Psyh 012 Inquisitive chp 13

Which of the following strategies are methods for addressing criticisms about external validity in small-N studies?

Method(s) combine the results of single-N studies with those of other studies specify a limited population to generalize to Not Method(s) set up a comparison group present the data in a graph check the operationalization of the variables

Match each design to the correct example

Teachers introduce four different third-grade classrooms to longer recess periods starting at different time points, to find out whether longer recess will help decrease classroom misbehavior. multiple-baseline design Therapists introduce a patient with antisocial personality disorder to an intervention involving the reinforcement of positive behavior; then, the therapists remove it several weeks later to see how it affects the patient's behavior. reversal design A therapist studies a patient with obsessive-compulsive disorder for several weeks before initiating treatment. stable-baseline design

Identify the true and false statements about small-N designs.

True Statement(s) Compared to large-N designs, small-N designs have poor external validity. Comparing studies with small-N designs conducted with humans with those conducted with animals can increase external validity. False Statement(s) Because there are so few subjects, it is impossible to control most parts of a small-N design. Researchers always intend for the findings of small-N designs to generalize to a broad population.

Identify the true and false statements about reversal designs.

True Statement(s) Reversal designs require careful consideration of research ethics. Reversal designs generally do not work for educational interventions. False Statement(s) Reversal designs are a type of quasi-experiment. Reversal designs work best for situations in which the treatment causes lasting change.

While small-N studies are highly impactful, there are also disadvantages of such designs. One advantage to the extensive research conducted on Henry Molaison, an individual who had several areas of his brain removed to treat seizures, is that it revealed the impact of the hippocampus on memory. Identify the true and false statements about the disadvantages to the small-N study of Henry Molaison.

True Statements(s) The surgeon removed other areas of the brain in addition to the hippocampus, so there was a problem with internal validity. Patients who undergo such invasive surgeries are different from the general population, so there was a problem with external validity. False Statement(s) Traditional statistics cannot be used to analyze small-N studies, so there was a problem with statistical validity. Variables cannot be manipulated accurately in small-N studies, so there was a problem with construct validity.

In quasi-experiments, researchers lack full experimental control. Therefore, which type of validity must they assess to make sure they can draw firm conclusions from their results?

internal

Researchers are conducting a repeated-measures quasi-experiment that involves a single questionnaire that participants must complete weekly.Which type of threat to internal validity should concern the researchers if they notice the participants are taking less and less time to complete the questionnaire each week?

testing threat

Select the figures that depict a nonequivalent control group interrupted time-series design.

(graph that looks like a seismo graph and the green and orange graph)

What is the main difference between quasi-experiments and correlational studies?

quasi-experiments have more intentional samples, such as targeted groups with particular qualities

Match each threat to internal validity to the appropriate description.

Groups vary systematically on traits other than the levels of the independent variable. selection effects Participants leave a study in a systematic way. attrition threat Participants change their responses based on past assessment. testing threats The thought of treatment, rather than the treatment itself, causes participants to report changes. placebo effects An external event, rather than the independent variable, changes scores of the dependent variable. history threat Participants show spontaneous change. maturation threat

Identify the type of variable depicted in the bold words in each scenario. Labels can be used more than once.

Researchers look at the difference between introverts and extroverts in displaying aggressive behavior after experiencing ostracism. participant variable Researchers examine the difference in behavioral problems between children whose parents were told to give positive reinforcements only and children whose parents were told to give punishments only. independent variable Researchers examine the difference in protective face mask-wearing behavior between states that have made mask-wearing mandatory and states that have not during the COVID-19 pandemic. quasi-independent variable Researchers study the difference in binge-drinking episodes between cities with football teams that win and cities with football teams that do not win each weekend. quasi-independent variable Researchers examine cultural differences in the expression of emotion between North Americans and the Japanese. participant variable Researchers have some college students go through a mindfulness exercise while other college students watch a nature documentary. independent variable

Sharelle wants to examine whether wearing makeup increases confidence in people with low self-esteem. She recruits five participants from a self-esteem therapy group and assesses their level of self-esteem using a questionnaire. The next day, she has them put on makeup in the morning and rate their level of self-esteem at the end of the day. The day after, she asks the participants to go about their day without makeup and rate their level of self-esteem again at the end of the day. On the final day, she has the participants put on makeup in the morning again and rate their level of self-esteem once more. Identify the true and false statements about Sharelle's study.

True Statement(s) Sharelle's study is a small-N design. Sharelle's study is a repeated-measures design. False Statement(s) Sharelle's study is a stable-baseline design. Sharelle's study is a quasi-experiment.

Cristián is a teacher in a program for children with autism. He is working with one boy and wants to see whether using a good-behavior sticker system will be effective for reducing his particular problem behavior. He begins by noting the boy's problem behavior for a week before beginning the sticker system. Then he tries using the sticker system for 2 weeks and notices a drop in the boy's problem behavior. For the next 2 weeks after that, he discontinues the sticker system and notes an increase in the boy's problem behavior. What kind of design is Cristián using to test this intervention?

reversal

Rakshmi wants to conduct a study on the effect of having a personal trainer on self-esteem and mood. She collects a list of members at her gym who would like to begin working with a personal trainer and assesses their self-esteem and mood. She then assigns half of them to begin working with a trainer right away, and half of them to wait several months before being assigned a trainer. This is an example of a(n) ___ design. An advantage of Rakshmi's design over one that compares people who were already using personal trainers and people who were not using trainers is that Rakshmi's design allows her to prevent a(n) ___.

wait-list, selection effect

Which of the following strategies are ways in which researchers attempt to achieve internal validity in a quasi-experimental study?

Correct Answer(s) implementing a wait-list policy creating matched groups Incorrect Answer(s) randomly sampling participants randomly assigning participants to conditions

In a quasi-experiment by Minke (2011), the effectiveness of a Danish halfway house (a place for people with criminal backgrounds to learn skills for reintegrating into society) that mixes offenders with nonoffenders was compared with that of the control condition of halfway houses housing only offenders. The measurement of effectiveness was based on rate of recidivism (relapse in criminal behavior) in former inmates. Identify the threat to internal validity in each scenario that might have occurred in this study.

Inmates were allowed to choose their own halfway house. selection effects Inmates in the mixed halfway house showed lower rates of recidivism only because they understood the purpose of the study. demand characteristics In their measurement of recidivism, researchers did not include inmates who were sent directly to prison from their halfway house for violations. attrition threat Inmates in the mixed halfway house were provided with job training opportunities, while inmates in the only-offenders halfway house were not. selection-history threat

Identify the following examples as either small-N or large-N designs.

Small-N Design(s) Researchers give patients with dissociative identity disorder different treatments; then they take the treatments away to see how effective they were. Researchers administer 50 trials of a memory task to a patient with anterograde amnesia. Large-N Design(s) Forty participants complete 25 trials of a "go/no-go" task designed to measure decision making. Researchers compare the average performance of 15 early-decision college students to the average performance of 15 typical students.

A school district is comparing two reading programs for high school students who are reading below grade level. Two schools with very similar student bodies are used to test the programs, with a different program being used at each school. Identify the threat to internal validity described in each scenario that might occur in this study.

The pretest reading scores are much higher at High School A than High School B. The posttest shows that High School A's reading scores decreased significantly. regression to the mean The reading program at High School A is known to be much more rigorous than the one at High School B. The posttest shows more improvement at High School A, but more students also dropped out of that program. attrition threat High School B hosted a Math Olympiad competition, and students there spent a lot of time studying for math. In the posttest, High School A has greater improvement in reading. selection-history threat The school district employee who assessed the pretest was sick, so a new, less-experienced employee went to assess the posttest reading performance. Both groups show improvement in the posttest. instrumentation threat

Identify the true and false statements about quasi-experiments.

True Statement(s) Many quasi-experiments would be unethical if treated as true experiments. Quasi-experiments allow scientists to study real-world phenomena in real time. False Statement(s) Correlational studies and quasi-experiments are identical designs. Researchers conducting quasi-experiments are not trying to make causal claims.

Identify whether each example is either a quasi-experiment or a true experiment.

Quasi-Experiment Researchers track sick days taken at a company after each occasion that the company assigns mandatory overtime. Researchers examine bad classroom behavior following recess at a school that has one recess period versus another school that has two. Researchers look for differences in texting behavior between baby boomers and members of Generation Z. True Experiment Researchers randomly assign two separate groups to complete two different mindfulness strategies to see which strategy results in less stress. Researchers randomly assign volunteers for a video game study to play either a violent game or a nonviolent game for 6 months.

What is the main difference between quasi-experiments and correlational studies?

Quasi-experiments have more iintentional samples, such as targeted groups with partcular qualities

Which of the following statements are reasons we can rule out alternative explanations for the results in a stable-baseline design?

Reason(s) The study involved multiple measurements of behavior before the introduction of the intervention. The results were replicated in other participants. Not Reason(s) The introduction of the intervention was staggered across different groups. The baseline was a single, extreme low point which improved after the intervention was introduced.

Match each threat to internal validity to the potential solution.

Researchers can use a different test for the pretest and posttest to make sure that participants' change in performance is not due to practice or fatigue. testing threat Researchers can use a double-blind study design. demand characteristics Researchers can use the same questionnaire multiple times to ensure that the standard is the same across measurements. instrumentation threat Researchers can make sure to avoid selecting participants who produce extreme scores. regression to the mean Researchers can make sure that participants in the control and treatment groups are matched on an important factor. selection threat

Label each graph with the correct type of design

stable-baseline design = one graph/ green line multiple-baseline design= green and orange lines reversal design = long graph with the green and blue lines

Match each design to the appropriate description.

a quasi-experiment with two groups that are measured repeatedly before, during, and after some event nonequivalent control group interrupted time-series design a quasi-experiment with one treatment and one control group that measures the dependent variable only once nonequivalent control group posttest-only design a quasi-experiment with a treatment and a control group that measures the dependent variable before and after the treatment nonequivalent control group pretest/posttest design a quasi-experiment with a single group of participants that is measured repeatedly before, during, and after some event interrupted time-series design

A(n) ___ design monitors a small number of participants for a long period of time before a treatment begins in order to learn what behaviors are typical without treatment. A(n) ____ design staggers the start time of an intervention across different individuals. Finally, a(n) ___ design introduces a treatment and then removes it to see whether the previous behavior will return.

stable-baseline, multiple-baseline, reversal

Identify the true and false statements about small-N designs.

True Statement(s) Researchers collect a lot of information on relatively few cases. They are almost always repeated-measures designs. False Statement(s) Researchers analyze the results with traditional statistics, such as the correlation coefficient r. Researchers present the data as group averages.

In ___, researchers study one participant extensively in order to extract as many data as possible. ___ are similar in that they treat each individual as a separate experiment, but instead of one participant, they use a few. Finally, __ recruit many participants and are concerned with the data of the sample as a whole.

single-N design , small-N designs, large-N designs

Asher is recording children's playground behavior to investigate the differences between third, fourth, fifth, and sixth graders. For each session, he sits on the swings with a notebook and counts the sizes of groups and types of activities for each grade. Asher notices that several children in each grade come over to the swings, but then walk away once they notice him sitting there. Because they walk away, they are not counted in the study. Asher finds that the younger grades tend to do more group activities, while the older grades tend to engage in more individual activities. What problem is affecting Asher's quasi-experiment?

demand charaxteristics

While a(n) ___ includes a manipulated independent variable in order to see the change in a dependent variable, a(n) ___ includes an independent variable that cannot truly be manipulated by the experimenter. Because participants cannot be randomly assigned to levels of the independent variable, this type of research has ____.

experiment, quasi-experiment, nonequivalent control groups

Work through the interactive, which charts the percentage of positive-emotion words used on Twitter over the course of 24 hours, each day of the week. Then answer the question that follows. What research design is depicted in this interactive?

nonequivalent control group interrupted time-series design

Kanchi is interested in studying how water aerobics improves attitudes toward exercise over time. She recruits a group of participants who have signed up for a water aerobics course and measures their attitudes about exercise. She randomly assigns half of the participants to begin a weekly water aerobics class immediately and assigns the other half of participants to start taking the weekly aerobics class the following month. After all the participants have taken two months of aerobics, Kanchi measures their attitudes about exercise again. What design strategy is Kanchi using?

wait-list design

A psychologist is working with the parents of four siblings who exhibit violent behaviors toward one another. The psychologist instructs the parents to record the number of violent behaviors each child exhibits in the predinner hour for 1 week. The parents then begin using a positive reinforcement technique to shape the behavior of the youngest child. They continue to record the violent behaviors of all the children, and they use the positive reinforcement technique on one additional child each week. By the end of 6 weeks, there is a significant decrease in violent behaviors in each of the children. What type of design is this?

,multiple-baseline

A drought in California created the opportunity for a study on the effectiveness of fines in promoting water conservation (Agras et al., 1980). Researchers studied three comparable California cities—two that imposed fines at different times and a third that did not impose fines at all. Researchers used the water consumption data from the 3 years before the onset of the fines as a baseline and then gathered subsequent consumption data through the end of the drought. They assessed the effectiveness of fines by examining water consumption the month following the end of the drought. In regard to the monitoring of water consumption, this study was a(n) ___ design. In the study, researchers capitalized on real-life circumstances to study water conservation, which demonstrates the prioritization of ___ validity.

multiple-baseline, external

A company that owns several hospitals in rural areas of the South goes bankrupt and closes all its hospitals. Researchers become aware of this situation and use public health records to document the average age at death of residents in communities where the hospitals closed, and in other communities that were matched on several variables but did not lose their hospitals. The researchers collect death records in the two communities for several years before and after the closure of these hospitals to investigate the effect the closures had on life expectancy. What type of design are the researchers using?

nonequilvalent control group interrupted time-series design

Grimstvedt and colleagues (2010) examined the effect of placing signs encouraging the use of stairs near elevators. Based on their design, Liu Wei designs a study for his campus. He selects four buildings and starts by measuring elevator and stair use in those buildings for a month. He then posts signs encouraging the use of stairs near the elevators and measures elevator and stair use in the buildings for another month. Identify the true and false statements about Liu Wei's study.

True Statement(s) Liu Wei is utilizing a stable-baseline design. Liu Wei's study involves a within-groups design. False Statement(s) Liu Wei's study is a quasi-experiment. Liu Wei's study design has high external validity.

A group of researchers is measuring foot traffic in a museum. Recently, one half of the museum was redone in order to encourage more foot traffic. Researchers are counting the number of attendees in this new zone versus other zones that have not been redone. On the first day that researchers are recording foot traffic, several buses of schoolchildren arrive at the museum unexpectedly for a field trip. After a day of testing, the new zone appears to be getting just as much foot traffic as the other zones. What problem is most likely affecting this quasi-experiment?

history threat

Because of the nature of the designs, quasi-experiments often have limitations on ___, while small-N designs often have limitations on ____.

internal validity, external validity

Many people question the validity of small-N designs. However, if small-N studies are carefully designed and rigorously conducted, they are often very strong in ___ validity. The ___ validity of small-N studies can also be strengthened by combining the results with other studies on animals or other groups.

internal, external

After a new city law goes into effect, a restaurant chain begins displaying the nutrition information for its menu items. The restaurant owner records the sales of the 15 highest-calorie menu items on three occasions: once a month before the change in menu display, once the week of the change, and once a month after the change. The owner observes that the sale of the high-calorie menu items dropped, while overall sales remained steady. This study uses a(n) ___ design. The quasi-independent variable is ___ and the dependent variable is ___.

interrupted time-series, menu labeling, sales of high-calorie menu items

Gathercole and Baddeley (1990) examined phonologic memory skills in older children with disordered language development, using a control group comprised of typically developing younger children who were matched on verbal abilities.If they had done a follow-up study with the same participants a year later, which type of threat to internal validity would the difference in the participants' ages most likely have caused?

maturation

Two universities are involved in a study of how student retention and attitudes toward campus life are affected by a new pre-first-year summer visit program at one of the schools. The schools, both state universities in the same state, were closely matched in student-body characteristics to avoid the threat of ___. However, in the fall of the first year of the program, the school that was serving as the control was struck by a rare fall tornado, which did damage to several campus buildings. This event could lead to a(n) ___ threat.

selection effects, selection-history

Nearly all small-N experiments are what type of design?

within-subjects