PY 465W Exam 3

Define content analysis and archival research.

Content analysis involves using the techniques of behavioral observation to measure the occurrence of specific events in literature, movies, television programs, or similar media that present replicas of behaviors Archival research involves looking at historical records (archives) to measure behaviors or events that occurred in the past.

time-series design

Has a series of observations for each participant before a treatment or event and a series of observations after the treatment or event. A treatment is a manipulation administered by the researcher and an event is an outside occurrence that is not controlled or manipulated by the researcher.

Explain how the existence of an interaction can influence the interpretation of main effects.

In general, the presence of an interaction can obscure or distort the main effects of either factor. ????

Explain how individual differences threaten the internal validity of a nonequivalent group design.

Individual differences create a confound whenever the assignment procedure produces groups that have different participant characteristics. Variables such as socioeconomic background, race, age, and IQ are all potentially confounding variable because any one of them could explain the differences between the two groups. Because the assignment of participants is not controlled in a study using nonequivalent groups, this type of research always is threatened by individual differences.

interaction between factors or interaction

occurs whenever two factors, acting together, produce mean differences that are not explained by the main effects of the two factors. On the other hand, if the main effect for either factor applies equally across all levels of the second factor, then the two factors are independent and there is no interaction.

predictor variable

one variable used to help predict or explain the second variable

negative relationship

there is a tendency for two variables to change in opposite directions; increases in one variable tend to be accompanied by decreases in the other.

Describe the purpose of the descriptive research strategy, explain how it differs from the purpose of other research strategies, and identify this strategy when it is used in a research study.

The goal is to describe a single variable or to obtain separate descriptions for each variable when several are involved. Unlike the other strategies, descriptive research is not concerned with trying to explain relationships, determine why specific behaviors occur, or identify underlying causes for behaviors.

main effect

the mean of differences among the levels of one factor

levels

the number of values

contrived observation/structured observation

the observation of behavior in setting arranged specifically to facilitate the occurrence of specific behaviors

participant observation

the researcher engages in the same activities as the people being observed in order to observe and record their behavior

observational research design

the researcher observes and systematically records the behavior of individuals to describe their behavior

criterion variable

the second variable that the predictor variable helps predict or explain

coefficient of determinations

the squared value of a correlation and measures the percentage of variability in one variable that is determined, or predicted, by its relationship with the other variable.

dependent variable

the variable that is measured to obtain the scores within each group

quasi-independent variable

the variable that is used to differentiate the groups of participants or the groups of scores being compared

factor

an independent variable in an experiment, especially those that include two or more independent variables

Describe the two general problems (observer influence and subjectivity) that can exist with behavioral observation and explain how researchers attempt to minimize them.

-REACTIVITY (when participants modify their behavior) (demand characteristics---the researcher influences the participants and gives clues for participants so participants give the reactions in which the researcher wants) -raises the question of reliability -fix by.... inter-rater reliability, hide the observer, habituation

Describe the three techniques used to quantify behavioral observations and the three techniques used for sampling observations.

1. the frequency method involves counting the instance of each specific behavior that occur during a fixed-time observation period. 2. The duration method involves recording how much time an individual spends engaged in a specific behavior during a fixed-time observation period. 3. The interval method involves dividing the observation period into a series of intervals and then recording whether a specific behavior occurs during each interval. 1. Time sampling involves observing for one interval, then pausing during the next interval to record all the observations. The sequence of observe-record-observe-record is continued through the series of intervals. 2. Event sampling involves identifying one specific event or behavior to be observed and recorded during the first interval, then shifting attention to a different event or behavior during the second interval, and so on, for the full series of intervals. 3. Individual sampling involves identifying one participant to be observed during the first interval, then shifting attention to a different individual for the second interval, and so on. x

Explain how a correlation describes the direction, form, and strength of a relationship and identify these characteristics for a set of data, especially data presented in a scatter plot.

A correlation can describe the direction of a relationship depending on if the scatter plot shows a positive correlation (data points clustered around a line that slopes up to the right) or negative correlation (data points clustered around a line that slopes down to the right). It describes the form of a relationship by looking for patterns such as a linear relationship, Pearson correlation, monotonic relationship, or a Spearman correlation. It describes the strength of a relationship by showing us the consistency of the data points.

mixed design

A factorial study that combines two different research designs, such as between-subjects and within-subjects, in the same factorial design.

Explain how the terms quasi-independent variable and dependent variable are used in nonexperimental, quasi-experimental, and developmental research

A quasi-independent variable is a variable that differentiates the groups (or sets of scores). The dependent variable is measured to obtain the scores within each group.

quasi-experimental research strategy

A research strategy that attempts to limit threats to internal validity and produce cause-and-effect conclusions (like an experiment), but lacks one of the critical components—either manipulation or control—that is necessary for a true experiment. Typically compares groups or conditions that are defined with a nonmanipulated variable.

nonequivalent group design

A research study in which the different groups of participants are formed under circumstances that do not permit the researcher to control the assignment of individuals to groups and the groups of participants are, therefore, considered nonequivalent.

Describe the general characteristics of the observational research design, explain its strengths and weaknesses, and differentiate between natural observation, participant observation, and contrived observation.

Observational research design- the researcher observes and systematically records the behavior of individuals to describe the behavior Strengths- researcher observes and records actual behavior, high external validity, flexibility Weaknesses- ethical concern about spying on people, they simply describe behavior and do not examine its causes. Natural observation- when a researcher observes and records a behavior in a natural setting without intervening in any way Participant observation- a researcher does not observe from afar, but interacts with the participants and becomes one of them to observe and record behavior. Contrived observation- the observer sets up a situation that is likely to produce the behaviors to be observed so that it is not necessary to wait for them to occur naturally

Define the goal or purpose of the correlational research strategy and distinguish between a correlational study and experimental and differential research.

The goal of a correlational research strategy is to examine and describe the associations and relationships between variables. The goal of an experimental research strategy is to demonstrate cause-and-effect relationship between two variables. It requires the manipulation of one variable to create treatment conditions and the measurement of the second variable to obtain a set of scores within each condition. All other variables are controlled. The researcher then compares the scores of each treatment. This involves measuring only one variable and looking for differences between two or more groups of scores. A correlational study is intended to demonstrate the existence of a relationship between two variables. It is not trying to explain a relationship. It does not involve manipulation, controlling, or interfering with variables. The researcher simply measures two different variables for each individual, then looks for a relationship within the set of scores. The difference between correlational and differential research is that a correlational study views the data as two scores, X and Y, for each individual, and looks for patterns within the pairs of scores to determine whether there is a relationship. A differential design establishes the existence of a relationship by demonstrating a difference between groups.

Explain how a simple modification of the posttest-only nonequivalent control group design increases internal validity and produces a quasi-experimental design.

The modification involves adding a pretest that obtains measurements of both groups before the treatment is administered. This allows researchers to address the problem of individual differences as a confound that exists with all nonequivalent group research. Specifically, the researcher can now compare the observations before treatment to establish whether the two groups really are similar. The threat of individual differences is reduced, therefore increasing internal validity. Time-related threats to internal validity are also reduced because both groups are observed over the same time period, and, therefore, should experience the same time-related factors.

Identify the statistical procedure used to determine a correlation for different types of data and explain what each correlation measures.

The statistical procedure used to determine a correlation for different types of data is a scatter plot. Each individual is represented by a single point with a horizontal coordinate determined by the individual's X score and the vertical coordinate corresponding to the Y value. A Pearson correlation is used to describe and measure linear relationships when both variables are numerical scores from interval or ratio scales. A Spearman correlation is used to measure and describe monotonic relationships when both variables are ranks from an ordinal score or have been transformed to ranks.

Describe and explain the independent relationship between main effects and interactions.

The two-factor study allows researchers to evaluate three separate sets of mean differences: 1) the mean differences from the main effect of factor A. 2) the mean differences from the main effect of factor B. 3) the mean differences from the interaction between factors. The three sets of mean differences are separate and completely independent. Thus, it is possible for the results from a two-factor study to show any possible combination of main effects and interaction.

positive relationship

There is a tendency for two variables to change in the same direction; as one variable increases, the other also tends to increase.

Describe how correlations are used for prediction, measuring reliability and validity of measurement, and evaluating theories.

They are used for prediction with the predictor variable and the criterion variable. Whenever two variables are consistently related, it is possible to use knowledge of either variable to help make predictions about the other. Measuring reliability and validity of measurement- the validity of a test can be established by demonstrating that the scores from the test are strongly related to scores from established tests. Reliability means the consistency or stability of the measurements. Validity evaluates the extent to which the measurement procedure actually measures what it claims to be measuring. Evaluating theories- used to answer questions; easily shows data

Describe the strengths and weaknesses of the correlational research strategy including the third-variable problem and the directionality problem and identify these problems when they appear in a research study.

Third- variable problem: The possibility that a third (unidentified) variable is controlling the two variables and is responsible for producing the observed relation. Directionality problem: a correlational study does not determine which variable is the cause and which is the effect.

nonequivalent control group design

Uses preexisting groups, one of which serves in the treatment condition and the other in the control condition. The researcher does not randomly assign individuals to the groups.

correlation/correlation coefficient

a numerical value that measures and describes the relationship between two variables.

factorial design

a research design that includes two or more factors; this kind of design can be described by the number of its factors (two-factor design, etc.)

nonexperimental research strategy

a research strategy that attempts to demonstrate a relationship between two variables by comparing different groups of scores, but makes no attempt to minimize threats to internal validity or to explain the relationship

pre-post design

a research study in which as series of observations is made over time for one group of participants

differential research design

a research study that simply compares preexisting groups. uses participant characteristics such as gender, race, or personality to automatically assign participants to groups. The researcher does not randomly assign individuals to groups

Describe the general characteristics of the survey research design.

a research study that uses a survey to obtain a description of a particular group of individuals

survey research design

a research study that uses a survey to obtain a description of a particular group of individuals

naturalistic observation/nonparticipant observation

a researcher observes behavior in a natural setting as unobtrusively as possible

Describe three specific applications of the factorial design: (1) adding a factor to an existing study; (2) using a participant variable as a second factor to control the variance in a between-subjects design; and (3) using the order of treatments as a second factor to evaluate the order effects in a within-subjects design; explain the advantage of using a factorial design in these situations.

adding a factor to an existing study will allow the researcher to find new situations using new populations, being able to expand on the research using participant variable as a second factor: limiting generalizations reduces external validity in the study, which will reduce variance within groups without sacrificing external validity -> instead of having a treatment group of 6-14 years, break up into different sections -> 6-8, 9-11, 12-14 when evaluating order effects, it is advantageous to use factorial design because it is easier to see where the order effects originating from having results of different combinations. Use counterbalancing to achieve this. There are 3 possible outcomes: 1) no order effects, 2) symmetrical order effects, 3) non symmetrical order effects. no interaction = no order effects

posttest-only nonequivalent control group design

compares two nonequivalent groups of participants. One group is observed (measured) after receiving a treatment, and the other group is measured at the same time but receives no treatment.

pretest-posttest nonequivalent control group design

compares two nonequivalent groups. One group is measure twice, once before a treatment is administered and once after. The other group is measured at the same two times but does not receive any treatment. Attempts to limit threats to internal validity, so it is classified as quasi-experimental.

pretest-posttest design

each individual in a single group of participants is measured once before treatment and once after treatment

longitudinal developmental research design

examines development by observing or measuring a group of cohorts over time

Identify the threats to internal validity for pre-post designs.

history, instrumentation, order effects, maturation, and statistical regression- a variety of factors related to the passage of time.

cohorts

individuals who were born at roughly the same time and grew up under similar circumstances

archival analysis

involves looking at historical records (archives) to measure behaviors or events that occurred in the past.

case study design

involves the in-depth study and detailed description of a single individual (or a very small group). A case study may involve an intervention or treatment administered by the researcher.

content analysis

involves using the techniques of behavioral observation to measure the occurrence of specific events in literature, movies, television, programs, or similar media that present replicas of behaviors.

cohorts effects/generation effects

refers to differences between age groups (or cohorts) cause by unique characteristics or experiences other than age.

Explain how replacing the single observation before and after treatment with a series of observations converts the pretest-posttest design into a quasi-experimental time-series design by minimizing threats to internal validity.

time series= a series of observations for each participant before/after treatment. The pretest observations allow the researcher to see any trends that exist already. if data shows no trends before treatment, the researcher can be sure that these potential threats aren't influencing the participants. which minimize most threats to internal threats = quasi-experimental

correlational research strategy

two or more variables are measured to obtain a set of scores (usually two scores) for each individual. The measurements are then examined to identify any patterns of relationship that exist between the variables and to measure the strength of the relationship.

developmental research designs

used to examine changes in behavior related to age

cross-sectional developmental research design

uses different groups of individuals, each group representing a different age. The different groups are measured at one point in time and then compared

case history

when a case study does not include any treatment or intervention