Psychology II - Motivation, Psychological Theories, Conformity & Obedience
Differentiate how the different processing routes of the elaboration likelihood model influences the types of characteristics of persuasion.
Information by this model is first filtered by our target characteristics, and then the content of the message/source characteristics are taken into account. Those in line with the central processing route - target characteristics (of listener) would likely be greater interest in topic, motivation to learn, and finding it important. In terms of message and source characteristics, the information is deeply processed. Those in line with the peripheral processing route - target characteristics might likely include lack of interest in or motivation to learn about the topic information, as well as little importance. In terms of message and source characteristics, the superficial factors like attractiveness have influence on persuasion.
Andrew, was a "PROTAGONIST (ENFJ-A)" on the MBTI - Which of the following are a key part of my personality according to this? I. Thinking II. Judging III. Intuitive (A) I Only (B) II Only (C) I and II Only (D) II and III Only
(D) II and III Only
Which of the following is not a sociocultural factor for eating habits? (A) Time of day (B) Insulin levels (C) Occasions (D) Appeal
(B) Insulin Levels Common sociocultural factors affecting eating habits include occasions, time, desire, appeal, and availability.
Trait theory is focused on the _________________ of behavior whereas other theories are focused on the ______________ of behavior. (A) Describing, Origins (B) Origins, Describing (C) Causes, Effects (D) Effects, Causes
(A) Describing, Origins Trait theory is focused on the describing of behavior whereas other theories are focused on the origins of behavior.
In the analogy of the iceberg, which parts of our mind are completely below the surface of the water (only part of our unconscious)? I. Id II. Ego III. Superego (A) I Only (B) I and II Only (C) II and III Only (D) I, II, and III
(A) I Only The Id is described as the most unconscious and earliest developed part of our mind which has a pleasure principle under which it operates.
True or false: Between the central and peripheral processing routes, peripheral processing routes have greater likelihood of inducing long-lasting attitude change.
FALSE - central processing routes have greater likelihood of producing a long-lasting attitude change.
True or false: the id is responsible for our system of right or wrong, which substitudes for parental rewards and punishments.
FALSE: the *superego* is responsible for our system of right or wrong, which substitudes for parental rewards and punishments.
How did Hans and Sybil Eysenck come up with their trait theory? (hint: PEN model)
Hans and Sybil Eysenck used factor analysis to group behaviours that typically occur together and assigned labels to those groups. They described three traits in the *PEN Model* - *Psychotism* (measure of social deviance and nonconformity); *Extraversion* (tolerance for social interaction + stimulation); and *Neuroticism* (measure of emotional arousal in stress) E.g. people who are more reserved and less outspoken tended to enjoy solitary activity and avoid stimulation.
Mwape just barely arrives at a new school. She meets two new friends, Becky and Sarah. Mwape starts inviting them over to her house and leading them in several of her favorite games. Does Mwape demonstrate Social Potency or Traditionalism. What about Sarah and Becky? Explain why?
Social Potency is the degree to which a person assumes leadership and mastery roles in a social situation. Mwape is demonstrating this by quickly taking control in her new friend group. Sarah and Becky likely demonstrate Traditionalism as they are quick to follow Mwape's lead.
Why is Temperament often associated with the Biologic Theory?
Temperament related to mood, activity level, etc. - it is an innate disposition (inherited) and the Biologic Theory is focused on the innate causes of our behavior.
One of Jung's archetypes is the self - describe what he means by the self.
The *self* - intersection between the collective unconscious, personal unconscious and conscious mind. This archetype strives for unity.
Describe the cognitive approach of motivation
The cognitive approach of motivation focuses on our rationale and decision-making ability
Describe the foot-in-door phenomenon on how behaviour influences attitude.
The foot in door phenomenon states we are much more likely to do a large, attitude changing task if we agree to perform a small one first. This is one way people get 'brainwashed' into doing things. "foot in door" or "dipping feet into water". E.g. trying our SARMS before going to full-fledged steroids; gateway drugs
There are a few theories that attempt to explain how attitudes influence behaviour. Describe the functional attitudes theory
The functionalist attitude theory states that attitudes serve four functions: knowledge, ego expression, adaptation and ego defence. *Knowledge* provides consistency and stability in thought. Attitudes can be *ego expressive* (to communicate and solifidy our identity; e.g. big Eminem fan, big Pats fan) and *ego defensive* (protect self-esteem or justify actions we know are wrong). They can also be *adaptive* - idea that one will be accepted if attitudes are socially acceptable.
Describe the *humanistic theory* (or phenomenological)
The humanistic theory takes a person-centered approach in stating individuals have free will and the ability to strive towards self-actualization (which remember, is max potential in Maslow's hierarchy!) The theory states we are inherently good and strive to self improve. Maslow was the first humanist.
Describe the incentive theory of motivation
The incentive theory explains behaviour as motivated by desire to pursue rewards + avoid punishments, rather than by arousal. It is based on the idea that if a behavior is rewarded, it will result in the behavior occurring again.
Type theories like the MBTI create a taxonomy of personality types - one well known theory describes type theories as Type A or Type B - what were these types?
Type A- competitive and compulsive behaviour; type B- laid-back and relaxed. Type A were found to be more prone to heart disease, though no evidence of higher mortality rates exist.
Jack started hunting to provide food 20 years ago, but continues to do so today despite plenty of food and lack of necessity, purely out of enjoyment. This can be best explained by ______________, a major part of Allport's trait theory which describes how a behaviour continues despite satisfaction of the drive that originally caused that behaviour. (A) Functional autonomy (B) Cardinal traits (C) Cognitive dissonance (D) Functional determinism
(A) Functional autonomy Jack started hunting to provide food 20 years ago, but continues to do so today despite plenty of food and lack of necessity, purely out of enjoyment. This can be best explained by *functional autonomy*, a major part of Allport's trait theory which describes how a behaviour continues despite satisfaction of the drive that originally caused that behaviour.
When you are hungry, your ______________ will signal to you that you are hungry. Once you've eaten enough and are full, your ____________ will signal to you to stop eating. (A) Lateral Hypothalamus, Ventromedial Hypothalamus (B) Ventromedial Hypothalamus , Lateral Hypothalamus (C) Ventromedial Hypothalamus , Ventromedial Hypothalamus (D) Lateral Hypothalamus, Lateral Hypothalamus
(A) Lateral Hypothalamus, Ventromedial Hypothalamus When you are hungry, your Lateral Hypothalamus will signal to you that you are hungry. Once you've eaten enough and are full, your Ventromedial Hypothalamus will signal to you to stop eating.
While taking illicit drugs, Mary-Kate experienced a state of euphoria. Which of the following nervous system structures was most likely affected? (A) Limbic System (B) Frontal Cortex (C) Lateral Hypothalamus (D) Ventromedial Hypothalamus
(A) Limbic System The limbic system is known for controlling emotion, cognition, motivation and pleasure, and is a common target for illicit drugs.
Elizabeth has always dreamed about being a doctor, but she is not studying hard for the MCAT because she needs to work her hourly job at Walmart in order to pay the bills and afford groceries. Which theory of motivation is best able to explain Elizabeth's situation? (A) Maslow's Hierarchy (B) Evolutionary Approach (C) Cognitive Approach (D) Optimal Arousal Theory
(A) Maslow's Hierarchy According to Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs, we fulfill basic needs before higher-level needs just as Elizabeth is doing in this situation.
Jack is a medical student. He is trying his best to act like a doctor. Over time, he starts to truly feel like a doctor. Which theory best explains Jack's change? (A) Role-Playing (B) Door-in-the-Face (C) Foot-in-the-Door (D) Situational Approach
(A) Role-Playing Jack is role-playing being a doctor until he starts feeling like one.
In deciding whether or not she should go on a trip, Eliza decides not to go because she feels that the weather is out of her control and may ruin her vacation. Which attitude theory best explains Eliza's thought process? (A) Theory of Planned Behavior (B) Elaboration Likelihood Model (C) Attitude-to-behavior Process Model (D) Prototype Willingness Model (PWM)
(A) Theory of Planned Behavior The Theory of Planned Behavior is focused on people making decisions based on the implications and intentions of their actions. Those intentions are affected by 3 factors, including perceived behavior control, and in this case Eliza feels she does not have control over her vacation's weather.
Hunger is one of the strongest natural motivations, yet people often eat for sheer pleasure. Some cultures have diets traditionally high in fat, and social activities involving food. In other cultures, anorexia has become more prevalent and is related to personality disorders. Which of the following best explains these? (A) Motivation stemming from taste bud reward response (B) Biological and sociocultural factors impact motivation (C) Expectancy-value theory of motivation (D) Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
(B) Biological and sociocultural factors impact motivation Biological and sociocultural factors can impact motivation. Sociocultural example is the traditions where high-fat diets are prevalent + social activities involving food (example: Pakistani weddings or gatherings). Biological example is anorexia - sufferers are more likely to suffer from personality disorders, indicating biological interactions leading to the condition.
Sam is goes to a car dealership to buy a car, and while he is impressed with the cars and the prices, he does not like the way the salesman is dressed or the way he talks to Sam. Which attitude theory best explains Sam's thought process? (A) Theory of Planned Behavior (B) Elaboration Likelihood Model (C) Attitude-to-behavior Process Model (D) Prototype Willingness Model (PWM)
(B) Elaboration Likelihood Model Sam is persuaded by quality (Central Route Processing) but distracted and put off by the superficial cues (Peripheral Route Processing). This is closely related to the Elaboration Likelihood Model.
Max explains his desire to eat lasagna at dinner as resulting from his innate need for food. Which theory of motivation is Max relying upon to make this explanation? (A) Maslow's Hierarchy (B) Evolutionary Approach (C) Cognitive Approach (D) Optimal Arousal Theory
(B) Evolutionary Approach "innate need for food" = instinct The Evolutionary Approach focuses on the role instincts play in motivation. Max is explaining his motivation in terms of innate instincts that make him want to eat.
Which psychoanalytical theory postulated that individuals with neurotic personalities are governed by one of ten *neurotic needs*, each of which is designed to make life and interactions bearable? (A) Jung's psychoanalytical theory (B) Horney's psychoanalytical theory (C) Alder's psychoanalytical theory (D) Freud's psychoanalytical theory
(B) Horney's psychoanalytical theory The primary concept of Horney's theory is *basic anxiety*, which stems from inadequate parenting causing vulnerability, anxiety and helplessness; while neglect and rejection cause *basic hostility*
Mohammad was on a roller coaster when it broke down. Ever since then, he has had a bad attitude toward riding roller coasters and no longer rides on them. Which attitude theory best explains Mohammad's thought process? (A) Theory of Planned Behavior (B) Elaboration Likelihood Model (C) Attitude-to-behavior Process Model (D) Prototype Willingness Model (PWM)
(C) Attitude-to-behavior Process Model. According to the Attitude-to-behavior Process Model, an event will influence our attitude, which will then influence our behavior.
If you were to ask Jackie's 5 besties what single trait best defines her, they all unanimously say that she is determined. Determination could be said to be Jackie's: (A) Central Trait (B) Secondary Trait (C) Cardinal Trait (D) Distinct Trait
(C) Cardinal Trait Cardinal Traits are traits that we are most known for and that most closely define us. This is the case with Jackie.
Sarah is motivated to go to work because she knows that it is the responsible thing to do. When asked why she doesn't skip work to party, she replies that it makes rational sense to go to work so that she can pay the bills and not end up living on the streets. Which theory of motivation is Sarah relying upon to make this explanation? (A) Maslow's Hierarchy (B) Evolutionary Approach (C) Cognitive Approach (D) Optimal Arousal Theory
(C) Cognitive Approach Sarah is relying on logical thinking to explain her motivation. The Cognitive Approach focuses on rationality and decision-making abilities.
A girl scout comes to your door and sells you girl scout cookies. The next week, she stops by again, and asks you to donate $1,000 so that she can attend girl scout camp. You agree. Which theory would best explain your willingness to do this? (A) Role-Playing (B) Door-in-the-face (C) Foot-in-the-door (D) Situational Approach
(C) Foot-in-the-Door You likely agreed because you already agreed to support her in a small way before. This enhanced your willingness to support her in a bigger way now. This is perfectly in line with the Foot-in-the-door theory.
Which theorist did not rely on Factor Analysis to develop their theory? (A) Big Five Theorists (B) Hans Eysenck (C) Gordon Allport (D) Raymond Cattel
(C) Gordon Allport Factor analysis is a complex statistical method to narrow down a wider set into a smaller, more representative and significant subset Gordon Allport did not rely on Factor Analysis to develop his theory.
Hannah believes that there are thousands of different traits out there in the world, but she believes that some traits are more important than others. Which theorist is her thinking most closely in line with? (A) Big Five Theorists (B) Hans Eysenck (C) Gordon Allport (D) Raymond Cattel
(C) Gordon Allport Gordon Allport believes that there are over 4500 different traits, but that some are more important than others (i.e. Cardinal Traits being more important than Central or Secondary Traits).
Who of the following are considered proponents of the Humanistic Theory? I. Carl Rogers II. Carl Jung III. Abraham Maslow (A) I and II Only (B) II and III Only (C) I and III Only (D) I, II, and III
(C) I and III Only
Put the following phases of the Sexual Response Cycle in order from first to last: I. Plateau II. Orgasm III. Excitement IV. Refractory Period
(C) III > I > II > IV In order from first to last, the order of the phases of the Sexual Response Cycle are as follows: Excitement > Plateau > Orgasm > Refractory Period.
According to the Psychoanalytic Theory, what two things influence our behavior? (A) Our current emotions and unconscious desires (B) Our current emotions and future expectations (C) Our childhood experiences and unconscious desires (D) Our childhood experiences and future expectations
(C) Our childhood experiences and unconscious desires The Psychoanalytic Theory says that our childhood experiences and unconscious desires influence our behaviour. Freud's theory consists of three major entities: the id, ego and superego. This theory is also known as the psychodynamic theory of personality.
Jim is working out because he likes the respect he gets from his friends when they see his six-pack at the beach. Which level of Maslow's Hierarchy is Jim relying upon? (A) Safety (B) Phsyiological (C) Self-esteem (D) Belongingness/Love
(C) Self-esteem The need for Self-esteem is closely related to our desiring of respect from others, just as is the case with Jim the muscle man.
Alder's theory of personality incorporated two notions: the notion of ___________, which is the force by which individuals shape their uniqueness and personalities; and the notion of ______________, which represents a person's unique way of achieving superiority. (A) Inferiority complex, the creative self (B) The creative self, inferiority complex (C) The creative self, style of life (D) The persona, style of life
(C) The creative self, style of life Alder's theory of personality incorporated two notions: the notion of *the creative self*, which is the force by which individuals shape their uniqueness and personalities; and the notion of *style of life*, which represents a person's unique way of achieving superiority.
The humanistic theory emphasizes that we as humans have __________ and that we can actively develop ourselves to our highest potential and reach ____________________. (A) Individuality, Summation (B) Individuality, Self-actualization (C) Free Will, Summation (D) Free Will, Self-actualization
(D) Free Will, Self-actualization The humanistic theory emphasizes that we as humans have Free Will and that we can actively develop ourselves to our highest potential and reach Self-actualization.
Which or the following can be affected by genetics? I. Drug Use II. Sexual Activity III. Hunger Levels (A) I and II Only (B) I and III Only (C) II and III Only (D) I, II, and III
(D) I, II, and III Drug Use, Sexual Activity, and Hunger Levels are all affected by genetics.
John enjoys being a physician. He finds it to be much more mentally stimulating than his last job cleaning toilets and much less scary than his old job cleaning windows on 100-story skyscrapers. He feels like he is motivated to be at work because it is exciting to the right level. Which theory of motivation is John relying upon to make this explanation? (A) Maslow's Hierarchy (B) Evolutionary Approach (C) Cognitive Approach (D) Optimal Arousal Theory
(D) Optimal Arousal Theory "exciting to the right level" - hint! John has found the optimal level of arousal and it is motivating him to perform his job. In accordance with this, the Optimal Arousal Theory would suggest that John is also performing his job well due to a balanced level of arousal.
Natalie knows people who drink and they are cool in her mind. She has also always been someone to try something new. Therefore, she started drinking and going to parties at the age of 13. Which attitude theory best explains Natalie's thought process? (A) Theory of Planned Behavior (B) Elaboration Likelihood Model (C) Attitude-to-behavior Process Model (D) Prototype Willingness Model (PWM)
(D) Prototype Willingness Model (PWM) The Prototype Willingness Model takes into account the role models one has and one's willingness to engage in risky behavior, as is the case here with Natalie.
Jack believes that there are 16 traits that can be used to characterize everyone. Which theorist is her thinking most closely in line with? (A) Big Five Theorists (B) Hans Eysenck (C) Gordon Allport (D) Raymond Cattel
(D) Raymond Cattel Raymond Cattel believed that there are 16 traits that can be used to characterize us.
Gordon Allport described three basic traits which were of utmost importance in comparison to thousands of others. Describe cardinal, central and secondary traits
*Cardinal traits* - characteristics that influence most of a person's behaviours and ways they organize his life (dominant traits - e.g. selflessness, power-motivation). Cardinal traits influence central and secondary traits. *Central traits* - major characteristics of personality easy to infer, like honesty, shyness or charisma *Secondary traits* - personal characteristics more limited in occurrence - can be described as preferences - e.g. love for modern art, pescatarian or veganism, attitudes
Match the defense mechanism to it's appropriate description: - Rationalization - Displacement - Sublimation (A) Justification of behaviours in manners acceptable to self and society, e.g. smoker believes he is in complete control of amount he smokes and can quit whenever (B) Channeling of an unacceptable impulse in a socially acceptable direction, e.g. pent-up sexual urges expressed in drive for artistic creativity or business success (C) Changing the target of an emotion while maintaining the same feelings; e.g. man angry at his boss holds his tongue and snaps at his spouse when home
*Rationalization* - (A) Justification of behaviours in manners acceptable to self and society, e.g. smoker believes he is in complete control of amount he smokes and can quit whenever *Displacement* - (C) Changing the target of an emotion while maintaining the same feelings; e.g. man angry at his boss holds his tongue and snaps at his spouse when home *Sublimation* - (B) Channeling of an unacceptable impulse in a socially acceptable direction, e.g. pent-up sexual urges expressed in drive for artistic creativity or business success
Match the defense mechanism to it's appropriate description: - Repression - Regression - Reaction formation - Projection (A) Individuals attribute their undesired feelings to others, e.g: /I hate my parents/ turns into /My parents hate me/ (B) The ego's way of forcing undesired thoughts and urges to the unconscious, e.g. to disguise threatening impulses (C) Individuals suppress urges by unconsciously turning them into exact opposites (D) Reversion to an earlier state of development due to stress, e.g: child returns to thumb-sucking or tantrums
*Repression* - (B) The ego's way of forcing undesired thoughts and urges to the unconscious, e.g. to disguise threatening impulses *Regression* - (D) Reversion to an earlier state of development due to stress, e.g: child returns to thumb-sucking or tantrums *Reaction formation* - (C) Individuals suppress urges by unconsciously turning them into exact opposites *Projection* - (A) Individuals attribute their undesired feelings to others, e.g: /I hate my parents/ turns into /My parents hate me/
Carl Rogers believed that the path toward self-actualization starts early in our lives and requires a growth-promoting climate. What are the two conditions that are essential to a growth-promoting climate?
A growth promoting climate is a place where we feel free to be our *genuine* true selves. It is also a place where we feel *acceptance/unconditional positive regard* from others. Rogers believed that when both these conditions are met, we will develop a self-concept.
Sally has a bad attitude towards spiders. Describe this by each of the three components of attitude
Affective - Sally is scared of spiders (fear being the emotion) Behaviour - because of her fear, Sally will avoid spiders and going near them (action) Cognitive - Sally believes spiders are dangerous. All three contribute to form Sally's negative attitude towards spiders.
How would you describe attitudes (ABC model) and how they influence us?
Attitudes can be described as learned tendencies with three components: affective, behavioural, and cognitive components (ABC model). Affective component refers to how we feel emotions, which shapes our attitude Behavioural component refers to how we behave towards a subject, influencing our attitude Cognitive component refers to thoughts and beliefs or knowledge we form about something which influences our components.
Read this paragraph about the Prototype WIllingness Model: http://wiki.scetool.nl/index.php?title=Prototype_Willingness_Model What does it mean to say that the Prototype WIllingness Model is a Dual-processing Model? Can you relate this to a child who decides to smoke for the first time?
Basically, this theory says that there are two paths of influence on this child's behavior. The first path is rational and analytical (i.e. "It is okay to smoke because I've never been taught the consequences") . The second path is the social reaction path, which involves prototypes ("I know people who smoke and they are cool") and willingness to engage in the risky behavior ("I'm a daredevil, risk-taker kind of person").
Later psychoanalytical theories have given more emphasis to interpersonal, sociological and cultural influences. Carl Jung preferred to think of libido as psychic energy in general. How did Jung define the ego and elements of the theory?
Carl Jung identified the ego as the conscious mind. He divided the unconscious mind into the *personal unconscious* (=Fruedian unsconscious) and the *collective unconscious*, which is a powerful system shared among all humans, considered to be a residue of experiences of early ancestors.
Differentiate between drive-reduction theory and the theory that motivation is based on needs.
Drive-reduction theory explains that motivation is based on the goal to eliminate uncomfortable stress. Need based theories state that motivation is explained by how we allocate energy and resources to satisfy our needs.
Describe the drive-reduction theory of motivation
Drives are internal states of tension that induce particular activity. The drive-reduction theory states drives help humans survive by creating an uncomfortable state ensuring motivation to eliminate this state or relieve internal tension. Primary drives (need for food, water, warmth) motivate us to sustain bodily temp in homeostasis. Homeostasis is controlled by negative feedback.
Motivation can be described as the purpose/driving force behind action. Can be categorized based on what drives people to act. Differentiate between extrinsic and intrinsic motivation.
Extrinsic motivation - external forces driving motivation - e.g rewards and punishments Intrinsic motivation - internal motivation from within oneself - e.g. interest by a task, or pure enjoyment (me at the gym)
Becky is one of those people who is never upset. She is always calm and collected. After hanging out with friends, she tends to get worn out. Sometimes she believes that some of her friends are out to get her even though they are not. Hans Eysenck believed that Extraversion, Neuroticism, and Psychoticism were the three major traits of one's personality. How do these three traits apply to Becky?
Extroversion is the degree to which someone is outgoing. Becky would be seen to have little of this trait. Neuroticism is one's emotional stability, which is sounds like Becky has a lot of. Psychoticism is the degree to which reality is distorted in someone's view. In this case, Becky's view of reality is distorted so she would score high in psychoticism.
True or False. Attitudes are something innate and unchangeable as they are closely intertwined with one's personality.
False. Attitudes are defined as "learned tendencies."
True or False? Maslow believed that most people will eventually reach self-actualization.
False. Maslow believed only about 1% of people will reach self-actualization. Maslow also stated that people who self-actualize are more likely to have *peak experiences*: profound and deeply moving experiences that have important and lasting effects
True or False. The removal of a negative factor can replace a reward in Incentive Theory, similar to negative reinforcement and positive reinforcement in operant conditioning achieving similar outcomes.
False. The removal of a negative factor (negative reinforcement) cannot replace a reward (positive reinforcement) in Incentive Theory
True or False. The sooner a reward is given after an accomplishment/action, the less likely it is to occur again. Behavior is best rewarded at random and inconsistently as in variable-ratio conditioning.
False. The sooner a reward is given after an accomplishment/action, the more likely it is to occur again.
True or False. When you are hungry, Leptin is found in high amounts in your blood as it is a hunger-stimulating hormone.
False. When you are full, Leptin is found in high amounts in your blood as it is an appetite-suppressing hormone.
Differentiate between Freud's and Jung's idea of libido
Freud believed libido was physic energy rooted in sexuality; Jung believed libido was psychic energy in general.
Libido is the natural energy source that fuels the mechanisms of the mind. When Libido becomes fixed at a certain stage of development, what does Freud propose occurs at this point?
Freud would propose that you would end up stuck in that stage of development. So if your libido was stuck at an oral stage of development, you would have oral traits and personalities such as being very talkative, maybe smoking, etc.
Differentiate between Freud, Jung and Alder in terms of their psychoanalytical theories of personality.
Freud's major assumption was that behaviour is motivated by inborn instincts; Jung's principal is that a person's conduct is governed by inborn archetypes; Alder's theory assumes people are primarily motivated by striving for superiority.
Levi has a long Dopamine-4-receptor gene. He also hates sky diving, gambling, and even stays home on Halloween to avoid the thrill. He is very calm and not interested in such activities. Do Levi's actions confirm or disconfirm the Biologic Theory?
Having a longer Dopamine-4-receptor gene is associated with being a thrill-seeker, but just because you have a genetic disposition for something doesn't mean you will certainly act that way. For this reason, Levi's actions neither confirm nor disconfirm the Biologic Theory.
The Theory of Planned Behavior states that our behavior is determined by how we think about an action before we do it, specifically our implications and intentions. Our intentions are influenced by 3 things - attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavior control. Describe how your intention to study for the MCAT might be influenced by these three things.
If you have a negative attitude toward studying ("I hate studying"), others think your studying is a waste of time (subjective norms), and you feel like you can't control how much time you have for studying, you would be less likely to study.
What are intentions in the theory of planned behaviour based off and formed by?
Intentions are based off (1) our attitudes towards a certain behaviour, (2) our subjective norms (what others/society thinks of our behaviour), and (3) perceived behaviour control (how hard it is to control our behaviour).
Jacob walked on the carpet with muddy shoes on. His Mom told him that before he could eat any dinner, he would need to clean the carpet. How might this situation relate to the Drive-Reduction Theory of Motivation?
Jacob's need for food is driving him to clean the carpet. Once he finishes cleaning the carpet and eats his dinner, his need is fulfilled and his drive is reduced.
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs is the most well known motivation theory based on needs, and breaks down needs into categories on a pyramid. Describe his theory and hierarchy.
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs - classifies needs into five groups of different importance on a pyramid, with the bottom being the most important. His needs, in order of importance, were: - Physiological (breathing, food, water, air, sex, homeostasis) - Safety (security of: body, employment, health, property) - Love/Belonging (friendship, family, intimacy) - Esteem (self-esteem, confidence, respect) - Self-actualization (morality, creativity, spontaneity, problem-solving, accomplishment)
William Masters and Virginia Johnson noticed certain factors increase sexual arousal - what did they find?
Masters and Johnson noted that physiologically, sexual arousal and motivation was linked to secretion of estrogens, progesterone and androgens, with a strong correlation between hormone conc and sexual desire. Another biological factor was smell - certain odors were shown to increase sexual desire and activity Cultural factors played a role in influencing pleasure and the interpretation of pleasure, as does cognition (sexual videos study). Culture and society also influenced what was deemed appropriate.
There are three characteristics that influence how we are persuaded for or against something that are part of the elaboration likelihood model - what are they?
Message characteristics - features of the message itself (was the argument logical? did it have key points? was there good grammar? too long/short? addressed the issue?) Source characteristics - (did the speaker seem knowledgeable or trustworthy? where was the messaged collected from? physical environment?) Target characteristics - characteristics of the listener/that you bring - (good/bad mood? high/low self-esteem? level of alertness? intelligence of listener? hungry or satiated?)
Compare and contrast the Psychoanalytic Theory and the Humanistic Theory?
Psychoanalytic Theory thinks of us as being controlled by our unconscious. Sees us as animals that have intense desires. Humanistic Theory, however, views us as being in control and focuses on our conscious thoughts and actions. Sees us as inherently good and wanting to improve.
Jacob says he has reached self-actualization after winning an Olympic Gold medal in the high jump. He used steroids to achieve this feat and was really only doing it for the fame and fortune. Would Maslow agree with Jacob?
Self actualization revolves around reaching one's maximum potential. If he was really doing it for the fame and fortune only, and not self-improvement, think about it. Self-actualizers are those who reach their full potential and these individuals are true to their own moral principles. Jacob is not focused on reaching his full potential or on obeying his own moral principles. He is most likely trying to meet needs of self-esteem, and is not actually self-actualizing.
True or false: The biological and trait perspectives are closely linked. In twin studies with identical twins raised separately, one of the supporting findings for these theories was that traits such as social potency and traditionalism were common in both twins.
TRUE: The biological and trait perspectives are closely linked. In twin studies with identical twins raised separately, one of the supporting findings for these theories was that traits such as social potency and traditionalism were common in both twins. social potency = degree to which a person assumes leadership in mastery roles in social situations traditionalism = tendency to follow authority
True or false: the *object relations theory* is a psychoanalytical personality theory that refers to objects as representations of parents/caregivers based on subjective experiences during early infancy - these objects persist into adulthood and influence interactions and social bonds.
TRUE: the *object relations theory* is a psychoanalytical personality theory that refers to objects as representations of parents/caregivers based on subjective experiences during early infancy - these objects persist into adulthood and influence interactions and social bonds.
True or false: the PEN model by Eysenck was expanded to the *Big Five*, which describes majority of people using the dimensions of five traits: openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness and neuroticism
TRUE: the PEN model by Eysenck was expanded to the *Big Five*, which describes majority of people using the dimensions of five traits: openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness and neuroticism acronym - OCEAN
What makes the Biologic Theory unique as compared to the Humanistic and Psychoanalytic Theories?
The Biologic Theory posits that our behavior and personality are inherited whereas the Humanistic and Psychoanalytical Theory propose that they develop from our experiences. Certain traits and genes are coupled with certain behaviours, however not necessarily defining.
Describe Frued's element of the Id
The Id is the most unconscious part of our mind that develops at birth. It operates under a *pleasure principle* which demands instant gratification. The *primary process* is the id's response to frustration, which is to seek satisfaction immediately.
You are really craving ice cream. Describe how the Id, Ego, and Superego might interact within your mind as you face this temptation.
The Id wants immediate gratification and would drive you to just eat the ice cream NOW. The Superego is moral oversight and represents the values of society, which would tell you to never eat ice cream because it is not good for your body. The Ego acts as a mediator would balance out the two, resulting in a compromise where you eat some ice cream after patiently waiting for it.
There are a few theories that attempt to explain how attitudes influence behaviour. Describe the Prototype-Willingness model (PWM)
The PWM says that behaviour is a function of six factors - past behaviour, attitudes towards behaviour, subjective norms, intentions, willingness to engage in a behaviour, and prototypes (models) This theory combines the planned behaviour and attitude-behaviour theories and adds onto it.
The *Rorschach inkblot test* and *thermatic apperception test* both are used to identify individual undesired feelings via projection as a defense mechanism. Describe the tests.
The Rorschach inkblot test - relies on assumption that the client projects his or her unconscious feelings onto the shape Thermatic Apperception test - series of pictures presented to client who is asked to make up a story for each - will elucidate client's own unconscious thoughts and feelings.
There are a few theories that attempt to explain how attitudes influence behaviour. Describe the attitude-behaviour process model
The attitude-behaviour process model says that an event triggers an attitude, which influences our perception of an object or stimulus. Additional outside knowledge towards the situation or object, combined with our attitude, leads to our behaviour.
Describe the behavioural theory of personality.
The behavioural theory states that personality is the result of the interaction between an individual and their environment.
Describe Jung's *collective unconscious* and what elements it has
The building blocks of the collective unconscious are images of common experiences, referred to as *archetypes* - examples of archetypes: The *persona* - a personality mask we wear in public that is adaptive to social interactions The *anima* (feminine) and *animus* (masculine) - referring to sex-inappropriate qualities - feminine qualities in males, masculine qualities in females The *shadow* - appearance of socially reprehensible and unpleasant thoughts, feelings, emotions in our consciousness.
Describe Frued's element of the ego
The ego and superego both have conscious and unconscious elements. The ego operates according to the *reality principle*, and takes reality into account to inhibit or guides the activity of the id - guidance referred to as *secondary process*. The aim of this principle is to postpone the pleasure principle until satisfaction is actually obtainable. The ego also moderates the superego
Describe Frued's element of the superego
The ego and superego both have conscious and unconscious elements. The superego also aims to achieve desires, but unlike the id (which desires basic needs), the superego has refined and focused desires on the ideal self - personality perfectionist that judges our actions and responds with pride or guilt. Two elements: the *conscience* - collection of punishable improper actions from childhood; the *ego-ideal* - proper actions rewarded from childhood. These eventually transform into a system of right or wrong.
How are the ego and superego related?
The ego mediates the desires of the superego, just as it does those of the id. The three are in conflict, and the ego's recourse for relieving anxiety caused by clash of the id and superego is via *defense mechanisms*
There are a few theories that attempt to explain how attitudes influence behaviour. Describe the elaboration-likelihood model for persuasion
The elaboration-likelihood model theory separates individuals based on their processing of persuasive info - is more cognitive and focuses on the 'why' and 'how' aspects. There are two ways this model is processed: 1) At one extreme, those who elaborate extensively and think deeply - *central processing route* - the degree of attitude change depends on the quality of arguments by the persuader 2) Other extreme - those who do not elaborate much - *peripheral processing route* - looks at superficial and nonverbal persuasion cues (attractiveness, status, expertise)
Describe the evolutionary approach of motivation
The evolutionary approach is based on the instinct theory - people are driven to do certain behaviours based on evolutionary programmed instincts. Described motivation in reference to Darwinian evolution. William James was the first to write about instincts.
Alfred Alder also formed a psychoanalytical theory - he was the originator of the *inferiority complex*. How did his theory describe personality?
The inferiority complex refers to individual's sense of incompleteness, imperfection and inferiority (physically & socially). Alder's theory stated striving for superiority enhances and drives personality.
There are a few theories that attempt to explain how attitudes influence behaviour. Describe the Learning theory
The learning theory of attitudes states that our attitudes are developed from different forms of learning - can be influenced by direct contact, direct instruction from others, subjective norms, and/or classical, operant conditioning or observational learning.
A smoker who has been smoking for 6 years is aware of how damaging it is to his body, yet he cannot seem to stop smoking. In fact, he claims he smokes more cigarettes today compared to two years ago, when he tried to start quitting due to harm realization. How does the opponent-processing theory explain these phenomenon?
The opponent-processing theory explains that when a drug is repeatedly taken, the body attempts to counteract effects by changing physiology. It counteracts alcohol abuse, for example, by increasing arousal. The problem arises because this reaction lasts longer than the drug - results in withdrawal symptoms which are exact opposing effects of the alcohol or drug. This can create a physical dependence. The same phenomenon runs for nicotine, in cigs - it explains why the smoker smokes more today as he has an increased tolerance.
What is the optimal arousal theory of motivation?
The optimal arousal theory states people perform actions in order to maintain an optimal level of arousal - seek to increase arousal when it falls below their optimal level. The image shows the Yerkes-Dodson law which postulates a U shaped function between arousal and performance - performance is worst at extremely high and low levels of arousal, and best when at optimal levels.
When it comes to behaviour influencing attitudes, what is role-playing phenomenon?
The role-playing phenomenon states that people alter their behaviour when in a new role to fit that role, which may eventually influence their attitudes and normalize that role. E.g. first time parents feel unusual at it initially but eventually develop new attitudes, "mature"; new professional behaviours in a new job, making you eventually having a new attitude
There are a few theories that attempt to explain how attitudes influence behaviour. Describe the social-cognitive theory
The social-cognitive theory of attitudes states people learn how to behave and shape attitudes by observing behaviours of others. According to this - behaviour is not learned by trial and error, but develops via direct observation and replication of actions. 3 factors of behaviour, personal factors and environment are not independent, but rather influence each other.
There are a few theories that attempt to explain how attitudes influence behaviour. Describe the theory of planned behaviour
The theory of planned behaviour states we consider our implications of our actions before we decide how to behave. The best predictor of our behaviour are our intentions in a given situation.
What is the essence of the biological perspective of personality theories?
There is variation amongst biological theorists but in essence, the biological perspective holds that personality can be explained by the result of genetic expression in the brain and behaviour. The biological theory suggests that important components of personality are [[inherited]]
What is the expectancy-value theory of motivation?
This theory states that the amount of motivation needed to reach a goal is proportional to both the individuals expectations of success + degree to which they value succeeding at that goal
How do trait theories define personality?
Trait theories of personality use clusters of behavioural patterns to describe individuals - the combination and interaction of various traits defines a personality unique to each individual. No two people by these theories have the same personality.
Frued's psychoanalytical theory has heavy basis on unconscious desires and libido - describe these two.
Unconscious desires influence our behaviours, along with childhood experiences. Our personalities have memories, beliefs, urges and drives we aren't aware of, that make up this unconscious. Libido refers to natural energy source that fuels the mechanisms of the mind - it is fixated at certain psychosexual stages of development.
What is *wish fulfillment* and how is it part of the Id?
Wish fulfillment refers to mental imagery like fantasy or daydreaming - it serves as a ways to fulfill satisfaction, which is the function of the Id.