Public Opinion

Rousseau

(18th century French Enlightenment)- said we must place power in the hands of the public. he recognized the need to respect the community. the state is based on the general will (what citizens believe is the best course of action for the community, for the welfare of the populace). citizens must think about their interests and needs but also reason about the general good of society.

cognitive dissonance

-consistency between two cogintions creates an uncomfortable state. The magnitude depends on importance of cognitive elements. Something must be done to alleviate stress.

theories of social norms, social networks, and social influences

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Bentham and Mills (19th century utilitarians)

Bentham- use public opinion as a sanction. a force that will keep society at equilibrium. this will discourage non-normative behaviors. Mills- emphasized the importance of majority opinion

attitude consistency-

Converse supports) attitudes are not the same for different topics or arguments

sociological theories of public opinion- cause and consequence

Micro: individual -Macro: group Social forces (how) → (influence) → public opinion (how) → (results or leads to) → social consequences -Meso: in between (dyads and social networks) opinions are shaped by those around us interaction with others, situational factors/ group setting

Historical changes in philosophical and normative conceptions of public opinion: Plato and Aristotle

Plato- distrusted masses. he was unsure if citizens understood what their own interests were. He argued for educated philosopher kings. Said the general public should be excluded from the governing process. Aristotle- defended the wisdom of the citizen. believed in"power of community." he argued to have the superiority of collective deliberation. said institution should listen to the "climate of opinion" (take values, norms, and taste into account). wanted free expression.

Hobbes and Locke

Thomas Hobbes- said the public is crucial to the formation of the state. the structure of the state is created by a "contract" between the public and its leadership. there is little need for ongoing participation when a contract is in place. John Locke- argued for genuine and regular participation in civic and political life by citizens. said public opinion is a standard with which one judges government performance. gave a broader role to the public- to check leaders in power.

availability heuristics primacy effects-

a decision rule in which people make judgements based on the ease with which instances or occurrences can be brought to mind.

ELM

a dual processing model that focuses on differences in message elaboration there are central and peripheral routes to attitude change persuasive communication has a lasting effect on attitudes when: one is motivated to process the info one has the ability to process the info otherwise, we rely on peripheral cues this attitude change is temporary and unstable

heuristics

applying mental shortcuts. we make a fast, simple decision that generally produced a desirable outcome. helps to explain "low information rationality"

nonattitudes

attitudes are not constrained or structured, people don't have any.(Converse)

consistency theory-

balance theory) effort to maintain a balance among interconnected attitudes

Consistency theories

balance theory- effort to maintain balance among a network of interconnected attitudes. cognitive dissonance theory-inconsistency between two congintions creates an uncomfortable state. The magnitude depends on importance of cognitive elements. Something must be done to alleviate stress.

behavioral approach

based on models of classical and operant conditioning in animals. people are conditioned to respond in a certain way to a specific stimulus- automatic. pavlov with the salivating dogs

beliefs, attitudes, values

beliefs- the info that individuals have about objects or actions. may be grouped together in a belief system. often conflict between belief systems. sometimes referred to as a schema. attitudes- positive or negative feelings. evaluative component is central. built upon our beliefs. positive or negative attitude. value- overarching goals we want to reach, terminal and instrumental values (values about the end state of existence: equality, freedom, love). often evoked by political leaders.

cognitive response theories

brain is a noisy place, we have ongoing mental activity that interacts with incoming info to produce an attitude. people connect new info with existing info

cognitive response theories

brain is always active, ongoing mental activity responds to incoming information to produce attitudes. people connect new information with existing feelings and beliefs about a topic. very active and interactive.

Different definitions of public opinion- ( typically no one accepted definition )

category 1- public opinion is an aggregation of individual opinions. Many researchers think of public opinion as the simple sum of many individual opinions. This is the most common definition, and it serves the justification for using polls and surveys through random selection. category 2- public opinion is a reflection of majority beliefs. Public opinion is the equivalent of social norms- that the values and beliefs of the majority of citizens are the true basis of public opinion. AKA- the only public opinion that really matters, when it comes to policy making, is what most Americans think. Theorists aren't making a judgment whether the majority is right or wrong. category 3- public opinion is found in the clash of group interests. It is a reflection of how individuals opinions are cultivated, crystallized, and eventually communicated by interest groups. This definition assumes that conflict is pervasive and that groups constantly engage in struggle to define social problems. category 4- public opinion is media and elite opinion. simply the reflection of what journalists, politicians, pollsters, and other "elites" believe. The notion that- public opinion is a creation of social leaders-has many adherents (Lippmann). People lack time and energy to focus on all things, must have educated make decision. category 5- public opinion is a fiction. some scholars believe public opinion does not exist. something used so freely that it is now meaningless. people use this phrase so often with no evidence to back up how the public feels. "the shared opinion of a collection of individuals on a common concern." - Yerick and Todd

Coffee Houses vs. Salons

coffee houses- locations of political discussion, a public space. diversity of perspectives encouraged. democratic view of public opinion. salons-exclusive and bourgeois. elitist view of public opinion.

elaboration

deeply connected to what is going on, understand.

cognitive revolution

dramatic shift in focus of research away from attitudes and toward cognitive processes that underline judgements. shift from outcomes to processes.

elaboration likelihood model

dual processing model. focuses on differences in message elaboration. persuasive communication has a lasting effect on attitudes when person is motivated to process info and understands what they're processing.

functions of attitudes

ego defensive function- protect self from unflattering truths value expressive function- convey cherished ideals to others knowledge functions- understand events and people utilitarian functions- help people gain rewards and avoid punishment

post- 19th century techniques

elections straw polling- non scientific, non representative, still done today (call in polls) representative surveys- George Gallup. sampling theory, random sample

role of emotions-

emotion precedes cognition polls may tap opinions among those who have decided, and feelings among those who have not emotions and cognitions may not be separate systems, they work in tandem.

Historical changes in philosophical and normative conceptions of public opinion: Machiavelli

focused on the strategic use of power by political leaders; how to outmaneuver everyone. even in the most peaceful society, there are conflicting values between rulers and the ruled. recognized that public opinion has political force that leaders must contend with.

theory of planned behavior-

how you think you should act and your attitude and subjective norm--->intention--->behavior

pre 19th century techniques-

less systematic, more public and local (coffeehouses, salons, petitions, and rallies) Opinion is communicated through rhetoric the art of public speaking and persuasion, oratory (the expression of values and ideas) rhetoric conveyed in unmediated public forums opinion is communicated through printed word printing press enables formation of modern publics large number of dispersed people can communicate people can ally with causes ideas and institutions permitted political mobilization of groups

context effects in survey measurement and what they tell us (zaller)

nonattitudes- people opinions shift over time and are inconsistent opinion ambivalence is expressed through question wording, order, context, etc. framing Converse: people don't have attitudes, we don't have a sophisticated belief system, no true attitudes -Achen's response: variation, results fluctuate because of measurement errors. public opinion is limited. -Zaller's argument: we are ambiguous people/ not well-informed. Ambivalent because of having very strong feelings against two different things, making it a 'hard choice.' He believes that people do not have fixed opinions or ready made opinions. They only have 'raw materials' or considerations.

question wording effects and question order effects

primacy effect- preference for earlier terms word choice can effect the decision of the answer. "how far were cars going when they bumped, smashed etc."

Importance of public opinion in the functioning of democracy

public opinion and popular election serve as the basis for the democratic process. the public can act as a critical judge. public opinion has been evolving.

Tarde (20th century)-

recognized the importance of conversation. said that the press shapes conversation, which in turn shapes public opinion and action.

Tocqueville (political theorist 19th century)-

said public opinions are the force of social control. recognized the relationship between political equality and importance of public opinion: in systems of inequality, mass opinion is unimportant; focus on political stakeholders in systems of equality, individuals view themselves as capable, and mass opinion is important.

shifting assumptions associated with the cognitive revolution-

shift away from attitudes and towards cognitive processes that underlie judgements. shift away from persuasion and more toward a focus on less direct processing such as framing. shift from outcomes to processes

The Lippmann-Dewey Debate-

similar to the basic idea of Aristotle and Plato. -Plato: public is not capable of making decisions/ elites should govern what the public says/thinks. (distrusted the masses) -Lippmann believed that journalism was the translator or middleman -Journalists reported to the public the information that they gathered from the elite -Aristotle: accepted what the public believes. Bringing people together to debate brings about a much more valuable collected opinion. ('power in the community') -Dewey: public forum that should make the decisions

Marx (political theorist 19th century)-

the corruption of democracy by capitalism. said common citizens tend to mock the opinions of the ruling class- people with wealth and power. media and elite opinion leads public opinion. we often hold opinions in contrast with self interest. hegemony- control of mass consciousness.

context effects

the influence that our environment plays on us intellectually. When making/ creating opinions our environment contributes to the way we react

anchoring

the insufficient adjustment up or down from an original starting value.( people tend to begin by imagining the the first few folds of paper are very low number- won't reach a big one)

holistic (synthetic, collective) notion of public opinion

the outcomes of communication is based on processes. where we find common ground (a consensus is very difficult)

fundamental attribution error

the tendency for observers to underestimate situational influences and overestimate dispositional influences on others behavior.

attitude behavior link-

there is an attitude toward an act or behavior, then an intention, then comes the actual behavior

trends in expression and measurement-

there is an increasing emphasis on order and routinization, movement toward private and anonymous expression, and a shift from local, to national, to international

Bryce (20th century)-

traced the role of newspapers in communication of public opinion. said mass media holds a place among other major social institutions (courts, and legislature). Claimed that the newspaper directs and reflects public opinion and it is a central role for media in the political process

Representative surveys as dominant means of assessing public opinion

use sampling theory, random sample misses the notion of opinion elites misses the questions of power and influence

latent opinion-

we cannot see them at this moment. they are under the surface. opinions around specific moments such as presidential elections. they have actual consequences.

general will-

what citizens belief is the best course of action for the community, for the welfare of the populace