PSYS 130 - Final Exam

Social Responsibility Norm

-Expectation that people will help those needing help

Callow vs Johnson Election

-A lawyer named Charles Johnson filed for Callow's chief justice seat -Neither person campaigned -Charles Johnson won the election because he had a more popular name

Similarity

-A match between our interests, attitudes, values, background, or personality and those of another person -More than just propinquity is needed to fuel relationships -Similarity and not complementarity draws people together

Cultural Differences in Prosocial Behavior

-All cultures generally more likely to help in-group members -Empathy for in-group members; social exchange theory for out-group members (i.e. donating to charity makes us feel good about ourselves) -Some cultures make stronger distinction -Cultural value placed on being helpful ("simpatia" in Spanish culture) -If a culture strongly values friendliness/prosocial behavior ---> may be more likely to help strangers

What Factors Increase the Likelihood of Helping?

-Altruistic or social exchange motivations -Empathy -Mood -Relationship to individual -Social norms -Identification with recipient -Attributions for situation -Seeing others behave prosocially

Trash Vortexes

-An area the size of Texas in the North Pacific that swirls slowly around like a clock -Filled with plastics, debris, and dead marine life -Atlantic and Indian Oceans also have trash vortexes

Norm of Fairness (Equity Norm)

-Expectation that you'll receive what you contribute

Impediments to Helping: Pluralistic Ignorance

-Assuming event isn't an emergency b/c no one else is helping/ appears concerned

Signaling Theory

-Behaving generously implies other favorable characteristics -Shows that you have other positive, appealing traits

"Victim" Characteristics: Gender

-Both genders more likely to help females -Females more likely to seek and receive help -When heterosexual men asked to donate, they're more likely to do so when there's a woman watching

"Three Cheers for Pat Milligan"

-Candidate hired company to do his campaign: flooded city with billboards and ads saying "three cheers for Pat Milligan" -Milligan didn't make any speeches or take any sides, yet still won -Familiarity breeds liking

Wasting Gallons Example

-Compared 2 communities during a severe drought -Houses in one community were equipped wot water meters that allowed residents to monitor how much water they were consuming -When people felt that the water shortage was severe, those in metered houses consumed less water than those in unmetered houses

Inducing Competition

-Competition can facilitate conservation -Feedback on energy conservation behaviors in comparison to others yields the most change in behavior

Averaged Faces Study

-Composites of many faces are viewed as more attractive than single or two composite images -WHY? Because more faces means more prototypical, seems more familiar and more symmetrical

Shape and Attractive Face Study

-Computer program presented series of opposite-sex faces to participants -Immediately after each pic, a geometric shape appeared that required participants to respond quickly by using a keyboard -Allowed researchers to measure which faces elicited most visual attention ---> tendency to linger longer at attractive faces -Some participants previously told to imagine that their crush liked them -This attention disrupted their default to attractive faces -i.e. reciprocal liking trumps attractiveness that would otherwise distract us

Seizure Study

-Confederate stages seizure w/ 3 conditions 1) One participant (90% helped) 2) Participant and another confederate (60% helped) 3) Participant and 4 confederates (30% helped) -Variation w/ type of people (male, female, EMT, etc) as participant didn't effect % in getting help -Confirms diffusion of responsibility

Bobby Green Example

-During LA Riots, there was a black motorist who was pulled over by white police ---> excessive force used -Went to trial and police were requited even w/ evidence -Other acts of racism came to life during trial ---> people upset, day long riots occurred -White truck driver was pulled out of truck and beaten severely -Bobby Green (black) saw this on TV and raced down the street to help trucker ---> despite not even knowing him and risking his own life

Asset Matching

-Each person brings assets into the relationship for an equitable match

Social Comparison: Energy Saving Example

-Employees in factory urged to engage in energy-saving behaviors by placing announcements throughout. -Employees also got weekly feedback on their behavior -Another unit received social comparison info: they also got to see how the other unit was doing -This motivated the employees to do better than their colleagues, thus improving their own behavior even more

Give Carol Notes Example

-Evaluation of some recordings for campus radio station -Each person got same story about Carol in your class, who got in car accident and is now behind in work -ONE GROUP: when listening, told to just make objective evaluation -SECOND GROUP: told to imagine how Carol feels (Empathy Group) -Teacher left a note asking to help Carol by giving her your entire notebook anonymously -ONE GROUP: Carol will be in class ("guilty") -OTHER GROUP: Carol finishing semester at home -LOW + HIGH EMPATHY, SEE her in class = 80% help -LOW EMPATHY, NO CLASS = 35% help (suggests social exchange theory) -HIGH EMPATHY, NO CLASS = 80% help too

Reciprocity Norm

-Expectation that helping others will increase the likelihood that they will help us in the future

Dying Friend Study Example

-Group told sad story about their friend dying of cancer and asked to think of how sad you'll feel while they died (Self-Focus) -Another group told sad story where they're the friend dying and asked to think how sad it is not knowing when you'll die -Researchers found that the 2 sets of participants agreed to help -25% of self-focus; 83% of other-focus -When you self-focus, it takes you out of prosocial group i.e. less likely to help others

Negative State Relief Hypothesis ("Feel Bad - Do Good Hypothesis)

-Guilt or negative mood is more likely to increase helping

"What Is Beautiful Is Good" Stereotype

-Halo Effect: Bias in which we assume that a person with one positive trait also has other, even unrelated positive traits -Disney movies: villains are unattractive -Physically attractive people seen as more sociable, popular, sexual, happy, assertive, friendly, and well-adjusted -Some truth to this (self-fulfilling prophecy)

Social Exchange Theory

-Helping is motivated by a desire to maximize rewards and minimize costs in relationships -No such thing as true altruism

Evolutionary Explanations for Prosocial Behavior: Kin Selection

-Idea that behaviors that help a genetic relative are favored by natural selection

"Victim" Characteristics: Group Identification

-In-group bias -We know what to expect of someone who's similar to us

"Victim" Characteristics: Attributions Made for Situation

-Less sympathy/help offered when victim perceived as "causing" or having some choice in event

Similarity in Romantic Relationships

-Married couples tend to have similar values and beliefs -Romantic partners values and beliefs become more similar over time -Satisfaction linked to similarity of personality variables

Physical Attraction and Evolutionary Theory: Reported Preferences vs Actual Behaviors

-Men more likely than women to say that physical attractiveness is most important to them -Women ranked responsibility, humor, and a good job as most important -BUT, when it comes to actual behavior, both sexes respond similarly to physical attractiveness (i.e. ranked it the highest)

Buy Green Products Example

-Mere exposure to green products can have a positive societal effect by inducing prosocial behaviors -BUT purchasing green products is likely to lead to licensing effects

Monkey Cucumber and Grapes Study

-Monkeys refused to participate in study when they saw another monkey receiving more valuable prize (grape rather than cucumber) for the same task (give rock) -Effect was even amplified if they witnessed other monkey receive prize w/ no effort at all -BUT monkeys were okay if given one token for cucumber, two for grapes (i.e. give one rock = one cucumber slice) b/c this justified getting a more valuable prize for more effort

Physical Attraction and Economic Power

-More economic power means more importance is placed on physical attractiveness

Egoism

-Motive is to increase one's own welfare -Helping behavior provides tangible or intangible benefits to the helper

Complementarity in Relationships

-No supporting research for committed relationships -Opposites may be attractive for low commitment relationships (i.e. flings or one night stands)

Effect of Observing on Helping

-Observing others behaving prosocially causes us to help -Observers more likely to make charitable donations and help another in distress after witnessing another helping

College Water Use Study

-One condition: asked participants to respond to questionnaire about their water use, designed to make them mindful on how they waste water -Second conditionL participants were asked to make a public commitment asking people to take steps to conserve water (had to sign name on a public poster) -Participants in second group were made to feel like hypocrites, and took briefer showers

Indirect Reciprocity

-One individual acts as a donor, the other as a recipient -Benefactor and beneficiary will never meet

Dictator Game Study Example

-Participants asked how much $ out of $10 they wanted to share with partner -Felt obligated, so most gave $2-3 -Manipulation Group: told their partner had gotten same $10 and told that they shared a certain amount -Person would give what the partner gave to them

Mean vs Nice Experimenter Study

-Participants came in for a study and had a woman experimenter with glasses and short hair who was really nice -Participants then shown two pics: one with a woman with glasses & short hair, the other with no glasses & long hair -Participants liked the short hair woman better -If the glasses & short hair lady was mean, they liked the other woman better -Shows we're more likely to continue with a relationship that we perceive as having more rewards than costs (social exchange theory)

Smoke-Filled Room Study

-Participants filled out questionnaire -Either alone or in 3 person group -Smoke started to enter room -When alone, person always spoke up about smoke -When in group (confederates didn't respond to smoke), participant continued filling out questionnaire -Confirms pluralistic ignorance

"Get Acquainted Date" Study

-Participants ranked physical attractiveness, similarity, and quality of convo between them and a partner -When asked about romantic attraction, rated physical attractiveness as most important -When asked about friendship, physical attraction wasn't the most important

Futball T-Shirt Study

-Participants were either fans of Manchester United or Liverpool -As they were walking, saw a jogger who pretended to fall -Sometimes jogger was wearing Manchester shirt, other times Liverpool (either your team or rival) -Both Manchester fans: 80% helped -Manchester fan, jogger Liverpool: 20% helped

Good Samaritan Study

-Participants were students trying to enter priesthood (i.e. likely to behave prosocially); told they would be doing a campus radio show -One variable: TOPIC of speech (good samaritan vs types of jobs available); Second variable: TIME pressure -Some told they have to rush over to the studio right now; other group had plenty of time -SITUATION: man on the path hunched over, groaning -NO RUSH: 63% helped -RUSH: 10% helped -Topic they were told didn't make a difference

File Folder and Payphone Study Example

-Payphone rigged so it would sometimes have left over change in it -Some participants had a dime = good mood -Then stranger needed help (dropped all papers on the ground) -Striking difference when person was in good mood -4% helped w/ no dime; 80% helped w/ dime

Matching Hypothesis

-People are most likely to form relationships with individuals of similar level of attractiveness

Confession Study Example

-People walking to confession (guilty) -People walking out of confession (less guilty) -Person soliciting for charity outside of church -Guilty people a lot more likely to donate money

Implementation Intentions

-People's specific plans about where, when, and how they will fulfill a goal -Study had two groups: one group was asked to visualize and write down when, where, and how they'd recycle their cups; second group wasn't asked. First group recycled 4 times as many cups as the second group

Impediments to Helping: Diffusion of Responsibility

-Phenomenon whereby each bystander's sense of responsibility to help decreases as number of witnesses increases

Lincoln Helping Pigs Example

-Pig lost its babies in a creek -Lincoln jumped in and saved baby pigs -Someone said this was true altruism -But Lincoln said: "no, no I did it because if I didn't, then I would've been upset all day. I am selfish" -i.e. only helped to benefit himself

Materialism

-Placing a high value on money and possessions -People who are materialistic are less happy than people who aren't as concerned with money and possessions -Four keys to happiness: having satisfying relationships, becoming engaged in something you love (flow), pursuing experiences more than things, and helping others

Factors Predicting Attraction: Functional Distance

-Refers to aspects of architectural design that determine which people you cross paths with most often

Communal Relationships

-Relationship's in which people's primary concern is being responsive to the other person's needs -Less governed by an equity norm and more by a desire to help each other as needed -Ex: Longer-term interactions between close friends, family members, and romantic partners

Exchange Relationships

-Relationships governed by the need for equity (i.e. for an equal ratio of rewards and costs) -Ex: relationships between new acquaintances

Woman in Class Study

-Research assistants came into a large lecture, sat in front row so they could be seen, and didn't interact with anyone -Exposure to class varied: there for either 5, 10, or 15 classes -Classmates were then given photographs of people and rated their appeal -Noticeable difference in ranking the more they attended class

Physical Attractiveness: College Dance Study

-Researchers randomly matched incoming freshmen for a blind date at an orientation dance -Couples spent a few hours together -They then evaluated their date and indicated strength of their desire to see that person again -Overriding determinant was physical attractiveness -Same results with both men and women

Altruism

-Selfless concern for the welfare of others -Intrinsic motivation to help, even at cost to self -Motive is to increase another welfare, without conscious regard to one's self interest -Ex: heroes of 9/11

Impact of Ostracism

-Similar to experience of physical pain -Can affect mood, self-esteem, aggression, friendship-seeking, and self-control behavior

Keeping Track of Consumption

-Simply keeping track of one's behavior is the first step to changing it -Ex: Students asked to keep track of the number of miles they avoided driving and to record that figure. Students who kept track of the miles they saved drove their cars less than did students who didn't keep track of the miles they saved

Religion and Prosocial Behavior

-Stereotype that religious people are more moral and feel more empathy towards others -Religious people more likely to help than other people are if they person in need shares their beliefs -When it comes to helping strangers, religious people are no more helpful than nonreligious

College Classroom Study

-Students randomly assigned permanent seats on first day of class -On the first day, students rated each member on likability and the extent to which they'd like to get to know each other -Indicated students who sat in neighboring seats had higher initial scores than those far apart -One year later: asked to rate each other again: found that those who had sat side by side were significantly more likely to still be friends

Licensing Effects

-Subconscious phenomenon whereby increased confidence in one's self-image tends to make that individual worry less about the consequences of subsequent immoral behavior -i.e. buying a green product and then wasting water

Littering Study Example

-Tested the hypothesis that a single piece of trash, sticking out like a sore thumb, would cause less people to litter rather than a totally clean environment -Three groups: people who saw one piece of litter on the floor (a watermelon rind), people who saw that no one littered, and people who saw several pieces of litter (watermelon as well as dozens of discarded handbills) -People who saw one piece of trash were least likely to litter -Highest % of littering occurred when the floor was littered (i.e. no descriptive norm against littering)

Factors Predicting Attraction: Propinquity Effect

-The Finding that the more we see and interact with people, the more likely they're to become our friends -A.K.A. proximity -Due to physical and functional distance

Similarity in Attraction: I-Sharing

-The belief that two or more people share the same subjective experience -Similarity of the subjective self

Factors Predicting Attraction: "Self-Expansion"

-The desire to enhance an individual's potential efficacy by creating close relationships -i.e. we're attracted to people so we can obtain resources, perspectives, and identities

Affective Forecasting

-The extent to which people can predict the intensity and duration of their emotional reactions to future events -People often strive for things that are unlikely to make them happier (earning a lot of $), and overlook things that'll make them happier (spending time with close friends)

Factors Predicting Attraction: Mere Exposure Effect

-The finding that the more exposure we have to a stimulus (people), the more apt we are to like it -A.K.A. familiarity -Has to be in the absence of negative qualities

Impediments to Helping: Bystander Effect

-The greater the number of bystanders who witness an emergency, the less likely any one of them is to help

Equity Theory

-The idea that people are happiest with relationships in which the rewards and costs experienced by both parties are roughly equal -BOTH under-benefited and over-benefited partners feel uneasy -Under-benefited partners feel under appreciated Over-benefited partners feel uneasy if they're getting more than they deserve

Impediments to Helping: Urban Overload Hypothesis

-Theory that people living in cities are constantly bombarded with stimulation that they keep to themselves to avoid being overwhelmed by it

Apartment Building Study

-Tracked friendship formation among couples in various apartment buildings within a complex -Asked residents to name their closest friends -Within complex: 65% said someone in the same building -Within building: 41% said next-door neighbors, 22% of which lived two doors apart -People living near stairs or mailboxes had more upstairs friends than those on 1st floor (functional distance)

Reward Theory of Attraction

-We like those whom we associate good experiences with

"The Marriage Shift"

-When dating, we seek someone who views us as overly positive (i.e. we want them to praise us even if we feel unworthy) -When married, we want a partner that verifies our self-concepts (i.e. our spouse sees us as we see ourselves)

The Hypocrisy Procedure

-When people are made aware that they're preaching behavior that they themselves aren't practicing -When participants are made to feel like hypocrites, they change their behavior so that they can feel good about themselves -Public Commitment can increase conservation behaviors

Reciprocal Liking

-When people tend to like better the people that like them -Can occur even between people with differing beliefs -The more we like someone, the more personal information we disclose

Payola Scandal

-When record companies bribe radio stations to play their clients song more often because the more people will hear it, the more they'll like it and buy the album

Empathy-Altruism Hypothesis

-When we feel empathy for a person, we'll attempt to help that person purely for altruistic reasons -There is such a thing as true altruism

Effect of Mood on Prosocial Behavior: "Feel Good- Do Good Hypothesis"

-You're more likely to help other people when you're already in a good mood

Women on Phone Study

-Young men told they're talking to an attractive or non-attractive woman (but either way it's the same woman) -"Attractive": men talked more, rated the woman more warmly -"Non-attractive": men were less engaging -Study done with reversed roles: SAME results

Challenges to Increasing Sustainable Behaviors

1) Adhering to one positive injunctive norm may lead to "licensing effects" (i.e. "green" products) 2) Injunctive norms may not exist for particular behaviors 3) People often overestimate the strength of perceived injunctive norms

Exceptions to Feel Bad - Do Good Hypothesis

1) Anger 2) Profound grief

Components of Sustainability

1) Environmental: ability to maintain rates of renewable resource harvest, pollution creation, and non-renewable resource depletion that can be continued indefinitely 2) Economic: ability to support a defined level of economic production indefinitely 3) Social: ability of a social system to function at a defined level of social wellbeing indefinitely

Injunctive and Descriptive Norms

1) Injunctive Norms: people's perceptions of what behaviors are approved or disapproved by others 2) Descriptive Norms: people's perceptions of how people actually behave

Gender Differences in Prosocial Behavior

1) MEN: chivalrous, heroic helping (ex. pulling over and helping stranded motorist) 2) WOMEN: long term, nutrient helping (ex. visiting elderly neighbor everyday) -BOTH genders more likely to help females than males -Females are also more likely to seek and receive help

Physical Attraction and Evolutionary Theory: Mate Selection

1) Males: Seek fertility; reproductive success is measured by the quantity of their offspring 2) Females: Seek protection and resources; reproductive success lies in successfully raising each offspring to maturity (i.e. more careful with mate selection)

Distinction Between "Me" and the "I"

1) Me: self concept; objective self 2) I: self as subject; passing states of consciousness -"I" is the subjective self, the in-the-moment experiencer -If you have an "I-sharing moment" with someone, different or not from you, you like them more than someone you didn't "I-share" with

Chapter 10: Why Are We Attracted to Others?

1) Need for affiliation: desire to be around others 2) Need to belong

Social Dilemma

A conflict in which the most beneficial action for an individual will, if chosen by most people, have harmful effects on everyone

Chapter 11: Prosocial Behavior

Any action intended to benefit others

Latane and Darley's Bystander Intervention Tree

Five Steps to Helping 1) Notice the event 2) Interpret event as an emergency 3) Assume responsibility 4) Know HOW to implement help 5) Decide to implement help (may be stopped b/c fear of failure, safety risk, etc)

Evolutionary theory

Mate selection: - primary goal for males: fertility - primary goal for females: protection, resources - preferences vs. actual behaviours play a role - economic power as well

What is the difference between what social psychologists and other types of social scientists (personality psychologists, sociologists, etc.) are most interested in?

Social psychology is the study of people in a group. Sociology is the study of groups of people. Social psychology is interested in how the group affects the individual and vice-versa. Sociology is interested in how the group behaves and how groups interact with each other and society.

Chapter SPA-1: Sustainability

The ability to meet the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs

Boomerang Effects

The unintended consequences of an attempt to persuade resulting in the adoption of the undesirable behavior instead -i.e. attempt to get people to stop littering actually increases the amount of litter in an area

Deception

ethical as long as it doesn't obscure/affect informed consent

Informed consent

learn the risks & benefits of a study, give them the right to leave @ any time

Debriefing

steps taken to ensure there's no lasting negative effects on the person from their participation in the study

What do social psychologists study?

the psychology of everyday life *how thoughts/feelings/behaviors are influenced by other *asking questions about the situation rather than the person