 3.Test the hypothesis 4. Draw conclusions based in findings: Apply critical thinking (do not confuse correlation with cause and effect, consider the selection factor in correlations)
They believe the benefits of research outweigh its harm They believe the individuals might have been willing to participate if they had understood the benefits of the research Participants are debriefed later
According to APA ethical standards, when can psychologists use deception?
Controls muscle contractions (Affected by curare and botulism; Cause paralysis) Prevalent in hippocampus Decrease in brain impairs memory formation
Acetylcholine (ACh)
Dopamine
Affects the ability to perceive pleasure, voluntary movement, and learning and memory Deficiencies are linked to Parkinson's Disease
Transmit messages from sensory receptors to the spinal cord and brain Known as sensory neurons
Afferent Neurons
Theory
Allows one to: Propose reasons for relationships among events, Derive explanations, Make predictions Psychological types of these combine statements about behavior, mental processes, and biological processes
Connected with aggression, fear, vigilance, emotions, learning, and memory
Amygdala
cell body, axon, and dendrites (maturation of an individual lengthens axons and proliferates the dendrites and terminals)
Anatomy of Neurons
Aristotle, Democritus, and Socrates
Ancient Contributors to Psychology
There is no alternative Benefits of research justify the harm
Animals may be only harmed when?
Experimenting with the brain
Assessing damage from disease and accidents Intentionally damaging parts of the brain in animals Using electrical probes to stimulate parts of the brain
Regulates the glands and muscles of internal organs Sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions have largely opposing effects (Effects can be averaged out to some degree when simulated simultaneously)
Autonomic Nervous System
Placebos are administered to participants
Blind Study
Computerized axial tomography (CAT or CT scan) Positron emission tomography (PET scan) Magnetic esonance imaging (MRI) Functional MRI (fMRI)
Brain imaging techniques
Cerebrum surface Wrinkled or convoluted with ridges and valleys (fissures) Connected with cognitive abilities, bodily activities, sensations, and perceptions
Cerebral cortex
Cerebral cortex Corpus callosum
Cerebrum
Parietal lobe
Contains somatosensory cortex
Connects the two hemispheres of the cerebrum Created by fissures
Corpus Callosum
Expresses strength and direction of the relationship of variables
Correlation Coefficient
Temporal lobe
Deals with hearing and auditory functions
Experimental Method
Demonstrates cause and effect through scientific method with the help of: Independent and dependent variables, Experimental and control groups
Polarizes
Difference in electrical charge does what to a neuron for firing (Conduction of neural impulse along neuron)
Participants and observers are unaware of who is taking a drug and who is taking a placebo
Double-Blind Study
Transmit messages from brain or spinal cord to muscles or glands Known as motor neurons
Efferent Neurons
Review proposed studies according to ethical guidelines before granting approval Weigh the potential benefits of research against the potential harm
Ethics Review Committee and Ethical Standards
All-or-None Principle
Every time a neuron fires, it transmits an impulse of the same strength
1.Clinical 2.Counseling: School, educational, and developmental 3.Personality 4.Social 5.Environmental 6.Industrial: Organizational, Human Factors, Consumer 7.Health 8.Forensic 9.Sports
Fields of Psychology
Socialcultural Perspective
Focuses on the influence of ethnicity, gender, culture, and socioeconomic status on behavior and mental processes Ethnicity-Members of an ethnic group share the same cultural heritage, race, language, or history Gender-Culturally defined concepts of masculinity and femininity; Involves cultural expectations and social roles
Correlation
Follows observation Suggests, but does not prove, cause and effect
Thalamus Hypothalamus Limbic System
Forebrain
Behaviorism
Founded by John Broadus Watson Focus is on learning observable behaviors (behaviors observable by specialized instruments) B.F. Skinner believed that learned behavior is behavior that is reinforced ( where a stimulus is follows a response and increases the frequency of the response)
Gesalt Psychology
Founded by Max Wertheimer, Kurt Koffka, and Wolfgang Köhler Focuses on perception and its influence in thinking and problem solving [Focuses on perception and its influence on thinking and problem solving, Learning is active and purposeful (accomplished by insight and not mechanical repetition)]
Psychoanalysis
Founded by Sigmund Freud Theory of Personality: Proposes that people's lives are influenced by unconscious ideas Method of Psychotherapy: Helps patients gain insight, seeks socially acceptable ways to express wishes and gratify needs
Structuralism
Founded by Wilhelm Wundt Breaks conscious experiences into objective sensations, subjective feelings, and mental images Belief:Mind functions by combing objective and subjective elements of experience
Functionalism
Founded by William James Focused on behavior in addition to consciousness or the mind Used direct observations to supplement introspection Influenced by Darwin's Theory of Evolution: Adaptive behavior patterns are learned and maintained
Case Study Observation
Gather information from individuals or small groups Clinical Studies Sometimes used to investigate rarities
Remove dead neurons and waste products Nourish and insulate neurons Form myelin and play a role in neural transmission of messages Increase with the development of the nervous system
Glial Cells
Consists of non-myelinated neurons
Gray Matter
Psychology as a Laboratory Science
Gustav Theodor Fechner: Published Elements of Psychophysics (1860) Wilhelm Wundt: Established the first psychological laboratory (1879)
Electroencephalograph (EEG)
Helps record the natural electrical activity of the brain Detects brainwaves that pass between the electrodes
Medulla Pons Cerebellum
Hindbrain
Humanistic-Existential Perspective
Humanism-Stresses on human capacity for self-fulfillment, roles of consciousness, self-awareness, and decision making Existentialism-Stresses on free choice and holds people responsible for choices made Based on works of Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow
Regulates body temperature, concentration of fluid, storage of nutrients, motivation, and emotion Involved in thirst, hunger, sexual behavior, caring for offspring, and aggression
Hypothalamus
Informed Consent
Individuals need to provide what before participation?
Endorphins
Inhibit pain and increase sense of competence Enhance the functioning of the immune system Connected to the pleasurable runner's high Similar to the narcotic morphine
Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)
Inhibitory neurotransmitter that may help calm anxiety reactions Deficiency is linked to depression
Serotonin
Involved in emotional arousal and sleep Deficiencies are linked to eating disorders, alcoholism, depression, and insomnia
Spinal Reflex
Involves only a sensory neuron and a motor neuron in most instances Neural impulse is transmitted by interneurons from the sensory neuron through the spinal cord to the motor neuron in some reflexes
Behaviorist Learning View
Learning occurs through learning histories, situations, and rewards and not through conscious choice
Amygdala
Limbic System
Occipital lobe
Lobe that deals with vision
Magnetic Esonance Imaging (MRI)
Looks at brain structure
Positron Emission Tomography (PET) scan
Looks at glucose levels in areas of brain which assesses neural activity
Cognitive Perspective
Looks at mental processes to understand human nature Studies those things that are referred to as the mind
Functional MRI
Looks at metabolic function and the use of oxygen and blood flow. Increased blood flow associated with neural activity
Reticular formation
Lower part within the hindbrain Sends messages to the cerebral cortex when stimulated Makes one alert to sensory information
Fat that insulates the axon from electrically charged atoms, or ions Minimizes leakage of the electrical current
Myelin
Psychodynamic Perspective
Neoanalysts- Contemporary psychologists who follow theories derived from Freud; Famous psychologists include Karen Horney and Erik Erikson Focuses more on conscious choice and self-direction than unconscious processes
Electrochemical messages that travel within neurons (which contain negatively or positively charged ions)
Neural Impulse
Chemical substances Present in the synaptic vesicles of axon terminals Have unique chemical structures and fit into specific receptor sits [loose neurotransmitters are either broken down or reabsorbed by the axon terminal (reuptake)]
Neurotransmitter Characteristics
Excitatory neurotransmitter that increases heart rate: Involved in general arousal, learning and memory, and eating Excesses and deficiencies are linked to mood disorders and impairment in memory formation
Norepinephrine
Naturalistic Observation
Observe subjects in their natural habitat Unobtrusive measure
Depolarization
Occurs when area on the resting neuron is stimulated
Refractory period
Period of recovery between firings
Complete group of interest
Population
Resting Potential
Potential across the neural membrane when a neuron does not respond to other neurons
Be skeptical Insist on evidence Examine definitions of terms Examine the assumptions or premises of arguments Be cautious in drawing conclusions from evidence Consider alternative interpretations of research evidence Do not oversimplify Do not overgeneralize Apply critical thinking to all areas of life
Principles of Critical Thinking
Volunteer Bias-Bias represented by studying people who volunteer to participate
Problem in generalizing from research
Acting Potential
Provides the basis of the conduction of a neural impulse along an axon
Each member of the population has an equal chance of being selected
Random Sample
Segment of population (Representative forms of these allow generalization of findings)
Sample
Psychology
Scientific study of behavior and mental processes Goal:To describe, explain, predict, and control behavior and mental processes
Biological Perspective
Seeks relationships between: Brains, hormones, heredity, and evolution; Behavior and mental processes Charles Darwin: Most adaptive organisms manages to mature and reproduce
Messages received from the brain and spinal cord control purposeful body movements
Somatic nervous system
Neurons
Specialized cells of the nervous system that receive and pass messages Vary according to function and location
Subgroups are represented proportionally
Stratified Sample
Threshold
Strength of the incoming messages required by a neuron to fire
Relay station for sensory stimulation
Thalamus
Axon terminal from the transmitting neuron, dendrite, or the body of a receiving neuron Fluid-filled gap (synaptic cleft) between the axon and the dendrite
The synapse consists of:
Social-Cognitive Learning View
Theorists suggest that: People modify and create their environment, cognition plays a key role, people engage in intentional learning through observation
Spinal Cord
Transmits messages from sensory receptors to the brain and from the brain to muscles and glands
True
True or False: A brain cell can send out hundreds of messages each second-and manage to catch some rest in between
True
True or False: A single cell can stretch all the way from your spine to your toe
True
True or False: Even though she had worked to complete all the degree requirements, the first female president of the American Psychological Association turned down the doctoral degree that was offered to her
True
True or False: Fear can give you indigestion
True
True or False: In many experiments, neither the participants nor the researchers know who is receiving the real treatment and who is not.
True
True or False: Messages travel in the brain by means of electricity
True
True or False: More than 2,000 years ago, Aristotle wrote a book on psychology with similar to the ones you're reading about now.
True
True or False: The ancient Greek philosopher Socrates suggested a research method that is still used in Psychology.
False
True or False: The human brain is larger than that of any other animal
True
True or False: You could survey millions of voters and still not accurately predict the outcome of the election
Survey Observation
Used to collect information that cannot be observed directly or studied experimentally
Excitatory (Causes other neurons to fire) and Inhibitory (Prevents other neurons from firing) Functions
What determines whether a neuron will fire
They are kept confidential
What happens to records of research participants and clients?
Excess or deficiency of neurotransmitters
What is linked to psychological disorders?
Thinking and language
What is the cerebrum responsible for?
When research cannot be carried out with humans
When are animals in research?
neurostransmitters
When neurons fire, what are released?
consists of myelinated axons
White Matter