QM 2016 Exam
akinesia
lack of movement
ageusia
lack or impairment of sense of taste
laconic speech
condition characterized by a reduction in the quantity of spontaneous speech; replies are brief and unelaborated, common in MDE/SCZ; also called POVERTY of SPEECH
Effect size
How large of a difference between the control group and the intervention group is needed?
Rational Data
This is basically the same as interval data, but has a true zero
time triangulation involves:
multiple time periods (longitudinal v. cross-sectional)
requirements of agreement reality
must have logical and empirical support
Qualitative research environments are typically ____?
naturalistic
Mind-dependent
Depending upon the mind for existence or definition e.g. ideas are mind-dependent.
Directional Hypothesis
States which way the relationship should exist
T/F the significance of the research should be identified.
True
Emic
"going native" - site as scene
What means "does not contradict reality"?
True
All qualitative interviewing (in observation, in-depth individual interviews and focus group discussions) features open-ended questions.
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Apply all your codes to the whole data set! Something you come across later on may change how you want to code the data You may not have noticed a new pattern in the data until you had coded a number of interviews In this lengthy process, you may find that previously coded data does not need to be coded at the newly created code, but you can't know this without checking
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Tools for focusing attention
-Alerts and reminders -Remind the user of problems that might otherwise be overlooked e.g., abnormal lab values, potential drug interactions, guideline compliance
NCLEX Definitions of Informatics
-Informatics stores, translates, links, and aggregates clinical data. -Computer patient records and clinical information systems -Wireless and portable devices -Physician order entry minimal informatics competencies that nurses should possess?: a. Implement policies to protect privacy and confidentiality b. Maintain security of information c. Record data relevant to the nursing care of patients -Telehealth removes time and distance barriers from the delivery of health care services or related health care activities. -Standardizing electronic data interchange -Information technology improves patient care through comprehensive evaluation of the safety, effectiveness, and cost/benefits.
Alerts Used to prevent errors when doing computerized provide order entry
-Notification of potential problem -Common application is adverse drug event prevention: Dosage Drug-drug interaction Allergy Drug-laboratory value interaction -Frequently tied to computer-based provider order entry (CPOE)
Tools for Patient-specific Consultation
-Provide custom-tailored assessments or advice based on sets of patient-specific data e.g., decision analysis, DXplain, guideline or protocol eligibility -Can be Knowledge-based or Model-based -Knowledge-based systems QMR, Mycin, DXplain -Model-based expected value decision making
RE-AIM
-Reach Target audience (individual level) -Efficacy maximize efficacy (individual level) -Adoption Maximize adherence (organizational level) Targeted audience (organizational level) -Implementation Intervention fidelity (organizational level) -Maintenance Sustained delivery (individual & organizational level)
Clinical Pathways (aka - integrated care pathways)
-Structured, multidisciplinary plans of care designed to support the implementation of clinical guidelines and protocols -Designed to support clinical management, clinical and non-clinical resource management, clinical audit and also financial management -Provide detailed guidance for each stage in the management of a patient (treatments, interventions) -Define specific condition over a given time period, and include progress and outcomes details
Reminders Are softer than alerts, used to remind about a guideline
-Typically guideline-related -Preventive care: Mammograms Immunizations Diabetic care Hypertension management -Generally improved clinician compliance with guideline recommendations -Some positive impact on patient outcomes
RN role in research
-consumer -question generator -investigator -protector of participants -change agent
In essence what three things needs to be presented by the researcher?
-description of site -key informants -thought involved in the researchers' conceptualization throughout
name three qualitative researcher characteristics
-engages as a whole person -needs to be authentic -more subjective than objective
Example of systematic sampling with probability
-population consists of 5000 people -you need a sample of 500 -Formula: 5000/500 yields a k of 10 -the starting number is randomly chosen selecting a nuumber 1-10 -If 9 chosen then every 10th subject such as 9, 19, 29, 39 and so forth
Audit Trial
...
Case and Theme Approach
...
Laboratory study
A method used in quantitative research in which subjects are placed in an artificial environment and their responses to various stimuli are measured.
What are Kant's two types of knowledge?
1. Apriori 2. Aposteriori
What asserts that ther eis a relationship between the variables or a differnce between groups
2 tailed
epistemological revolution
200 years ago, the dominant epistemological lens was religion. During the industrial revolution, science replaced religion. In the 20th century there was an epistemological revolution where began to question the relevance of scientific method in understanding human behaviour
Lemma
A claim made partway through an argument.
Participant observation
A research method in which investigators systematically observe people while joining them in their routine activities.
Inductive content analysis
A type of analysis in which researchers derive themes and constructs from the data without imposing a prior framework and without counting.
Online focus groups
Adv.: less costs, broad geographic scope, reach travelers, convenient & comfortable Disad.: loss of role/authority of moderators & ability to feel/experience, inability to use group dynamics, no attentiveness
A posteriori knowledge is acquired
After sensory experience
What is the knowledge that one has after sensation?
Aposteriori
Narrative presence
Author Persona Narrator Passive or active tone
CAQDAS
Computer-assisted qualitative data analysis software.
Positivism
Focusing on logical reasoning; grounded theory research
Genealogical
Following Foucault (1977; 1979), the study of the ways in which discourses have been structured at different historical points.
What computer program uses power analysis?
G*Power3
Skeptics have argued that which element of the tripartite theory of knowledge is impossible to satisfy?
Justification
What means "supported by evidence"?
Justified
What is the main function of the Institutional Review Board?
Protection of human subjects
Fieldnotes
Records of observations and speech fragments arising from the field.
Data Saturation
Recurrent themes / repeated data
Researcher collects the data themselves through examination of documents of observations.
Researcher as key instrument
Semiotics
Science of signs.
Hermeneutics
UNDERSTANDING THE MEANING of art, text, object
experiments that include control groups and random assignment
What are research methods that give us evidence for causation?
ethnography
a methodology that is the study of a culture
auto-ethnography
a methodology that is the study of your personal experience
positivism
a philosophical paradigm rooted in the belief that there is a universal reality that humans can know through empirical investigation
testable criteria for a good hypothesis
a requirement saying it can be tested against empirical evidence (through experience)
Conceptual Framework
a structure of concepts or theories that provides the basis for development of research questions
fluent aphasia
aphasia characterised by inability to understand the spoken word (syn. wernicke's and receptive aphasias)
clang association/clanging
association or speech driven by the sound of the word rather than meaning
What must the key informants be when choosing?
authentic
dependent variable
changed by / depends on another variable
Grounded theory analysis involve
core variable
give examples of strata
ethnicity, gender, age, or educational level
congruency
everything fits
EThnographic reserach Relies on
extensive, labor-intensive fieldwork
negative signs of schizophrenia
flat affect, alogia, abulia and apathy
Case study
in-depth description/analysis of a case/s (interviews, observation, study artefacts)
purposive sampling
intentional, guided by emerging data analysis
coprolalia
involuntary use of profanities
Explaining methods A number of writers have stressed the importance to giving a clear account of research methods as part of displaying the credibility of the evidence. It is important for outputs to
outline the rationale for using a qualitative approach and to communicate clearly the uses to which such research can and cannot be put.
etic
outsider
Phase 1
researcher as a multicultural subject: what do I bring to the study?
Qualitative research tends to have a _________ range of info
rich
Categorization
sorting units of data based on what they have in common
dyslexia
specific learning syndrome affecting ability to read
What are variables such as ethnicity, gender, age, or educational level called?
strata
autoscopy
the perception of seeing oneself
Confidence to act
with the quality and quantity of information I have, I am willing to go forward with a change in practice and advise others to do the same.
What claims certainty because of a lack of certainty?
Skepticism
What is a self-refuting position?
Skepticism
What says, "You cannot be certain of anything", and "I will spend judgement."?
Skepticism
What is local skepticism?
Skepticism about a particular type of knowledge claim
Memoing
The process of writing memos to yourself as you develop the coding scheme to keep track of ideas for coding and concept creation as data analysis progresses
Relevance marker 3
Surprise value - reader must be interested in where the results surprise the expectation s of the researcher and predict previous findings
Conceptual Definition
Derived from the literature
Who tried to rescue causation?
Kant
Generalizability
Minimize researcher bias by considering sufficient study background data to infer about generalizability.
Member/Respondent validation
Minimize researcher bias by consulting the research participants regarding raw data, codes, interpretations, etc.
Negative Cases
Minimize researcher bias by exploring cases that are contrary to the emerging or prevailing perspective.
Inter-rater reliability
Minimize researcher bias by minimizing researcher bias
Trustworthiness
Minimize researcher bias by providing enough raw data (e.g., quotes) to support interpretations.
Who believed that you can have knowledge AND opinion?
Plato
The key objective is to find a form of presentation that
has an underlying and authentic narrative and somehow compels the reader to want to find out more.
complete participant
helps establish rapport, totally immersed participant
transformative framworks
knowledge is not neutral; advocacy, marginalized groups and individuals, work with participants to define questions and processes
Data analysis
labeling and breaking down raw data by reconstituting it into patterns
anergia
lack of energy
inaccurate observations
making mistakes in our own observations; Sometimes memory and eyesight fail cause this. Our observations are semi-conscious
Core Variable
manner in which people RESOLVE MAIN CONCERN
Avoiding numerical statements about qualitative findings The purpose of qualitative research is to
map range and diversity and to explore and explain the links between different phenomena. In general, however, we suggest that there are ways in which most numeric or quasi-numeric statements about the data can be avoided so that the presentation of findings remains more in line with the purposes of qualitative research.
exploratory
mapping out a topic that may allow further study in the future; to become familiar with the topic
cohort studies
people in the same category or age group that experienced similar events; studies a sub population of the sample
trailing phenomenon
perceptual abnormality associated with hallucinogenic drugs in which moving objects are seen as a series of discrete and discontinuous images
the higher the value of effect size (y) then the greater of what?
power of the test the relationship between the 2 variables is strong also the more stringent the p value
Grand narratives
powerful systems of stories suggesting that people or processes unfold in a particular way (e.g., the notion that aging equates with decline).
operational definition
precise; specifying exactly how your idea will be measured
Whay type of nonprobability sampling is simialr to stratified random sampling?
quota sampling
Define probabolity sampling
randomized method of selecting subjects for a research study who are the most representative of the target population
what part of probability sampling offers the best advantage of being the most representative?
randomness
flight of ideas
rapid succession of fragmentary thoughts or speech in which content changes abruptly and speech may be in coherent, seen in mania
pseudocyesis
rare condition in which a non pregnant patient has the signs and symptoms of pregnancy
Confidence in qualitative research
readers should have confidence in the quality of your research and its accuracy
What type of smpling can either be probability or nonprobability sampling?
systematic
opportunity sampling
take who volunteers and is available
Another name for random
representative
What is good quantitative research?
representativeness, reliability, validity
symbolic representation
represents larger group
long term memory
reproduction, recognition or recall of experiences or information that was experienced in the distant past
Quantitative methods
research methods that use measurement and statistics to transform empirical data into numbers and to develop mathematical models that quantify behavior.
snowball sampling
research participant tells researcher about other potential participants, the next respondent then does the same
criterion sampling
research participants, sites, supporting materials are selected based on some stated criterion, selective is purposive, criteria can be derived from theory or from context
complete observer
researcher neither seen nor noticed
memoing
researcher's ideas about process, writing down constant ideas on how something works, connecting different relationship
Symbolic interactionism
researchers using this theoretical approach (which was developed by Herbert Blumer) investigate how meaning and identity are co-created through interaction.
Second-order interpretations
researchers' interpretations or explanations of participants' interpretations or explanations.
Appraisal tools for good qualitative research in systematic reviews
responsiveness to social context, flexibility of design, evidence of theory or purposive sampling, ethics, adequate description, quality of data, theoretical adequacy
aggregates, not individuals
social science research generally look at patterns that reflect the collective actions and situations of many individuals
In any study where two populations are compared, the null hypothesis states what?
that there si no difference between them OR zero
units of analysis
the "what" of your data; what you are studying and the choice determines the results you get
According to Plato, where do you live before you were born and then when you die?
the World of Forms
Naturalistic inquiry
the analysis of social action in uncontrived field settings.
reliability
the extent to which the test is internally consistent and yields the same results
content validity
the full capacity of a concept is covered in the measurement
formication
the hallucinatory experience of small creatures crawling on the skin
Actor network theory
the importance of non-human artifacts
hindsight bias
the inclination after an event has occurred to see the event as having been predictable, despite there having been little or no objective basis for predicting it.
example of a trend study
the tolerance of different races in the catholic religion in the 1950's, 1970's, and 1990's
Critical paradigm
the understanding of reality is based on power relations that are socially and historically constructed (developed in discourse) - Support subordinate groups for justice and equality - Study and challenge the ways oppression is created - Qualitative methodology
T/F the level of statistical significance is specified for a one-tailed or 2 tailed
true
Epistemology
This refers to the theory of knowledge especially with regard to methods, validity, and scope; beware that the rules for knowing what we know are socially created.
Goal of semiotics?
To learn the meaning of language, symbols and behavior within a social setting. Also focuses on dramaturgy of everyday life
Transferability
Transferability refers to the generalizability of the study findings to other settings, populations, and contexts Report must provide sufficient detail so that readers can assess this Lack of transferability is viewed as a weakness of qualitative methods Ask- Are the findings only applicable to individuals who are similar to those in study? Do your experiences resonate what the findings are telling you? Can lead to instrument development. Do the results add to body of nursing knowledge?
Member
Used by Garfinkel (1967) to refer to participants in society. It is a shorthand term for 'collectivity member' (see ethnomethodology).
Leverage
Used by Marx (1997) to describe ways of finding multiple publishing outlets for one piece of research.
Triangulation
Using 3 different strategies to get at the same in formation
explanatory example
What effect does the hook-up culture have on relationships? Long-term relationships? Why is this a culture?
Outputs should be judged not only for their substantive contribution and impact, but also for their
aesthetic merit and reflexivity.
labile affect
affective expression characterized by rapid and abrupt changes, unrelated to external stimuli
blunted affect
affective presentation where there is severe reduction in the INTENSITY of externalized feeling tone
Unlike the quantitiatve focus on reliability and valididty for scientific rigor, qualitative designs focus more on the _______ or ______ of the data.
credibility or relevance
How does cluster sampling differ from other types of random sampling?
data is collected from clisters instead of individuals
cross-sectional data
data that is conducted at one single point in time
hypoactivity
decreased motor and cognitive activity, as in psychomotor retardation; visible slowing of thought, speech and movements
nihilism
delusion of the non existence of the self or part of self. a depressive delusion where the world and everything related to it has ceased to exist
somatic delusion
delusion pertaining to one's body functioning
thought withdrawal
delusion that one's thoughts are being removed from one's mind
thought insertion
delusion that thoughts are being implanted into one's mind
erotomania
delusional belief that someone else is in love with them
pseudodementia
dementia like disorder that can be reversed by appropriate treatment not caused by organic brain disease
What is the major use of power analysis?
estimating the size of the sample needed to obtain significant results
what is the third step in systematic sampling is probability?
every kth (constant) element is chosen to be in the sample
hypochondria
exaggerated concern about health that is based not on real medical pathology but on unrealistic interpretations of physical signs of sensations as abnormal
hypermnesia
exaggerated degree of retention and recall; can be elicited by hypnosis and may be seen in certain prodigies
hypervigilance
excessive attention to and focus on all internal and external stimuli
emotional lability
excessive emotional responsiveness characterised by unstable and rapidly changing emotions
aerophagia
excessive swallowing of air
hyperpragia
excessive thinking and mental activity
catatonic excitement
excited, uncontrolled motor activity seen in catatonic schizophrenia
researchers often need to makea number of criteria that subjects need to be _______
excluded
What is the best way to make your sample as homogenous as possible?
excluding people on certain variables
Focus groups
exploit the group effect (shared fund of experiences) - 6-12 participants; 30-120 min - Interviewer=moderator (intro, rules, guides through sensitive issues)
Narrative research
explore the individual life/lives (mainly interviews & documents)
delusion of control
false belief that one is being controlled by external forces
delusion of persecution
false belief that one is being harassed or persecuted
delusion of poverty
false belief that one is bereft or will be deprived of all material possessions
delusions of grandeur
false belief that one is of great importance, has great talents or is in a position of great power
delusions of infidelity
false belief that one's lover is unfaithful
T/F qualitative uses numbers and stats
false
delusions of reference
false belief that the behaviour of others refers to oneself or that events, objects, or other people have a particular or unusual significance
delusion of self-accusation/delusion of guilt
false feeling of remorse or guilt
command hallucinations
false perception of orders that a person may feel obliged to obey
hallucination
false sensory perception occuring in the absence of any relevant external stimulation of sensory modality involved
parapraxis
faulty act such as the slip of the tongue or misplacement of an article; freudian slip
erythrophobia
fear of blushing
ailurophobia
fear of cats
acrophobia
fear of high places
agoraphobia
fear of open places or leaving the familiar setting of home
algophobia
fear of pain
anxiety
feeling of apprehension caused by anticipation of danger, which may be internal or external
exaltation
feeling of intense elation and grangeur
unio mystica
feeling of mystic unity with an infinite power
dysphoria
feeling of unpleasantness or discomfort; a mood of general dissatisfcation and restlessness.
thought broadcasting
feeling that one's thoughts are being broadcast or projected into environment
malingering
feigning disease to achieve a specific goal
Field
general intersections of topic & territory
What does nonprobability no allow for?
generalization
When the sampling is the most representative what does it allow more of
generalization to the target population
If the sampling procedure is random what can researchers appropriately do?
generalize beyond the study's sample and back to the total population
B. A bounded system within its larger context or setting
A qualitative case study provides an in-depth study of:
What is Locke's theory known as?
"The Representationalist View of Knowledge"
"Ese est percipi" translates to,
"To be, is to be be perceived."
phenomenological tradition
"verstehen"; understand the other's experiences and viewpoint, motives
Quantity
# of studies that have evaluated the research question
Reliability
'The degree of consistency with which instances are assigned to the same category by different observers or by the same observer on different occasions' (Hammersley, 1992: 67) (see validity).
alexia
(loss of ability) inability to read
Data chunking
...
Content Analysis - Initial Process
1) Text scanned 2) Units determined 3) Units tagged with one or more markers 4) Markers are used later for sorting
reflexivity
1) the process of critical self-reflection re the ways in which a researcher's individual perspective may influence the study. 2) The act of reflecting back upon the communications, decisions, and consequences during the research process (Galletta, 2013)
What 3 groups do not understand Locke's Principles?
1. Children 2. Savages 3. Idiots
What are three common Truth Theories?
1. Correspondence Theory 2. Coherence Theory 3. Pragmatic Theory
Steps in Formulations & Conducting Research
1. Define research population and goal 2. Develop an exact, specific research question to be answered by your study 3. Link research design to research question 4. Implement the research plan 5. Data analysis 6. Dissemination of findings
Steps in the design and use of focus groups
1. Define the problem and formulate the RQ 2. Identify the target group 3. Generate and pre-test the interview guide 4. Identify the moderator 5. Recruit the sample 6. Conduct the group 7. Analyze and interpret the data 8. Write up the report
Name the 3 prominent Continental Rationalists:
1. Descartes 2. Spinoza 3. Leibniz
Guidelines for writing open ended questions
1. Do not use dichotomous questions. 2. Do use supposition lead-in. 3. Do use illustrative role format. 4. Do use role play simulation 5. Do use prefactory statements. 6. Use the question, why? sparingly. 7. Be prepared to use prompts and probes to elicit further information.
The purposes of research
1. Exploratory 2. Descriptive 3. Explanatory
Characteristics of Qualitative Research that Apply ACROSS Disciplines, and now recognized in Health Care:
1. Flexible, capable of adjusting to what is being learned during data collection; 2. Requires the researcher to become intensely involved over extended lengths of time; 3. Requires ongoing analysis of data to formulate subsequent strategies (data mainly in text form); 4. Tends to be holistic, striving for an understanding of the whole; 5. Typically involves a merging together of various data collection strategies; and 6. Study participants typically described as informants.
Process of observing
1. Gain access 2. Establish time length in field 3. Decide on unit of observation 4. Decide on collection techniques (when take notes? Record?) 5. Leaving the field
Romanticism
An approach taken from nineteenth-century thought in which authenticity is attached to personal experiences (see emotionalism).
What is an observation?
A qualitative/quantitative method of research conducting without manipulating any variables and instead merely watching to receive results.
the value of social science research
1. It is systematic 2. It is transparent 3. It is replicated
Name the 3 prominent British Empiricists:
1. Locke 2. Berkley 3. Hume
Qualitative approaches
1. Narrative research 2. Phenomenology 3. Grounded theory 4. Ethnography 5. Case study
Theoretical traditions
1. Phenomenological tradition 2. Socio-cultural tradition 3. Critical tradition
Social survey
A quantitative method involving the study of large numbers of people, often through the use of questionnaires.
What are the two types of qualities?
1. Primary 2. Secondary
What are two ways to study knowledge?
1. Rationalism 2. Empiricism
Willig (2001) Stages of IPA
1. Reading and rereading of the transcipts 2. Identification of emergent themes 3. Structuring emergent themes 4. Creation of a summary table of the structured themes and relevant quotations that illustrate each theme.
Steps for conducting Phenomenological Research
1. Remove all biases and subjectivities 2. Identify potential people to interview 3. Create strong interview questions (data collection) 4. Analyze the data 5. Write up your findings
how science guards selective observation
1. Research design will specify in advance the number of observations to be made and specify 2. The kind of observations to be made which set a basis for reaching a conclusion 3. When making direct observations of an event, they make a special effort to find deviant cases (those who do not fit into the general pattern)
how science guards overgeneralization
1. Scientists seek a sufficiently large sample of observations 2. Employ the replication of inquiry, meaning they repeat a study to check to see if the results occur each time 3. Test can be repeated under slightly varied conditions
What are the 2 types of sensory experience?
1. Sensation 2. Refection
What are the two types of ideas?
1. Simple 2. Complex
What 4 things did Hume reject?
1. The Self 2. All Substance 3. God 4. Causation
the three requirements of establishing causality
1. a correlation (positive or negative) 2. temporal order (time order) 3. eliminating of alternatives: making sure nothing else is causing this
the two standards of correlation
1. changes in one variable are associated with changes in another 2. certain attributes of one variable are associated with particular attributes of the other
the three different types of measurement validity
1. face validity 2. content validity 3. criterion validity
Errors of logic using personal judgements
1. inaccurate observations 2. overgeneralization 3. selective observation 4. illogical reasoning
the five different units of analysis
1. individuals 2. groups 3. organizations 4. social interactions 5. social artifacts
criteria for a good hypothesis
1. specific 2. testable 3. falsifiable
how theory is used in research
1. to direct our research questions 2. to help us make sense of our findings
How many informants does saturation usually occur at
15-50
What is often considered the minimum sample size?
30, but really too small
positivism, postpositivist, constructivism, critical paradigm
4 paradigms
3. The mystery story
: starts by pointing out mysteries and then gradually develops answers.
What is an instrumental case study?
A case study which can be used to describe other situations or build up relevant theories.
Assent
A child's permission - understanding regarding an intervention / needed in addition to a parents informed consent.
Clear and Distinct Ideas
A clear idea is "present and accessible to the attentive mind"; a distinct idea is clear and sharply separated from other ideas so that every part of it is clear.
Homogenous Focus Group
A focus group where participants share key features (e.g. they all work in a library).
Culture
A common set of beliefs, values and behaviours.
Interview
A data collection technique in which an interviewer poses questions to the interviewee.
Describe what we mean when we talk about "thick description?"
A deeper, more detailed description - feelings, behaviors, of an experience
Chicago School
A form of sociological ethnography usually assumed to originate in the 1920s when students at the University of Chicago were instructed to put down their theory textbooks and to get out on to the streets of their city and use their eyes and ears. It led to a series of studies of the social organization of the city and of the daily life of various occupational groups.
Control group
A group not given some stimulus provided to another group; a control group is used for comparative purposes.
What object served as Descarte's example of why the senses cannot be trusted to reveal the true nature of things?
A piece of wax
Hypothesis
A proposal or tentative insight into the natural world intended to explain certain facts or observations; a concept that is not yet verified but that if true would explain certain facts or phenomena.
Synthetic
A proposition that is not analytic, but true or false dependent on how the world is.
Analytic
A proposition that is true (or false) by virtue of the meanings of the words. For example, "a bachelor is an unmarried man" is analytically true while "a square has three sides" is analytically false.
Veridical
A proposition that is true or an experience that represents the world as it actually is.
Grounded Theory Method
A research approach that uses a systematic set of procedures to arrive at a theory about basic social processes - How does this social group interact to ______? GOAL: to generate a theory from data collected
Intellectual Virtues
A skill, ability or trait of the mind or person that contributes to gaining knowledge and forming true beliefs.
Focus group
A small group of 6-10 individuals who are led in discussion by a professional consultant to gather opinions on and responses to issues being researched.
Code
A symbol or notation to label patterns within the data in some sort of systematic way.
Grounded theory
A theory which involves three stages: an initial attempt to develop categories which illuminate the data; an attempt to 'saturate' these categories with many appropriate cases in order to demonstrate their relevance; and the attempt to develop these categories into more general analytic frameworks with relevance outside the setting.
Interactionism
A theory, commonly used in qualitative sociological research, which assumes that our behaviour and perceptions derive from processes of interaction with other people.
Phenology
A type of qualitative study that focuses on "lived experiences"
Introduction to Coding What is coding?
A way to reduce data by classifying it into meaningful and relevant themes Themes are overarching categories into which you organize your data, they can be derived from: The key questions in your guide Literature related to your RQ The data itself
According to standpoint epistemologists, what is affected by the person's relation to the center of power in society?
Access to knowledge
Time Lag Argument
Against DR: Because it takes time for us to perceive physical objects, we don't perceive them directly. For example, as light takes 8 minutes to reach the Earth from the sun, if you look at the sun you are actually seeing it as it was eight minutes ago. Therefore, you are not perceiving the sun directly.
Focus group- advantages
Advantages of open-ended questions Interaction Researcher interacts directly Flexible Literacy not needed Results easy to understand
Participant expectation
Also called reactivity; the participants' ideas of the research and the researcher which can affect the trustworthiness of the data. Ex. The participant acts in a such a way that he/she thinks they're helping the researcher.
Complex Idea
An idea that is made up of two or more simple ideas.
Observation
An information-gathering technique that involves watching people by using other people or by using a camera.
Semi-structured interview
An interview in which the interviewer determines the major question beforehand, but allows sufficient flexibility to probe into other areas as needed to evaluate an applicant's personality.
Content Analysis
Analysis of existing documents to reveal important information about human behavior
Qualitative Research
Any research that produces findings not arrived at by means of statistical procedures or other means of quantification Is used to develop concepts and understand social phenomena in natural settings Emphasizes meanings, experiences and views of participants
Artifacts
Anything that was important to the subject; WWII vet keeps things from the war.
Other issues in focus group study design
Assistant moderator Budget Timeline Equipment Rural/refugee settings Ethics
Levels of Evidence II
At least one RCT
Cognitive anthropology
Attempts to understand the structures that organize how people perceive the world. This leads to the production of ethnographies, or conceptually derived descriptions, of whole cultures, focused on how people communicate.
Attribution Error
Attributing meaning to an observation without verifying it (by testing). For example, you think someone is angry based on the way they act but you can't know this for sure simply based on observation (dispositional vs. circumstantial).
What means "something you personally agree with"?
Belief
Who believes that there is ONE of everything?
Berkley
Life histories
CHRONLOGY of Narrative self-descriptions of life experiences
Auditability
Can you follow the thinking of the researcher?
Senses
Capacities that give us experience of the external world. They include sight, smell, touch and so on.
Negative case analysis
Cases that do not fit in to the categories, asking why the don't fit is very useful.
Open coding
Categorizing data so that it makes sense
Nominal
Classify or categorize data
Coding of latent content
Classifying by the underlying meaning of a phrase
Concepts
Clearly specified ideas deriving from a particular model.
Clinical Significance
Clinical significance requires that research have an important outcome that generates a noticeable (sizable) difference for patients or is large enough to warrant change in practice.
Content Analysis Sampling
Cluster sampling is common - researcher identifies unit (ie paragraphs) and then draws a sampling of said unit from text
descriptive coding
Coding to codes that simply refers to surface features of the people, events, settings etc in a study. Much descriptive coding can be done using variables in MAXqda or attributes in NVivo. Families in Atlas.ti can server a similar purpose.
representation
Denzing and Lincoln (2006) questions whose reality is really represented - member checks
name a book to help with power of analysis?
Cohen's Statistical Power of Analysis for the Behavioral science later she talks about "A Power Primer"
What theory says that a proposition is true if it fits with your other beliefs?
Coherence Theory
Data triangulation
Collecting data over different times, locations and participants.
Supplemental use of focus groups
Common role of focus groups in combination with surveys/experiments Research Question: What is the optimal consent process for minimal risk studies from the parental perspective, and what is the impact of different consent processes on research participation? Methods: Parent focus groups (preliminary) surveys of 161 parents
Advantages to mixed ethod research
Complementarity—words and numbers,Quicker feedback loops,strengthens ability to make inferences
Operationalization
Content Analysis allows for revisions
Confidence marker 3
Corpus construction - maximising sampling variety
What theory is a proposition that is like a picture of reality?
Correspondence Theory
cross-sectional because it is talking about when data was distributed, not about when the focus was (not done over course of 4 years)
Cross-sectional or longitudinal?: A researcher interviewed a sample of MSMC seniors in 2012 and asked them to describe how their study habits evolved over 4 years
longitudinal study because it was administered over time
Cross-sectional or longitudinal?: A researcher surveyed a sample of MSMC freshmen in Fall 2009 about their methods of studying and in 2011 the researcher studied the sample of MSMC seniors and asked the same question
Primary Source
Data based- theory- research
Quasi-experimental - Examines why certain effects occur
Data collection method - questionnaire, scales, or biophysi
Qualitative Content Analysis Methods
Definition: analysis of the content of narrative data to identify prominent themes and patterns among the themes Procedures/methods: Read transcripts Break down interviewees words into smaller data units Name the units according to the content they represent Group the units based on shared concepts
Duncan Watts
Did a Ted talk based on his book "Everything is obvious...once you already know the answer"
Qualitative Research: Data collection: Direct Observation
Direct observation is where the researcher observes the actual behaviors of the subjects, instead of relying on what the subjects say about themselves or others say about themselves. Example: Observe behaviors of nurses and physicians regarding "speaking up"
C. The meaning of inclusion in schools and encompasses administrators, teachers, and parents who have children with disabilities.
Disability theories address:
Disadvantages of close ended questions
Disadvantages of Closed Don't get info in respondent's "own words" Q's may reflect interviewer bias (and not what's really important) May not include all relevant/possible answer categories
Disadvantages of Open ended questions
Disadvantages of Open Takes more time (during and after interview) Response may be irrelevant to question/problem/issue of interest Hard to get comparable data
Informed Consent
Disclosure Understanding Voluntariness Competence Consent Consent/REB approval should be described in research article
Data reduction
Distill down you themes, reducing data to the basic common underlying theme
YES
Does sample size matter?
Turn Signals
During an interview, this refers to a marked shift in the flow of the discussion. For example, "Up to now we've been talking about X; now I'd like to explore Y."
The statement "How can you ever be sure that you know anything about reality and not just your own ideas?" represents Locke's ________ ____________.
Egocentric Predicament
Theory
Empirically falsifiable set of abstract statements about reality
What is the approach to knowledge that that says that ALL your knowledge arises from SENSATION alone?
Empiricism
Steps in Coding 5. Apply the codes to a second pre-selected group of transcripts
Engage in open coding: the process of initially assigning codes What to keep in mind during the coding process: The primary message context Whether the content of the message is meant to represent individual or group-shared ideas The degree to which the speaker is representing actual versus hypothetical experience
What is an approach to knowledge?
Epistemology
A priori coding
Establishes the categories before the data are collected, based on some theoretical or conceptual rationale
A. Observations and a prolonged period of time spent by the researcher in the field
Ethnography is based primarily on:
External World
Everything that exists outside of our minds.
Levels of Evidence VII
Evidence from the opinion of authorities
Sampling; exclusion criteria
Exclusionary barriers; restrictions are placed to exclude subjects
Conversation analysis
Extremely close scrutiny of the way people converse with one another; crucial to ethnomethodology
T/F the process of data collection can be carefully developed and planned before implementaiton?
False
T/F the complete list of the population should be ordered by any riteria such as educational preparation?
False, should not
Qualitative research
Focus on words to understand and give meaning to a phenomenon or event
Elemental Memo
Final coding scheme is dependent upon the compilation of these memos - contain detailed accounts of relatively specific points of interest to researcher
Define data triangulation.
Finding different data to gain a sort of "average". This can be done by collecting data from different schools, or at different times, etc.
The Qualitative Paradigm: Ethnography
Focus: To describe and interpret a culture-sharing group Best used when a researcher wants to ____________ Data come mostly from participant observations, notes, interviews, perhaps other sources during extended time in field Data are analyzed to describe the culture-sharing aspects about the group & themes about the group
The Qualitative Paradigm: Grounded Theory
Focus: To develop a theory grounded in data from the field Best used when the researcher wants to develop theory that is grounded in the views of participants Data come primarily from interviews or focus groups with 20-60 people Analysis is done through open coding, axial coding, selective coding
Coming into contact with a copy reminds you of its _____.
Form
Propositional knowledge
Formal and explicit - derived from research and scholarship
Anecdotalism
Found where research reports appear to tell entertaining stories or anecdotes but fail to convince the reader of their scientific credibility.
Who is credited with the Coherence Theory?
GWF Hegel
semi=structured interview
Galletta, 2013
Judith Butler applied the concept of constructionism to what
Gender
Inductive Thinking
Generalizations are developed from specific observation. Particular --> General
Who is the primary proponent of Idealism?
George Berkley
Interpretive Phenomenological Analysis
Goal is insight into an individual's unique perception of an experience. Based on grounded theory.
Grounded theory: social processes
Grounded theory focuses on 'social processes related to human interactions'. Foundation of Grounded Theory- social science (sociology) and symbolic interaction Developing a theory based on observations. Inductive approach- process of reasoning from specific observations to more general rules Used to construct theory where no theory exists, or when the existing theory fails to explain a set of circumstances.
Focus groups
Group discussions usually based upon stimuli (topics, visual aids) provided by the researcher.
Ethics
Guidelines or principles relating to good professional practice.
Systematic errors are errors that?
Happen repeatedly throughout the study for specific reasons
Steps in coding: 1. create a team of coders and review sub-sets of transcripts
Have everyone read a subset of transcripts and take margin notes early in the data collection process Engage in code creation: the process of brainstorming codes based on margin notes Meet as a team to review notes, select key codes, and develop formal code definitions After the initial phase of code creation and meetings, assign one individual to create the codebook (Step 4)
Explain Descartes' wax example
He describes the shape, the color, the sound it makes when it strikes. Then, he melts the wax and everything he described of the wax changed but he still knows what wax is. We understand what wax is in our mind eased on intuition.
Quantitative research typically has _______ reliability.
High (easy to repeat)
Qualitative research typically has _______ ecologically validity.
High (very real life)
Qualitative research typically is _______.
High reflexivity
What does Descartes doubt the most?
His own senses
Researchers attempt to develop a complex picture of a problem under study
Holistic Account
Heterogeneous
How are they different? To what degree?
think about what you are doing with the data you collect
How do you determine what type of research it is, quantitative or qualitative?
Constructionist view
Humans don't crease knowledge; but rather they find it thru interactions; grounded theory
Who believed that "Causation is habit of our speaking."
Hume
Who believed that there is no rational knowledge?
Hume
Deductive Thinking
Hypothesis are derived from theory. General --> Particular
Write one example of an experiential knowledge claim
I know how said it is when your dog dies since my dog passed away recently.
Sampling; inclusion criteria
Imposed by the researcher; must include
Dependability
If the findings are true? Are they true all the time?
Intervention and advocacy
If there is an issue with a study, are you willing to do something about it?
D. Attempts to develop a theory that explains some action, interaction, or process
In Grounded Theory the researcher:
Interviews
In depth individual, focus groups -> unstructured topic guide, structured question guide, consensus methods
Control Variable/Group
In experimental studies, this term refers to a group or element separated from the rest of the experiment where the independent variable being tested cannot influence the results; this isolates the independent variable's effects on the experiment and can help rule out alternate explanations of the experimental results.
Ethnography/Participant Observation
In participant observation, the researcher "gets to go home at night" but in this research methodology the researcher is there "24/7" (live, interact, participate with subjects).
Deviant case analysis
In qualitative research, involves testing provisional hypotheses by 'negative' or discrepant' cases until all the data can be incorporated in your explanation.
B. Attempts to lessen the distance between him/herself and that being researched
In the epistemological assumption, the researcher:
D. Is informal, using a personal voice and narrative style
In the rhetorical assumption the researcher:
Gatekeepers
Individuals who are formally in charge of giving access to a particular social setting.
Ethnography Sampling
Informal conversations with MULTIPLE INTERVIEWS with SMALL # GROUPS of key informants
Emic Perspective
Informants perspective
Locke argued that the Principle of Identity was NOT ______.
Innate
IPA
Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis
Focus Group Interviews
Interviews in SMALL GROUPS led by a MODERATOR
Reflexivity
Involves a researcher analyzing and critically considering their own role in, and affect on, the research.
Credibility
Is it true as judged by your participants?
What did John Locke believe about the mind at birth?
It is a tabula rosa waiting to be written upon by experience
What is reflexivity?
It refers to the researcher's need to be constantly reflective during the entire qualitative process. All personal beliefs and biases must be acknowledged and the method itself must be assessed. This can be done by keeping a diary or being interviewed by a fellow researcher. All of this must be included in the final report.
Ability Knowledge
Knowing "how" to do something e.g. "I know how to ride a bike."
What is justified true belief?
Knowledge
Historical Research
Learning from the past; research
Why use CAT's?
Lend credibility to your own research - get the basic information on the table, highlight the important data
GOLD STANDARD OF DATA
Level - A product that comprehensively explains a complex human phenomenon
Nominal, Ordinal, Interval, Ratio
Levels of measurement
examples of scales
Likert and Bogardus
Qualitative research typically has _______ reliability.
Low (hard to repeat)
Cluster sampling
Making divisions within groups. How do I want to narrow this down? From where, what?
What did Berkley believe that the one type of substance was?
Mental
Sense Data(um)
Mental images or representations of what is perceived, the "content" of perceptual experience. If sense data exist, they are the immediate objects of perception and are "private" and "mind-dependent" mental things.
Many false knowledge claims throughout history have been causes by
Mistaken justifications
Focus on multiple forms of data (interviews, documents, observations) instead of one form of data
Multiple sources of data
A. A study of stories of descriptions of a series of events that accounts for human experiences
Narrative Research can be described as:
The Qualitative Paradigm: Creswell's "5 Approaches to Inquiry" (2007)
Narrative research Phenomenological research Grounded theory research Ethnographic research Case study research
Constant Comparative Method
New data are compared as they emerge with data previously analyzed
Participant Anonymity
No one outside the research team should know the identity of the participant/s.
Content Coding Options
Nominal, Ordinal or Interval
Levels of Evidence IV
Nonexperimental Study
Mind-independent
Not depending on a mind for existence or definition. According to realism, physical objects are mind-independent.
Worthiness of the project
Not wasting time, money, resources
Sorting Memos
Notes regarding organization and compilation of elemental memos
Trustworthiness
OVERALL INTEGIRTY of study's evidence, equivalent to internal validity
Qualitative studies
Often are very small; n=6 to 10 subjects - data is collected until saturation
Debriefing
Often in psychological research, this refers to a short semi-structured interview/conversation that takes place between researchers and research participants immediately following their participation in a psychology experiment.
Axial coding
Once done with open coding, narrowing the data more
Steps in Coding 6. Meet as a team to discuss codes and finalize the codebook
Ongoing Coding Reliability Check To sharpen code definitions and their application to data, two people code the same data set The team then considers: Have the two coders agree on how big a codable block of data is? Have they use the same code for the same blocks of data?
Ordinal
Order and rank values without equal intervals
CAQDAS
Otherwise known as Computer Assisted Qualitative Data Analysis Systems.
Sensation
Our experience of an object outside the mind, perceived through the senses.
Ethics; generalizing beyond scope of evidence
Over-interpretation, or under / wishful thinking
C. Beliefs of the researcher
Paradigms represent the:
Thick description
Part of sampling; must describe everything in the sampling; How ? of a description was there in the words that the sample was stating?
Qualitative Research: Data collection Multiple methods
Participant Observation The researcher literally becomes part of the observation. Example: One studying the homeless may decide to walk the streets of a given area in an attempt to gain perspective and possibly subjects for future study.
What is important in an Ethonographic reserach?
Participant observation is a particularly important source.
Refereed Journal
Peer reviewed, blind reviewed. judged using a set of criteria
Respect for persons
People have the right to self determination and to be treated as autonomous agents
Bandura's Social Cognitive Theory
Personal-> behavior-> environment
Normative
Pertaining to a norm or value; prescriptive.
A. An individual's choice of qualitative research
Philosophical assumptions of the researcher lead to:
Who is credited with founding the skeptics?
Phrryo
Researchers should not waste time, money, or other resouces, so a smart researcher might first do a?
Pilot studies
"A bachelor is an unmarried male" is an example of which type of knowledge claim?
Priori
Semantics - Quantitative = Validity
Qualitative = Credibility
Exploratory descriptive - answers what questions describes frequency of occurance
Questionnaire and scales - data collection method
Probes
Questions or statements to obtain MORE information when participants give responses that are uni dimensional
What is the approach to knowledge that says that some knowledge is available from reason alone?
Rationalism
Which school of thought supports the idea that the foundation of knowledge lies in the mind and not in the senses?
Rationalism
Immanuel Kant was a _______________.
Rationalist
What was Plato?
Rationalist
Who believes that you are born with some knowlege?
Rationalists
Reports; realist tales
Real life accounts, 3rd person voice
Post-postivsim
Reality exists but we will never fully understand it; grounded theory
Critical Theory
Reality is constructed by who has power. Reality is imperfectly understood, shaped by cultural, political and social forces
What is the process of gaining once again the vivid knowledge that lies inside you, but which you have forgotten since leaving the World of Forms?
Recollection
What do we mean by the term MEMOING?
Recording of the data, getting ideas when reading the info, and making notes - why did I think that? Does the study still represent the hypothesis?
Qualitative Research: Saturation
Refers to a situation in data analysis where participants' descriptions become repetitive and confirm previously collected data An indication that data analysis is complete When data analysis is complete, data collection is terminated. "Once a preliminary conceptual framework was emerging from the data, a thorough review of the literature through the year 2000 was conducted to augment and help shape future theory development."
Empirical
Relating to or deriving from experience, especially sense experience, but also including experimental scientific investigation.
Theoretical Notes
Remind researcher of ideas for concept and theory development
Mixed Method Research
Research that integrates qualitative and quantitative data and strategies ( Instrument development, Hypothesis generation and testing,Intervention development)
Familiarization
Researcher becomes familiar with the data (transcripts, recordings, etc) Immersion in the data Notation of key ideas or themes Data may need to be pruned because of volume
Risks/Benefits
Researchers often administer a consent form to alert the participant of these possible experiences.
Reports; confessionist tales
Researchers personal accounts that provide insight into the study
Clinical Significance/Relevance vs. Statistical Significance
Results from research studies might be clinically significant/relevant, but not statistically significant And results might be statistically significant, but not clinically significant/relevant - If statistically significant, results might not be practical e.g., Treatment could be effective, but might involve costly or inaccessible procedure Even if not statistically significant, results might be very important e.g., if sample size were increased, might see statistical significance
agreement reality
Scientists having certain criteria that must be met before they accept the reality of something they have not personally experienced; has requirements
how science guards illogical reasoning
Scientists use systems of logic consciously and explicitly (clearly demonstrate)
Extensive analysis
Searching through your whole dataset to test hypotheses generated by analysis of one or two cases.
What did Berkley believe that the one type of quality is?
Secondary
Social constructionism
See constructionism.
Bracketing
Setting aside your own interpretations to decrease or remove bias
Empiricists believe that knowledge is based on
Senses
Member checking
Sharing research findings with participants
Explain "transferability" in qualitative research (Lincoln and Guba).
Similar to external validity. Can the conclusions found here be transferred to describe similar situations?
Close-Ended Questions
Similar to fixed-response questions, this refers to a survey questionnaire approach in which the answers to a particular question are often pre-set by the researcher.
Explain "dependability" in qualitative research (Lincoln and Guba).
Similar to reliability. Dependability relies on the researcher having described all of the factors in the research that might have influenced the data.
What is the most extreme form of skepticism?
Solipsism
It is useful to reflect on whether they will contribute to the text rather than simply repeating commentary that has already been made. Can you edit a quotation?
Some believe that quotations should be reported exactly as they occurred. Others believe that some editing is desirable to provide a more fluent account for the reader and/or because some readers may give less weight to more hesitant accounts.
inaccurate observation example
Someone asking you to recall what your roommate wore to class this morning and you are not correct; guard against this by being asked to monitor their outfit for a week, how often they dress up, or wearing certain colors
Gatekeeper
Someone who is able to grant or refuse access to the field.
Variable
Something that is being studied - this something changes or varies
Recruit the sample
Sources: Existing lists/groups Referrals (from key informant), or snowball Intercepts Open solicitation/targeted Issues to consider: Information forms Consent forms Reminder phone calls Logistics of contact/recruitment
Matters of Fact
States of affairs, how the world is. According to Hume they are known through experience and induction, especially causal inference.
Methods
Strategies used to collect data
Focus groups
Structured group discussion designed to answer a specific research question Led by a moderator Interaction is the defining characteristic
Structured interviewing
Structured interviewing involves using a topic guide that contains specific, but open ended, questions Best for inexperienced moderators Best when you are combining methodologies and/or paradigms (very specific purpose)
Likert scales are examples of what kind of data?
Subjective / Ordinal data
Stratified random sampling
Subjects are grouped into categories by age for example; each classification must NOT have any overlap. Then pull samples from each of the groups.
Willig (2001)
Suggested there were two types of reflexivity: 1: Personal reflexivity 2. Epistemological reflexivity.
yes
Suitable question for social science research?: Does divorce increase the likelihood of behavioral problems for young children?
no
Suitable question for social science research?: Is democracy the best form of governance?
yes
Suitable question for social science research?: Is violence more likely in societies with greater income inequality?
no
Suitable question for social science research?: Should the United States abolish the death penalty?
What means that the predicate adds something to the idea of the subject?
Synthetic
Metasynthesis
Systematic Review if Qualitative reseach
Clinical Practice Guidelines
Systematically developed statements to assist practitioner and patient decisions about appropriate health care for specific clinical circumstances.
Quantitative
THEORY GOING INTO STUDY already and aim is to find EVIDENCE TO SUPPORT theory Respondent,Concepts, Variables, Data (numeric values),Relationships
Technephronesis
Techne, producing outcomes by mastering the means of production. Phronesis - good judgement applied to human conduct - reasoning across time.
No false lemmas
The "no false lemmas" condition is sometimes added to the tripartite definition of knowledge and it says that for something to count as knowledge it must be the case that you did not infer it from anything false.
Central Tendency (Mode, Median, Mean)
The (mode) refers to the most frequent observation or value; this (mean) refers to the arithmetic average of a set of values; this (median) refers to dividing the array of observations in half, such that half the elements fall above and half below.
What is a problem that results from Locke's Representationalist View of Knowledge?
The Egocentric Predicament
Plato's theory of metaphysics and epistemology is sometimes referred to as:
The Theory of the Forms
A. Knowledge claims must be set within the conditions of the world today and in the multiple perspectives of class, race, gender, and other group affiliations
The basic concept of postmodernism is that:
A. That research should contain an action agenda for reform that may change lives
The basic tenet of the advocacy paradigm is:
Causal Principle
The claim that everything has a cause.
Concept innatism
The claim that some of our concepts are innate, not derived from sense experience, but somehow part of the structure of the mind.
Interviewer effects
The effects that the presence of a particular interviewer may have on the interview.
Analytic induction
The equivalent to the statistical testing of quantitative associations to see if they are greater than might be expected at random (random error). Using AI, the researcher examines a case, and, where appropriate, redefines the phenomenon and reformulates a hypothesis until a universal relationship is shown (Fielding, 1988: 7-8).
As a phenomenalist, David Hume rejects what
The existence of God, the self and inductive reasoning
Triangulation
The expansion of research strategies in a single study to enhance diversity/ enrich understanding
Quality
The extent to which a study minimizes bias
B. Case study, phenomenology, grounded theory, ethnography, narrative
The five qualitative traditions focused on in the Creswell text are:
A. What is the nature of reality?
The ontological assumption questions:
Participant expectations
The participants' ideas of the research and the researcher can affect the trustworthiness of the data.
Historical
The past; What were the ancient Romans' basic beliefs regarding diseases of the breast?
Selective Coding
The process of identifying the central code in data
Ontology
The science of being- what can be said to exist?
Field
The setting or place where ethnographic research takes place.
The research question
The specific question you want to answer with your research
Rationalism
The theory that there can be a priori knowledge of synthetic propositions about the world. This knowledge is innate or gained by reason rather than derived via sense experience.
Independent Variable
The variable that has the presumed effect on the dependent variable - manipulated
Solipsism
The view that only one's self, one's mind, exists. There are no mind-independent objects and there are no other minds either.
Theoretical generalization
Theoretical concepts derived from the study can be used to develop further theory.
What is theoretical generalization? How does it relate to case studies?
Theoretical generalization is when the researchers use the data collected to expand and relate to an existing theory. The information gathered from an induvidual in a case study can be used to expand on a widespread theory.
Researchers use a lens to view their studies, such as cultural, gendered or racial differences.
Theoretical lens
Formal theories
Theories which relate findings from one setting to many situations or settings (see Glaser and Strauss, 1967).
Filter Questions
These are questions that, based on the participants' responses, re-route them to another set of questions; this is an efficient way to skip a number of irrelevant questions.
According to the theory of positivism, why do concepts such as feelings and emotions have no place in the formation of knowledge?
They cannot be directly observed or measured, they are unreliable and are not constant over time
Relevance marker 2
Thick description
Slots
This describes when an interviewer gives the interviewee a chance to say something they might've forgotten, didn't know to mention, and/or time to discuss whatever they may not have shared throughout the interview.
Trustworthiness
This is established when the findings of the research reflect the meanings as they are described by the participants.
Census Sample
This refers to a count or survey of 100% of a population.
Reflexive Science
This refers to a critical self-reflective and aware view of one's own social location, position, context, history, and more as a researcher.
Common problems moderators face
Too few/many participants Participant behavior Experts, dominant talkers, disruptive behavior, ramblers, shy respondents Participant comments Disrespectful Personal disclosure Incorrect/harmful information Group Norm
Justice
Treat subjects fairly
T/F in probability sampling each person has a probability of being chosen as a potential subject?
True
Type 1 Error: The likelihood of concluding there is a relationship or difference between groups when in fact, there is none (the results are really due to chance).
Type 2 error: The likelihood of concluding there is no relationship or difference when, in fact, there is one (failing to find an actual difference).
Convenience sampling
Using people around you; like at work for study
Thematic Analysis (1/2)
What is a theme? Something important about the data in relation to the research question A level of patterned or leveled response or meaning within the data set Requires judgment and not quantity
Define researcher triangulation.
When different researchers are used to make sure that the results remain the same even when the person conducting the experiment has changed.
Trustworthiness
When the findings of the research reflect the intended meanings of the participants.
When are qualitative methods used?
When there is little known or understood about a subject
Operational definitions
Working definitions which allow the measurement of some variable within quantitative research.
descriptive example
Who is participating in hook-up culture? Is it only students at Northwestern University?
Did Plato believe in innate ideas? Where did they come from?
YES; the world of forms
What is "tabula rasa"?
You are born a blank tablet at birth
constant comparison
[grounded theory research] newly gathered data are continually compared with previously collected data and its coding in order to refine the development of theoretical categories. purpose -- test emerging ideas that might take the research in new and fruitful directions.
paramnesia
a disturbance of memory in which reality and fantasy are confused; includes things like deja vu and deja entendu
floccillation
aimless plucking or picking, usually at bedclothes or clothing - commonly seen in dementia/delirium
Assent
an aspect of informed consent r/t protecting the rights of children as research subjects
Concept
an image or a symbolic representation of an abstract idea
jargon aphasia
aphasia in which the words produced a neologistic
Quantitative research environments are ____?
artificial
Participant Action Research (PAR)
based on a recognition that KNOWLEDGE can be political and used for POWER, work with vulnerable communities (MANIPULATION)
paradigm
basic set of beliefs that guide action
typical-case sampling
capture the norm, the typical case, not respresentative for a group, illustrative and not for generalized statements
perception
conscious awareness of elements in the environment by the mental processing of sensory stimului
Constant Comparison
data is CONSTANTLY COMPARED with earlier data to find commonalities and variations, used to develop and refine concepts and categories
Research methodology
derived from the RQ and study design
Disadvantages of focus groups
difficult data analysis (time-consuming); ethics; moderator's bias; false sense of consensus
quantitative tests theory while qualitative
generates theory
what process requires authenticating resources such as archives, films, letters...
historical
personal reflexivity
honest about own biases & adjust for them
dysmetria
impaired ability to gauge distance
emic
insider
quantitative research
is based on numerical data
selective observation
is caused by overgeneralization; noticing only things that confirm our pre-existing beliefs
egomania
morbid self-preoccupation or self-centeredness, narcissism
satyriasis
morbid, insatiable sexual need or desire in a man
Why is cluster sampling used?
more economical and time consuming
another name for nonrandom sampling
non-probability
Bracketing
reflexivity in phenomenology
derealization
sensation of changed reality or that one's surroundings have changed
inductive
specific observations to broader generalizations and theories
- Selective outputs provide accounts of
specific parts of the evidence
Satisific
the common practice of coming up with a decision that is merely adequate rather than optimal (Simon, 2007).
What is the principle when it comes to sample size?
the larger the size the better
Convience sampling involves what type of particiapants?
those who are easily accessible to the researcher and who meet the criteria of the study
representational generalization
true (generalizable) outside sample
What is participant observation?
when the researcher actually participates as well as observes
correlation
when two things are associated with one another;
Despite different warnings like, the readability of a research, verbatim passages do have a crucial role in terms of 'grounding' complex ideas and analyses in participants' accounts. General principles to use quotations:
• Demonstrate the type of language, terms or concepts that people use to discuss a particular subject. • Illustrate the meanings that people attach to social phenomena • Illustrate people's expressions of their views or thoughts about a particular subject • Illustrate different positions in relation to a model, process or typology • Demonstrate features of participants' presentation of phenomena such as strength, ambivalence, hesitancy confusion or even contradictory views • Amplify the way in which complex phenomena are described and understood • Portray the general richness of individual or group accounts
Qualitative Research: Setting for Data Collection
"Informant-driven" rather than "theory-driven" Investigator assumes ignorance of the culture or experience being studied Informant teaches the investigator Data is collected in the "field" - the natural world where people live and experience life Investigator should: be nonintrusive spend a prolonged time in the field Some researchers used multiple methods-observation, interviews most common Usually a large volume of data is collected during qualitative research process- FAT DATA.
Knowledge to Action process:
-Identify a problem that needs addressing -Identify, review, and select the -knowledge or research relevant to the problem (e.g., practice guidelines or research findings) -Adapt the identified knowledge or research to the local context -Assess barriers to using the knowledge -Select, tailor, and implement interventions to promote the use of knowledge (i.e., implement the change) -Monitor knowledge use -Evaluate the outcomes of using the knowledge -Sustain ongoing knowledge use
RE-AIM Questions
-Reach What proportion of the target population participated in this intervention? -Efficacy What is the success rate if implemented as in protocol? -Adoption What proportion of settings, practices and plans will adopt this intervention? -Implementation To what extent in the intervention implemented in the real-world -Maintenance To what extent is the program sustained over time?
What are Cohen's bench marks for effect size?
.20 is considred small .50 is medium .80 is large and the sample size is adequate
most nursing studies cannot expect effect sizes to be in excess of
.50 most .20-.40
What does Cohen says is the minimal acceptable level?
.80 the larger the power needed the larger the sample size
According to Cohen the minimal acceptable level of power is
.80 this means that ther is an 80% probability of obtaining an accurate result and a 20% chance of a type II error
QDA- qualitative Data Analysis
1. Coding - Upack the box, deconstruct, naming to classify the data 2. Categorize: Reconstruct data into categories. Comparison of similarities or differences. 3. Patterns
Strengths of qualitative research
1. Collects "rich", meaningful data that is often detailed and in-depth. 2. Particularly useful for investigating complex and sensitive issues. 3. Can be helpful in establishing underlying causes that may be missed in the quantitative approach. 4. Can be used to generate new theories. 5. Often has increased ecological validity as people are studied in their own environment.
Steps in coding
1. Create a team of coders and review sub-set of transcripts 2. Understand the subjectivities and biases of the team 3. Become familiar with your transcripts 4. Create a first draft of codebook 5. Apply the codes to a second pre-selected group of transcripts 6. Meet as a team to discuss the codes and finalize the codebook 7. Make a coding plan and apply the codes to all transcripts 8. Determine Agreement Rate ***These steps can be concurrent with continued data collection***
Validity
1. Credibility & crisis of representation: accurate interpretation of the people's meanings 2. Criticality: critical appraisal of all aspects of the research 3. Authenticity: different voices are heard 4. Integrity: self-critical researchers in terms of reflexivity
Paradigm
A conceptual framework (see model).
Postmodernism
A contemporary approach which questions or seeks to deconstruct both accepted concepts (e.g. the 'subject' and the 'field') and scientific method. Postmodernism is both an analytical model and a way of describing contemporary society as a pastiche of insecure and changing elements.
Illusion
A distortion of the senses that means what we perceive is different from what exists.
Spurious Relationship
A false relationship between two variables (A, B). A and B may appear to be causally related, but they are actually affected independently by a third variable (C). For example, U.S. cities with the highest number of art museums (A) also have the highest concentrations of smog (B). What might explain this? City size.
Credibility
A feature that describes how correct or valid conclusions are about the functionality of a relationship between two variables, such as a procedure and changes in behavior; addresses the validity of the answer to the question.
Heterogenous Focus Group
A focus group where participants are different.
What is a focus group
A group of approximately 8-10 individuals who discuss a particular topic chosen by the researcher, under the direction of a moderator, who promotes interaction among the members. The moderator assures that the discussion remains on topic and/or that all questions in the guide are addressed.
Triangulation
A kind of cross-checking of information and conclusions formed in research brought about by the use of multiple procedures or sources.
Significance level
A level of sample established prior to the study - a min.
interview guide
A list of topics to be covered in an interview. Similar to a questionnaire, but much less structured, and without multiple-response questions. Used mainly in semi-structured interviews and group discussions.
Post-positivism
A material world exists, not all things can be understood, the senses give us an imperfect understanding
in depth interview
A method of data collection in which a participant is interviewed in detail about a certain research participant. In this format, the interviewer leads the discussion flexibly along some pre-structured topics, but also allows the participant to expand upon topics in-depth and to explore new avenues of discussion.
Participant observation
A method that assumes that, in order to understand the world 'first hand', you must participate yourself rather than just observe at a distance. This method was championed by the early anthropologists but is shared by some ethnographers.
Naturalism
A model of research which seeks to minimize presuppositions in order to witness subjects' worlds in their own terms (Gubrium and Holstein, 1997).
Emotionalism
A model of social research in which the primary issue is to generate data which give an authentic insight into people's experiences. Emotionalists tend to favour open-ended interviews (see Gubrium and Holstein, 1997).
Positivism
A model of the research process which treats 'social facts' as existing independently of the activities of both participants and researchers. For positivists, the aim is to generate data which are valid and reliable, independently of the research setting.
Structuralism
A model used in anthropology which aims to show how single cases relate to general social forms. Structural anthropologists draw upon French social and linguistic theory of the early twentieth century, notably Ferdinand de Saussure and Emile Durkheim. They view behaviour as the expression of a 'society' which works as a 'hidden hand' constraining and forming human action.
Constructionism
A model which encourages researchers to focus upon how phenomena come to be what they are through the close study of interaction in different contexts. It is opposed to naturalism.
Convenience sampling
A non-probability sampling method where a sample is selected from population that is readily available.
Purposive sampling
A non-probability sampling method where subjects are deliberately selected based on predefined criteria or particular characteristics chosen by the researchers that they feel will help them explore the research topic.
Snowball sampling
A non-probability sampling method, often employed in field research, whereby each person interviewed may be asked to suggest additional people for interviewing.
Hallucination
A non-veridical perceptual experience that is not coherently connected with the rest of our perceptual experience.
Qualitative Studies: Case Studies
A particular case study may be the focus of any of the previously mentioned field strategies. In depth description of dimensions and processes of a phenomena, close scrutiny and understanding. The case study is important in qualitative research, especially in areas where exceptions are being studied. Example: A patient may have a rare form of cancer that has a set of symptoms and potential treatments that have never before been researched.
Sample, sampling
A statistical procedure for finding cases to study. Sampling has two functions: it allows you to feel confident about the representativeness of your sample, and such representativeness allows you to make broader inferences.
What is the postmodern transcription technique?
A technique used in interviews to not only record sound, but also record movement, laughs, and body-language. This can be done through notes or by filming.
Researcher bias
A tendency for researchers to engage in behaviors and selectively notice evidence that supports their hypotheses or expectations
Reflexivity
A term deriving from ethnomethodology where it is used to describe the self-organizing character of all interaction so that any action provides for its own context. Mistakenly used to refer to self-questioning by a researcher.
Category Emergence
A term that describes when patterns in qualitative data become evident. For example, when people keep saying the same thing over and over again.
Interview society
A term used by Atkinson and Silverman (1997) to point out the ways in which interviews have become a central medium for understanding who we are.
Rewriting of history
A term used by Garfinkel (1967) to refer to the way in which any account retrospectively finds reasons for any past event.
Idiom
A term used by Gubrium and Holstein (1997) to describe a set of analytical preferences for particular concepts, styles of research and ways of writing (see model).
Grand theory
A term used by Mills (1959) to describe highly abstract speculation which has little or no use in research.
Social structure
A term used in sociology and anthropology to describe the institutional arrangements of a particular society or group (e.g. family and class structures).
Paradigmatic
A term used in structuralism to indicate a polar set of concepts or activities where the presence of one denies the existence of the other (e.g. a red traffic light).
Syntagmatic
A term used within semiotics to denote the order in which related elements occur (e.g. how colours follow one another in traffic lights).
What does Cronbach's alpha measure?
A test of reliability regarding internal consistency
Hypothesis
A testable proposition often based on an educated guess.
What is a raw-theme?
A theme that has naturally arisen from the data. A theme such as, "I enjoy working at home..."
Substantive theory
A theory about a particular situation or group. Can be used to develop formal theory.
Relativism
A value position where we resist taking a position because we believe that, since everything is relative to its particular context, it should not be criticized.
Intervening variable
A variable which is influenced by a prior factor and goes on to influence another. Commonly used in quantitative research to work out which statistical association may be spurious.
overgeneralization example
A visitor coming to MSMC to learn about the school and only speaking to 3 or 4 students and concluded based off the interactions with that friend group of friends that all students are dissatisfied with the school; speaking with every 5 people that walk into the dining hall and give them a satisfaction survey; do this for five days at different times
Critical theory
Aka: critical social theory Concerned with critique of society Looks at power hierarchies in social systems Form of action research Researcher focused on sociopolitical action Critical ethnography Raises consciousness to produce social change
Concept Empiricism
All concepts (or ideas) are derived from sense experience.
Orientational qualitative inquiry
An ideology directs the inquiry and research process is feminism or critical theory
What is an intrinsic case-study?
An intrinsic case study is a case study that are of interest purely for their own sake, there is no need to generalize beyond the situation at hand.
Idea
An object of perception, thought or understanding. Locke uses the term to refer to a complete thought, taking the form of a proposition e.g. "bananas are yellow"; a sensation or sensory experience e.g. a visual sensation of yellow; or a concept e.g. yellow.
What is a controlled observation?
An observation that takes place anywhere (either lab, or in natural conditions) but the situation that takes place is a artificial one.
What is a naturalistic observation?
An observation that takes place in a situation that naturally occurs.
Sampling error / bias
An over or under representation of a sample - this is why randomization is so important.
Continuer
An utterance which signals to a listener that what they have just said has been understood and that they should now continue (see conversation analysis).
Mapping and Interpretation
Analysis of the key characteristics as laid out in the charts. It is at this point that the researcher is cognizant of the objectives of qualitative analysis, which are: "defining concepts, mapping range and nature of phenomena, creating typologies, finding associations, providing explanations, and developing strategies" (Ritchie and Spencer, 1994:186).
What means that the subject contains the idea of the predicate?
Analytic
Narrative Analysis
Analyzes "stories" of participants over time for cultural and social meanings
What is the knowledge that one has prior to sensation?
Apriori
Homogeneity
Are the elements similar? To what degree?
Memos
Are to SELF; reminders, why did I choose these themes?
Who defined knowledge as justified true belief?
Aristotle
Dependability examples;
Audit trail again, multiple interviews, data saturation, coding checks that show agreement, uniformity of responses across subjects
Confirmability examples;
Audit trail, knowing potential bias, accurate record keeping
Perception
Awareness of apparently external objects through use of the senses.
Considerations before, during and after observation
BEFORE: Find out the problem to be investigated. Set up a plan for observation. Decide whether to conduct a participant/non participant observation. Become familiar with the setting and the people to be observed. Decide what kind of notes to take. Be aware of researcher's possible influence. Be aware of ethical rules of conduct. Consider observer triangulation. DURING: Meet with the participants and establish a rapport. AFTER: Conduct post-observational interviews. Debrief the participants. Carry out data analysis, using grounded theory based on analysis.
Considerations before, during and after interview
BEFORE: Relevant sampling methods Training of the interviewer Choice of interviewer How the data will be recorded How the data will be transcribed (verbatim/postmodern) DURING: To establish rapport between interviewer and patient Positioning of recording device The use of an active listening technique AFTER: Debriefing of participant Reading of transcripts by participant Feedback from participant
Transferability
BETTER QUOTES used, internet used to recruit sample
According to Socrates, how do we "tether" our beliefs to reality?
Back them up with reasons
What theory requires that all of an individual's beliefs be compatible with one another?
Coherentism
Purposive sampling
Common across qualitative methods; researcher seeks & invites qualified participants
Observations
Complete participant, observer as participant, participant as observer, complete observer-> conversational
Qualitative Research: Literature Review
Completed (and sometimes not started) after the data have been collected and analyzed Rationale: To avoid leading the participants in the direction of what has already been discovered Purpose of literature review: = To show how current findings fit into what is already known
Qualitative Research: Data Analysis: Process of fitting data together:
Comprehending- understanding what has been said Synthesizing- organizing and summarizing information Theorizing- placing information within context of a theoretical framework (grounded theory) Re-contextualizing- interpreting information within context of environment where event or phenomenon occurred
Code creation
Concept investigation may be inferred a priori - series is typically built inductively through analysis.
Coding Units
Concepts are coded as units of analysis
Confidence Intervals (CI)
Confidence Intervals are used to describe the precision of the estimate: -Narrow confidence intervals, more precise - Wide confidence intervals, less precise NOTE: your result (which is a point estimate) always lies in the middle of the 95% CI
Quality + Quantity + Consistency = ?
Confidence to ACT
Give some ethical considerations of interviews.
Confidentiality.
The term that describes the rigor used by a researcher doing a qualitative study in terms of methodology and audit trail is?
Confirmability
Adjacency pairs
Consecutive actions which are grouped in pairs and constrain what the next speaker may do (e.g. questions and answers).
Grounded Theory
Constant comparison of study findings to literature-the theory is constructed inductively from a base of observations of the world as it is lived by a selected group of people
When a study tool, such as a survey, actually measure the concepts the researcher is interested in, we say the tool has a high degree of?
Content validity
Types of validity 3
Content, criterior-related, construct
Statistical Significance via Confidence Intervals
Continuous Data --> e.g., Mean Differences: HINT: the means are being subtracted from each other TIP: if both the low end and the high end of the 95% CI have minus signs, then it is always LESS THAN and statistically significant or vise versa RULE: if the 95% Confidence Interval (95%CI) includes "0", the result is not significant, i.e. there is no difference between the groups EXAMPLE: Mean difference = 5 and 95% CI (-1.1 to 8) Not Significant Mean difference = 5 and 95% CI (2 to 8) Significant Discrete Data --> Categorical results (e.g., Ratios): HINT: the proportions are being divided TIP: if both the high end of the CI and the low end of the CI start with 'zer0' (i.e., a decimal), then 95% CI DOES NOT cross '1' therefore statistically significant and ALWAYS LESS LIKELY and vice versa RULE: if the 95% CI includes "1", the result is not significant and there is no difference between the groups Example Relative Risk Ratio 2, 95% CI (0.5, 6.4) Not Significant Relative Risk Ratio 2, 95% CI (1.5, 6.4) Significant
General rules for these data
Continuous: - Average scores between two or more groups can be subtracted - Therefore you may see results with 'minus' signs Discrete (Categorical): - Data can be calculated in frequencies (or proportions) - Data from 2 groups can be divided (to get 'Ratios') - You will never see 'minus signs' if the data are presented as ratios
Assumptions of conversation analysis
Conversation is socially structured; Conversation must be understood contextually; Seeks understanding of the structure and meaning of conversation
What is a common sense theory that most of us think of when we claim the truth?
Correspondence Theory
Open Coding
Creating many codes during initial look at data
Qualitative Research: Credibility (internal validity)
Credibility Refers to confidence in the truth of the data and interpretations of that data Description must be plausible and recognized by participants Enhanced by: Prolonged time in the field repeatedly observing and interacting with participants Using different data sources, methods, data type Conducting member checks = Involving other investigators in the study
Explain "credibility" in qualitative research. (Lincoln and Guba)
Credibility is like internal validity. They focus more on whether or not the researcher has reached the right conclusion according to the rich data.
Four Essential Elements of Evaluation
Credibility, Transferability, Dependability, Confirmability
trustworthiness
Credibility, in the rhetoric of qualitative research (Morrow, 2005)
CAT
Critical Apprasial Table
B. Empowering human beings to transcend the constraints placed on them by race, class, and gender
Critical theory is concerned with:
Ethnography
Culture; What are the self-breast exam practices of Amerasian women?
Grounded Theory
Data collection and analysis are conducted together. Discovery of theory from the data. Theoretical sampling to exhaust categories.
GROUNDED THEORY Data Analysis
Data collection and analysis occur simultaneously. Researchers serve as instruments for data interpretation. Emerging patterns identified from transcripts and fieldnotes. Codes of themes. Nvivo™ computer software one example of a program used to manage data. These themes/patterns further explored in interviews. Themes also used as a form of data reduction. Initial analysis called open coding. Then data are compared with other data continuously as collected by process known as constant comparative method. Propositions made about the relationships among and between categories/themes/codes.
Correlational - examines relationships amoung variables
Data collection methods - questionnaire, survey / scales / biophysi
The Vision for Clinical Informatics
Data should be: -Captured as a byproduct of the care process -Entered only once (and verified if needed) Use and re-used for: 1.Data Sharing (view reports and others' notes) Pros: Remote & Asynchronous viewing Multiple concurrent viewers Decrease repeat tests (cost savings) Cons: Potential for privacy breach Requires national standards for health information exchange Info-structure costly to implement Presumes digital literacy 2.Real time decision support (guideline integration, knowledge translation) Pros: Supports guideline adherence Prevents some adverse events (e.g., drug-drug interaction) Can be used for quality data tracking Cons: Complex & time consuming to develop Alert fatigue Technology induced errors if user interface confusing Presumes data collection complete from previous users Requires comprehensive infostructure and standards 3.Administrative reporting (must know what you will get OUT of system) Pros: Automated reports: reduce time to get administrative data Reduce cost of medical records department Near to 'real-time' administrative reporting (currently there is a time lag due to manual data abstraction) Cons: Data collection pushed to front-line person Uncertain how data is used for decision making Information overload --> not using data? Can't get data out unless planned during system design May require additional time/expertise when building system 4.Research 5.Practice-based evidence (knowledge discovery) Pros: for 4 and 5 Big Data (Massive data) Larger data sets Have full population data Data mining techniques can be applied Time to get data faster because no need for manual data extraction Cons: for 4 and 5 Potential for Privacy breach if mining identifiable data Can't get data out if system not designed for it Can take longer if data are 'dirty' Qualitative data might not be used Might miss context of quantitative data
Ethnographic research Focuses on the
PATTERNS OF A CULTURE , understand a culture
Theoretical sampling
PILOT study sample, a starting point for a larger study that may be coming; or expensive, or time sensitive
Qualitative
POTENTIAL THEORY GOING INTO a study, it is developed after the study and inductive reasoning is used Informant, Phenomena, concepts, themes, Data (narratives), Patterns of association
Researcher attempts to learn the meaning that participants hold regarding a problem.
Participants meaning
Nodal Points
People who know a lot about the situation but may not be folks you gather data about (i.e., they are not the subjects of your study); important for understanding how to gain entrée or access for ethnographies.
Quantitative v Qualitative
Per Krieken et al 2006 - qualitative data is richer, has greater depth and is more likely to present a true picture of experiences, attitudes and beliefs
Purposive sampling
Purposive: non representative subset of some larger population, and is constructed to serve a very specific need or purpose. A researcher may have a specific group in mind, such as high level business executives. It may not be possible to specify the population -- they would not all be known, and access will be difficult. The researcher will attempt to zero in on the target group, interviewing whomever is available. Snowball sample is subset of purposive- A snowball sample is achieved by asking a participant to suggest someone else who might be willing or appropriate for the study. Snowball samples are particularly useful in hard-to-track populations, such as truants, drug users, etc.
Which type of knowledge does epistemology concentrate the most with?
Propositional; the other types are experiential, logical, prodecural
Models
Provide an overall framework for how we look at reality (e.g. positivism, naturalism and constructionism). They tell us what reality is like and the basic elements it contains ('ontology') and what are the nature and status of knowledge ('epistemology'). See also idioms.
Tools for Information Management
Provide data and knowledge needed by the clinician, but do not help apply that information to the task e.g., Medline, Drug Reference Database, Infobuttons Infobuttons via WebCIS/Eclipsys
Purposeful sampling
Purposeful Sampling (non probability sampling) Types: Convenience Snowball or chain Venue- based sampling Criterion Street intercept Others (typical case, confirming/disconfirming case, purposeful random sampling; list based usually in conjunction with another study
Dr. Blenner's infertility study where she chose couples who both had infetility problems, then the male facot, then unexplained factor?
Purposeful/theoretical/judgement sampling
What sampling is based on the premise, needed to provide the most useful information about the phenomenon being studied?
Purposeful/theoretical/judgement sampling
What type of nonprobability sampling is most used in qualtitaive research?
Purposeful/theoretical/judgement sampling known by any of the three names
Ethnography
Puts together two different words: 'ethno' means 'folk', while 'graph' derives from 'writing'. Ethnography refers, then, to social scientific writing about particular folks.
Coding
Putting data into theoretically defined categories in order to analyse them.
Semantics - Quantitative = Reliability
Qualitative = Dependability
Semantics - Quantitative = Applicability
Qualitative = Transferability
D. All of the above
Qualitative research:
Data saturation
Qualitative researchers analyse the data until they reach a point where they can find no new information.
Research articles; need 3 things
Quality - is it valid and reliable? Quantity - 3 articles or 30 articles? Are they all stating the same thing? Consistency - in similar circumstances, do different researchers find the same outcomes? Need all 3 in order to act with confidence.
Quantitative, because you are identifying the number of students that agreed or disagreed
Quantitative or Qualitative? Explain: Course Evaluation Part 1: Readings were useful (check box of statement that best applies)
Qualitative because you are using words, it is open-ended
Quantitative or Qualitative? Explain: Course Evaluation Part 2: Describe the best parts of the course
Qualitative study because she is analyzing the words being spoken
Quantitative or Qualitative? Explain: Key themes from interviews article and is analyzing based on responses of participants
Quantitative because you are counting the number of languages
Quantitative or Qualitative? Explain: Please mark off all languages spoken at home: English Spanish Chinese Other
Silverman Criticisms of Quantitative 1
Quantitative research can amount to a quick fix
Levels of Evidence III
Quasiexperimental study
A. A variety of methods and strategies relating to individual identity
Queer theory is characterized by:
Experimental / Clinical trial - examines causes of certain effects
Questinnaire / Scales / Biophysiological
Grounded theory methods
Question What are the social problems and processes associated with...........? - Data Collection method Interviews - Data Analysis method Coding, matrices, central category Format for presenting results Theory or theoretical/conceptual model
Phenomenology Data collection and analysis
Question What is the lived experience of......? - Data Collection method Long, multiple interviews - Data Analysis method Hermeneutic analysis (interpretation of human meaning and experience) Statements, meaning themes Format for presenting results Description of "essence" of experience
Ethnography Data collection and analysis
Question: What are the cultural practices in group...............? - Data Collection method Participant observation, interviews, artifacts Prolonged engagement in field Focus groups - Data Analysis method Describe practices, interpret meaning of practices Format for presenting results Description of cultural behavior of group/individual
Prompts
Questions or statement to generate discussion when participants do not respond to an initial question or have a limited response. ex. Initial question: Tell me your experiences at camp Prompts: When I say your experiences at camp I mean any activities like swimming, team sports or even your interactions with the other campers. What were your favorite activities? What did you and didn't you like?
Measurement error 2
Random and systematic
Random sampling/quota sampling
Random: each individual in the population of interest has an equal likelihood of selection Quota sample: the researcher deliberately sets the proportions of levels or strata within the sample.
In a study using grounded theory methodology, the sample size must be big enough to?
Reach data saturation
Low-inference descriptors
Recording observations 'in terms that are as concrete as possible, including verbatim accounts of what people say, for example, rather than researchers' reconstructions of the general sense of what a person said, which would allow researchers' personal perspectives to influence the reporting' (Seale, 1999: 148) (see reliability).
The Cogito
Refers to Descartes first certain Knowledge "I think".
Dependability (reliability)
Refers to stability of data overtime and over conditions Researcher has documented all phases of the research process Leads reader through the: steps of designing the research question, collection of data, analysis, and interpretation stages This is determined by an audit trail Involves auditing research process, documenting all the raw data generated, and assessing method of data analysis Would findings of an inquiry be similar if it were replicated with the same/similar participants and context?
Methodology
Refers to the choices we make about appropriate models, cases to study, methods of data gathering, forms of data analysis etc., in planning and executing a research study.
Cartesian Circle
Refers to the circular reason Descartes seems to employ regarding clear and distinct ideas and God: God cannot rely on clear and distinct ideas before proving God exists, but he can't prove that God exists without relying on clear and distinct ideas.
Confirmability (objectivity)
Refers to the objectivity of the data- the potential for congruence between two or more researchers about data accuracy, relevance, or meaning Findings must reflect views of informants and conditions of inquiry Audit trail-recording of activities that another individual can follow (e.g. systematic collection of documents-data, coding, etc)
Personal reflexivity
Reflecting on the ways in which factors such as the researcher's values, beliefs, experiences, interests, and political commitment have influenced the research.
Relations of Ideas
Relations of ideas are established by pure thought or reflection ad are "intuitively and demonstratively certain." The negation of a relation of ideas is a contradiction.
Reliabilism
Reliabilism claims that you know that p if you believe that p, p is true and p is justified by a reliable cognitive process.
Validity and Reliability in Qualitative Research: Reliability
Reliability: the extent to which the research process is reasonably stable over time across researchers and methods Possible Threats to Reliability: Are research questions clear and congruent with study design? Is the researcher's role and status within the study explicitly described? Are basic paradigms and analytic constructs clearly specified Were data collected across the full range of appropriate settings, times, respondents as suggested by the research questions? Strategies to enhance reliability: Were data quality checks made? Were coding checks made, and did they show adequate agreement? Are findings reasonably parallel across data sources? Do multiple observers' accounts converge? Were forms of peer review in place?
Phenomenology Sampling
Relies on VERY SMALL SAMPLES (often 10 or fewer) experienced phenomenon of interest & be able to articulate their experience
Conceptual data
Reports on theories or reviews- how to type articles
Self contained use of focus groups
Research Questions: What are general perceptions of bodegas held by residents of the East New York and Bed-Stuy neighborhoods? How can the role of bodegas in providing healthy foods be expanded in these communities Method: Focus groups
Case study
Research based on the study of a limited number of naturally occurring settings.
Generalizability
The extent to which a finding in one setting can be applied more generally.
Credibility
The extent to which any research claim has been shown to be based on evidence.
Reflexivity
The fact that a researcher reflects upon his/her own involvement in the research process.
B. Postpositivism, constructivism, advocacy/participatory, pragmatism
The four paradigms Creswell focuses on are::
In your own words, describe an example that illustrates the Gettier Problem
The guttier Problem says how just by satisfying the Tripartite Theory doesn't necessarily converts things into knowledge. If my teacher had a twin sister, and both happen to be in the same room but the twin sister happens to be the teacher today, not my real teacher, and I don't know, when i'm asked "is your teacher in this room" I'll say yes but i'm accidentally correct since both happen to be by casualty in the same room.
Coherence theory of truth
The idea that truth is not absolute, but consensual.
Evidence Informed Practice
The incorporation of evidence from research, clinical expertise, client preferences and other available resources to make decisions about patients
Informed Consent
The legal principle that requires a researcher to inform subjects about potential benefits and risks
Silverman Criticism of Quantitative 4
The pursuit of 'measurable' phenomena mean that unperceived values and subjectivity creeps into research - cannot enumerate discrimination
Critical Thinking
The rational examination of ideas, inferences, assumptions, principles, arguments, conclusions, issues, beliefs, statements and actions
Clusters of Meaning
The researcher develops these after conducting a horizontalization by grouping together the significant themes.
What is member-checking?
The researcher goes through the final data with the participant to see if the participant agrees that it is a realistic representation of their own reality.
Inferential generalization
The results of the study can be applied to situations outside of the study. Also called transferability or external validity.
Discourse analysis
The study of 'the way versions of the world, of society, events, and inner psychological worlds are produced in discourse' (Potter, 2004: 202).
What is a case-study?
The study of a specific incident that is studied because it is rare or simply because it is relevant for a certain situation.
Ethnomethodology
The study of folk - or members' - methods. It seeks to describe the methods that persons use in doing social life. Ethnomethodology is not a methodology but a theoretical model.
Epistemology
The study of knowledge and related concepts including belief, justification and certainty. It look at the possibility and sources of knowledge.
Semiotics
The study of signs (from speech, to fashion, to Morse code).
Narrative analysis
The study of the organization of stories (e.g. beginning, middle and end; plots and characters) that makes stories meaningful or coherent in a form appropriate to the needs of a particular occasion.
Knowledge Empiricism
The theory that there can be no a priori knowledge of synthetic propositions about the world (outside my mind) i.e. all a priori knowledge is of analytic propositions, whilst all knowledge of synthetic propositions must be checked against sense experience.
What is the one point that separates rationalists from empiricists?
The topic of innate ideas
Phase 2
Theoretical paradigms and perspectives: what beliefs guide my actions as a researcher?
Qualitative Research: Ethical Issues in the Field
Research goals never override the rights, health, or well-being and care of informants Protecting the anonymity of the informants (how done?) Disclosing (or not) the purpose of the research Researcher as instrument - "reflexivity" is the researcher's consciousness of biases, values, and experiences he/she brings to a study
Grounded Theory: Research Protocol
Researcher brings some knowledge of literature to study. Researcher must not express his/her opinions or values to the informant. Exhaustive literature search is purposefully not done in advance of the study starting. Why??? Theories are expected to emerge directly from current research data and not from previous research and are therefore grounded in the data.
Qualitative Research: Data Analysis
Researcher immerses self in data to bring order and meaning to vast narrative Come to truly understand what the data are saying, similar data is clustered together Cyclical process - data collection occurs simultaneously with data analysis Analysis begins when data collection begins Reading, rereading, intuiting, analyzing, synthesizing, and reporting on data Requires extensive amount of time
Qualitative Research: Researcher Role: Explicating Researcher's Beliefs
Researcher is immersed in the field of study so must acknowledge biases Bracketing - setting aside one's biases and personal views on a topic =Investigator keeps a diary of personal thoughts and feelings about the topic Purpose: the researcher is made aware when interpretations of the data reflect personal beliefs rather than those of the participants
Personal Narrative
Researcher is removed, they may be speaking of observations they may have had only
Quantitative research is deductive
Researcher narrows hypothesis to finite set of variables, which is answered through research driven experimental study
Qualitative Research: Data collection: Interviews
Researcher questions a subject verbally: face-to-face, telephone, using open- or close-ended questions. Content of an interview is based on the: literature review, research question, previous experience Interviews are preferably pilot tested before doing the study to test reliability, validity and clarity of items (reword some items)
Impressionist tales
Researcher storytelling
Purposive Sampling
Researcher uses knowledge to select participants considered representative
Researcher bias
Researcher's own beliefs may influence the research process (possibly because the researcher does not pay enough attention to the participants).
Etic Perspective
Researcher's perspective
Randomization (Random Assignment, Random Allocation) - controls for unknown confounders
Theoretically, randomization controls for known and unknown factors - Involves placing subjects into treatment conditions at random - Approximates the ideal—but impossible—counterfactual of having the same people in multiple treatment groups simultaneously - If randomization is effective, baseline groups will not be statistically different
Null hypothesus
Statistical hypothesis
Aggregate Data
Statistics which relate to broad classes, groups, or categories, so that it is not possible to distinguish the properties of individuals within those classes, groups, or categories. Aggregation can be by socioeconomic grouping, for example, the size of the economically active population, or by time interval, for example, the percentage of single mothers by education in a year (see McLanahan)
Transcendental
Step in analyzing data. Descriptive (requires bracketing belief that pre-understanding doesn't necessarily impact the acceptance of new understanding and knowledge beyond that of the researcher);
Hermeneutic
Step in analyzing data. Interpretive (doesn't require bracketing because bracketing or pre-understanding can't be eliminated)
Reflexivity
Step in analyzing data. thinking process related to self-reflection and self-awareness); use of a reflexive diary to capture and review your thoughts, perceptions, and feelings
Explain the four different structures of an interview.
Structured: There are specific questions which will find and answer and nothing else. Semi-Structured: The interviewer had a decided a structure but allows the discussion to deviate a little, on the focused topic. Unstructured: There is no structure, the interviews are like conversations, the interviewer as a specific goal, but reaching it is unimportant. Narrative: Asked "Tell me about your childhood" and the interviewee tells the story without interruption.
General Principles of Statistics
There are two main types of data: - Continuous E.g., Blood Pressure in mmHg, income in dollars NOTE: continuous data can be converted into categorical data by grouping the data, but you can't convert categorical data into continuous data - Discrete (Categorical) E.g., yes/no; chocolate/vanilla/strawberry; income level (low, medium, high)
Confidence marker 4
Thick description - using quotes from participants to give deep sense of contribution
Transferability examples;
Thick description, checking for representativeness of the data, clear explanation of the boundaries and limitations of the study.
Kant believed that causation, space, and time were all categories of our ________.
Thinking
Epistemological reflexivity
Thinking about the ways knowledge has been generated in the study. Could there be a different methodology employed, different research question?
Qualitative Data
This form of data consists of text - for example gathered from interviews with or observations of participants. Textual data is open-ended and flexible and is considered "rich" but also subjective as it is open to interpretation.
Quantitative Data
This form of data is in the form of numbers that is easy to summarize and to statistically analyze. This form is often collected in order to generalize beyond the subject sample when creating nomothetic laws.
Deception-Based Research
This is also sometimes referred to as incomplete disclosure in research, and occurs when participants are deliberately given false information about some aspect of the research; incomplete disclosure occurs when participants are not given information about the real purpose or the nature of the research.
Quasi-Experimental Design
This is like an experimental design but it lacks the element of random selection; all designs like this potentially result in selection effect.
Theoretical Sample
This is the type of sampling that qualitative researchers do. It is different from random sampling but borrows from the principles of survey research.
Mapping
This is what ethnographers do when they provide novelistic descriptions of a setting. This is part of the ethnographer's sampling efforts and is an example of how you can apply the principles of survey research to qualitative research.
Voluntary Participation
This is when a research participant freely consents to participate in a study.
Confirmability
This is where field notes are important to determine if the study is ?
Semi-structured interview
This kind of interview uses both closed and open-ended questions.
Qualitative Research: Unstructured or Intensive Interviewing
This method allows the researcher to ask open-ended questions during an interview. Details are more important here than a specific interview procedure. Respondents use own words as much as possible. Here lies the inductive framework through which theory can be generated.
Interviews
This method refers to questioning someone to discover their opinions, attitudes, and/or experiences on a given topic.
Focus Groups
This refers to a group of people assembled to participate in a guided discussion, interview, etc. about a particular topic.
Method of Difference
This refers to a method of scientific induction devised by John Stuart Mill according to which if an instance in which the phenomenon under investigation occurs and an instance in which it does not occur have each circumstance except one in common, that one occurring only in the former, the circumstance in which the two instances differ is the effect or cause or necessary part of the cause of the phenomenon; the only thing that is different is the cause.
Method of Agreement
This refers to a method of scientific induction devised by John Stuart Mill according to which if two or more instances of a phenomenon under investigation have only a single circumstance in common the circumstance in which all the instances agree is the cause or effect of the phenomenon; everything that is the same is the cause.
Steps in Coding 3. Become familiar with your transcripts
Immerse yourself—read and reread sub-sample of transcripts, review notes Determine themes by searching for the core meanings of the thoughts, feelings and behaviors described in the transcripts "Interpret" your data Relate thematic areas to one another Relate thematic areas back to your original RQ Suggest the implications of the findings Discuss your initial findings and impressions with team
What is the difference between a participant and non-participant observation?
In participant observations, the researcher pretends to be "one of" the participants. In the non-participant observation, they do not.
Response Rate
In survey research, this refers to the number of people who answered the survey divided by the number of people in the sample; it is usually expressed in the form of a percentage. For example, 1,000 surveys sent by mail, 257 were completed and returned, response rate would be 25.7%.
Indexing
Indexing means that one identifies portions or sections of the data that correspond to a particular theme. This process is applied to all the textual data that has been gathered (i.e. transcripts of interviews). Essentially coding!
Researchers build on their research with a bottom up approach
Inductive data analysis
What is qualitative methodology?
Inductive, draws big conclusions from small ideas. Answers in words, tries to depict how certain individuals view the world. Looks for subjectivity.
Smoking Cessation Transcripts example
Initiation: reason started smoking (any reason, just the act of initiating) Parental influence: any influence parent has had on smoking behavior (to smoke or not to smoke) Curiosity: R reports initiating smoking because wanted to see what it was like Glamour: R reports initiating smoking because felt it represented a life they wanted or wanted to appear different than they are
Causal Pathway
Inputs-> Activities-> Outputs-> Effects (Outcomes) -> Impact
Translation- back translation guide- Instrument
Instrument Creation of English instrument - researcher Translate into local language - bilingual translator Back-translated into English -DIFFERENT bilingual translator Side-by side comparison of English to English instruments
Steps in Coding 8. Determine Agreement Rate
Intercoder Agreement (ICA): widely used term for the extent to which independent coders evaluate a block of text and reach the same conclusion (apply the same code)
Researchers interpret what they see, hear and understand
Interpretive Inquiry
C. Interpretive stances of the researcher
Interpretive communities are narrowed from the paradigm and become the:
D. The self-reflective nature of how qualitative research is conducted, read, and advance
Interpretive qualitative research approach focuses on:
GROUNDED THEORY: Data Gathering (natural setting)
Interviews (recorded, transcribed) Skilled observations of individuals in setting/situation (recorded as field notes) Open-ended questions used to identify concepts for further focus. Semi-structured questions with probes. Example: Have you ever been tested for HIV? (closed-ended question) Example: Why did you decide to not/get tested? (open/probing) Probe: Was this a difficult decision for you? Could you tell me about how the things you considered when making this decision.
Content Analysis Coding
Involves assigning artifacts to one or more categories
Content analysis
Involves establishing categories and systematic linkages between them, and then counting the number of instances when those categories are used in a particular item of text.
Analysis of data obtained in observational research
Involves taking an inductive approach by creating a picture as they collect the data and examine it. The analysis is often based on researcher's field notes but are often compared to data from other sources (e.g. interview transcripts, pictures, narratives), as it is common in participant observation to use a variety of sources.
Respondent validation
Involves taking one's findings back to the subjects being studied. Where these people verify one's findings, it is argued, one can be more confident of their validity.
Contextual sensitivity
Involves the recognition that apparently uniform social institutions (e.g. 'tribes', 'families', 'crime') take on different meanings in different contexts.
Theory triangulation
Involves the use of multiple theories or perspectives to aid in interpreting the data.
Researcher triangulation
Involves using more than one observer, interviewer or researcher to confirm the findings by comparing and checking data collection and interpretation.
Explain: "representativeness"?
Is the sample, representative of the population - measured.
Explain the infinite regress argument
It challenges the tripartite theory of knowledge because justifications are can be infinite. Because there's never an end to justifications, it's certain to say that it doesn't become actual knowledge since it failed to comply with the theory.
Tabula Rasa
Latin for "blank slate." Locke claims that at birth, our mind is a tabula rasa, meaning we have no innate knowledge or ideas.
Who is credited with the Correspondence Theory?
Lidwig Wittgenstein
Focus groups
Limitations Limited generalizability of findings Interaction of respondents, opinionated members Moderator bias or inexperience Benefits Data gathered more quickly from a group than individuals Interaction of respondents Richer data in the words of the respondent Synergy, flexibility Literacy not an issue
Focus Groups: Limitations
Limitations of open-ended questions Interaction: downside Not able to generalize Moderator inexperience and/or bias
Limitations and benefits to observation
Limitations- acceptance by group, selective recall Benefits - uncover behaviors not known to participants, overcome discrepancy between what people say and do
Systematic Review
Lit review with rigorous methods to identify, critically appraise and synthesize primary studies
Historical
Literature is data source- the systematic compilation of data and the critical presentation, evaluation, and interpretation of facts re: past people and events
Phenomenology
Lived experience; What is the lived experience of a woman dying from breast cancer?
Who argued that the Principle of Non-Contradiction was NOT innate?
Locke
Who believed that there are TWO of everything?
Locke
What theory says, "All you know is your idea, which represents reality to you. You do not know substance as it is, only your idea of it."?
Locke's Representationalist View of Knowledge
Reflection
Locke: "our experience of our internal operations of our minds," gained through introspection or an awareness of what the mind is doing. More generally, thinking.
Electronic Guidelines/Pathways
Logic of guideline/pathway embedded into clinical information system: -Alerts at appropriate time points based on relevant data -Improve adherence to guidelines E.g., flu vaccine for >65
participant observation
Logs (field diaries). Field notes, Descriptive (observational) notes
Quantitative research typically has _______ ecologically validity.
Low (not very real life)
Quantitative research typically is _______.
Low reflexivity
Signs
Material artifacts or nonmaterial instances (body language, gestures, word usage)
Physical Object
Material objects, including things like tables, chairs, books and your own body.
According to constructionism what is true about meaning?
Meaning is not discovered but constructed
Themes
Meaningful clusters of related or similar data that occur frequently in the text
Think-aloud method
Means of COLLECTING DATA BOUT COGNITIVE about cognitive processes as they unfold (e.g., clinical decision-making)
Steps in Coding 6. Meet as a team to discuss codes and finalize the codebook
Meetings should include: Review of what each individual has coded Determination of whether there are codes that can be eliminated or collapsed Efforts to further develop themes, enhance team communication, and resolve disagreements Time to develop a clear and shared understanding of the emerging findings of the study Ongoing coding reliability checks
Levels of Evidence I
Meta-analysis, systematic review of several randomized control trials
Writing up qualitative research findings Preparing to write
Metal: take the time to think of ideas or half-formulate thoughts. It might even involve taking a few days of before starting to write. Take the time to write a couple of ours at the time not all snatches hours here and there.
Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis
Method of idographic qualitative research that attempts to understand how a given person understands a particular phenomenon in a given context. It is an inductive approach because the theory emerges from the data.
Reflective notes
Methodologic notes, Theoretical notes (or analytical notes), PERSONAL NOTES
Differences between Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches
Methods: Qualitative- Observation/Interview Quantitative- Experiment/Survey Questions: Qualitative- What is X? Quantitative- How many X? Reasoning: Qualitative- Inductive Quantitative- Deductive Sampling: Qualitative- Theoretical " convenience" Quantitative- Statistical " random sampling" Strength: Qualitative- Validity Quantitative- Reliability
Purposive sampling
Minimal bias sample; but can not generalize to the larger population because the researcher has selected - focus is more on the phenomenon itself.
Leave an Audit Trail
Minimize researcher bias by allowing another to retrace analytic steps.
Constant Comparison of coders
Minimize researcher bias by ensuring consistency and completeness.
Trustworthiness (Minimizing Researcher Bias)
Minimize researcher bias by providing enough raw data (e.g., quotes) to support interpretations.
Identify a Thematic Framework
Mix concepts from the literature (theory, etc) and concepts coming from the data Thus, a priori theory guides the thematic framework, but with an open mind Devising and refining a thematic framework is not an automatic or mechanical process, but involves making judgments about meaning, about the relevance and importance of issues, and about implicit connections between ideas. ITERATIVE PROCESS
Multi method use of focus groups
Morgan emphasizes using with other qualitative methodologies like observation and in-depth interviews; mixed qualitative methods Multi-method Study: focus groups plus key informant interviews Key Findings: Prediction of "lightening up" of safe sex and safe needle practices with the availability of an HIV vaccine The need for education around vaccine efficacy and continued behavioral risk reduction
Collection of data in the field at the site where the participants experience the issue or problem of study.
Natural setting
Unperceived Objects
Objects that exist when not perceived by anyone.
Covert observation
Observation in which the observer's presence or purpose is kept secret from those being observed.
Overt observation
Observation in which those being observed and informed are informed of the observers presence and purpose.
What research methods are used in qualitative research?
Observations, case studies, interviews.
Naturalistic observation
Observing and recording behaviour in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation.
Phenomena
Occurrences, circumstances, or facts that are perceptible by the senses
illogical reasoning example
The Gambler's fallacy, which is a mindset that frequent gamblers establish in which they believe that a consistent run of either good or bad luck is expected to foreshadow the opposite, so loosing on one particular slot machine two weekends in a row means that on the third weekend, they will return to that particular machine because "it is due for a win" ; Looking at the statistics of slot machines and realizing they cannot be predicted
Appraising qualitative research: Trustworthiness of Data
Do the results accurately portray participants' experiences? Rigour- quality of study reflected in the believability of study findings. Was the right approach used to answer the research question with the patient population? Was data rich and did it show that a relationship existed between themes ?
Textual data
Documents and/or images which have become recorded without the intervention of a researcher (e.g. through an interview).
Fittingness
Does it resonate with the everyday experience of the phenomenon?
Quality of Qualitative Studies
Does replication make sense for qualitative studies? - Not necessarily, b/c we're looking for the particular, not the general Is there a fundamental social reality against which results can be checked to assess validity? - Not trying to find a "truth", often looking for something that's "interesting"
cross-sectional data example
Dr. Vorsanger administering a survey in class
example of anecdotal evidence
Dr. Vorsanger seeing an article about e-mails interfering with performance of professors, but Dr. Vorsanger compares her own experiences to this and she does not get 200 emails per day
selective observation example
Dr. Vorsanger working in a public service office and a woman came on for paperwork and was on her cell phone. Receptionists then claimed "They all have phones now" and noticing only when people came in with phones, but not without; the secretaries at the office will observe possession of cell phones within their clientele (with or without) for one calendar month
What was John Locke?
Empiricist
Who argued that there are no innate ideas?
Empiricists
Concern for Welfare: How to apply: - What may seem a trivial matter to a researcher may be of greater significance to participants in different circumstances or different cultures. - Unintended consequences of research participation can be anticipated by paying attention to participants' characteristics and circumstances: - Consider potential impacts on participants' physical and mental health, on their social or economic circumstances, and on their privacy - Consult any groups that may be affected by the research to assess the risk of negative impacts such as stigmatization and discrimination - Eliminate and/or minimize risks - Maximize benefits - Provide accurate and accessible information
Ensure that participants are not exposed to unnecessary risks. Aspects of welfare include: - physical, mental and spiritual health - physical, economic and social circumstances - privacy and the control of personal information - the treatment of human biological materials according to the consent of the donor - the possible effect of the research on the welfare of participants' friends, family, or other groups
Inferential generalization
Findings of the study can also be applied to settings outside the setting of the study.
Writing up qualitative research Preparing to write It is at this point that some preparation is needed in terms of both mental and physical organisation.
First, it is highly likely that the researcher will be emerging from a deep involvement in analysis and ideas, hypotheses and features of the research story will be furiously buzzing away. It is advisable to make space in a working programme to give some consolidated time to the process of writing. It is extremely difficult to keep alive the conceptual momentum needed for creative and penetrative writing if the researcher is simultaneously involved in other stages of another study or in totally different activities.
D. Ontology, epistemology, axiology, rhetorical, methodological
Five philosophical assumptions Creswell focuses on are:
Qualitative Research: Summary: Advantages and Limitations
Focus on the whole of the human experience and the meanings ascribed to them by participants They provide the researcher with deep insights that would not be possible using quantitative methods The major strength of qualitative work is the validity of the data it produces Participants true reality is likely to be reflected Major limitation is its perceived lack of objectivity and generalizability Researchers become the research tools and may lack objectivity
The Qualitative Paradigm: Case Study
Focus: To develop an in-depth description and analysis of a case or multiple cases Best used when the researcher wants to provide an in-depth understanding of a particular case so as to shed light on a larger phenomenon Data come from multiple sources: interviews, observations, documents, artifacts Analysis: Themes of the case are described; themes are also explored cross-case
The Qualitative Paradigm: Phenomenology
Focus: the essence or meaning of an experience The best option when the researcher needs to describe the essence of a lived phenomenon Data come primarily through interviews with individuals, although documents and observations may be used as well Analysis: Data are analyzed for significant statements, meaning, descriptions
The Qualitative Paradigm: Narrative Research
Focus: the life of an individual (or a few individuals) The best option when a researcher needs to tell stories of individual experiences Data primarily come from interviews and documents Analysis: Data are analyzed for "stories" and coherent narratives, often using chronology Stories are used to develop themes
Ethnography
Focuses on describing culture or the "cultural scene" (culture can be small group culture too) Ethnographic work is always contextual There are many types of ethnography (classical, systematic, interpretive, critical, focused etc....) Key elements of ethnography: fieldwork (participant observation; immersion in the field), focus on culture (norms, values, beliefs, practices, rules)
Pattern Discovery Process
Frequencies (How many?), Magnitudes (How much?), Structures (To whom?), Processes (Order), Causes (Why), Consequences (Outcome)
Guidelines Generated by:
Generated by: - Professional Groups e.g. CMA, AHA, American Cancer Society Methods vary, may be based on consensus (can be problematic) May have incentives such as protection of providers not patient safety as incentive - Agencies - Typically more rigorous - Health Canada - links to guidelines -CMA -BC CDC
Saturation Point
Getting enough subjects to reach a data ?
Interval
Give values meaning with equal intervals
Ratio
Give values meaning with equal intervals, absolute zero point plotted.
Identify the moderator
Goals Characteristics Assumed roles Biases Common phrases to keep things rolling "Let's see what else people have to say about..." (To get more on current question) "Now let me ask you a related question..." (to move between question types)
The decription of power analysis in a research article should include
name of statistical test lecel of the one-tailed or 2 tailed statistical significance level of the power effect size (should include the rationale for the effect size selected).
Quantitative research tends to have a _________ range of info
narrow and focused
What types of settings are used in qualitative
natural settings
ontology
nature of reality-- researcher reports different perspectives as themes develop in findings
What is another anme for snowball sampling?
network sampling
sensory extinction
neurological sign operationally defined as failure to report one of two simultaneously presented sensory stimuli despite the fact that either stimulus alone is correctly reported
Axial coding
new set of codes to make connections between categories; bring separate categories together under a theory
neologism
new words whose derivation cannot be understood
is statistical power used
no
Taken-for-grantedness
no more surprises
Theoretical saturation
no new concepts emerge (continued observation of what's known; repetitive notes)
Describe theoretical saturation
no new ideas or points of view are emerging and the study is considered complete
aculalia
nonsense speech associated with marked impairment in concentration
the ways of knowing in research focuses on
not so much what we know, but how we know it
Quantitative research is typically subjective or objective?
objective
tangentiality
oblique, digressive or even irrelevant manner of speech in which the central idea is not communicated
Qualitative Methods
observation, interview, methods of data collection, type of interview
Debriefing
observing participants then asking for consent after - if they refuse, their results are not included
Hegemony
occurs when people see hierarchical relationships as normal, natural, and unchangeable and therefore accept, consent, internalize, and are complicit in reducing norms that are not in their own best interests.
How are key informants chosen?
on principles of theoretical saturationrather than statistical power analysis or size.
theory; hypotheses
one ________ may generate multiple ___________ in social science research
emic
one end of a spectrum describing the individual member level perspective
etic
one end of a spectrum describing the insider perspective of a phenomenon.
etic
one end of a spectrum describing the outsider perspective of a phenomenon
Basic Social Process (BSP)
one type of core variable, process of RESOLVING CONFLICT, GOAL OF GROUNDED THEORY
Qualitative research is inductive
opening up the line of inquiry to draw conclusions from lived experiences through interpretation and observation
If qualitative reports refer to the recurrence of particular views or experiences or to clusters of response within the sample, this should be in
order to explain why such patterns occur.
mutism
organic or functional absence of the faculty of speech
labile mood
oscillations in mood between euphoria and depression or anxiety
panphobia
overwhelming fear of everything
The level of significance is known as
p value or alpha
cryptoplegia
paralysis of the muscles in accommodation of the eyes, observed at times as an anticholinergic side effect of medications c.f. mydriasis
example of a spurious relationship
parents put nightlight in the nursery are more likely to have a near-sighted child; why? Parents are near-sighted! (third variable driving the correlation)
dependability
part of the four trustworthiness characteristics; stability of data over time; if the study were repeated would you get the same result? Example would be method and analysis sections.
confirmability
part of the four trustworthiness criteria; establishing the fact that data collected in a study is true to the participants voice and the interpretations of data were not made up; member check is an example
localized amnesia
partial loss of memory; amnesia is restricted to specific or isolated experiences (syn. lacunar amnesia/patch amnesia)
participant as observer
participant role is salient, recording data may distract researcher
Snowball sampling
participants of personal networks, who ask new participants from their own
Grounded Theory Sampling
participants who can BEST CONTRIBUTE to emerging theory (usually theoretical sampling)
kleptomania
pathological compulsion to steal - see DSM
polyphagia
pathological overeating
perseveration
pathological repetition of the same response to different stimuli
What is the numerical effect size for Pearson correlation and t-test
pearson correlation = r t-test = d
peer check
peer review of the research to assess whether the findings are plausible based on the data set.
replication value of social science research
peer-reviewed and studies are replicated; it is a blind review process with expert human researchers and compare previous findings
data sources
people, organizations, texts, settings, objects, events
5 researcher behaviors with quantitative research
perceiving reacting interacting attaching meaning recording
macropsia
perception that objects are bigger than they actually are
micropsia
perception that objects are smaller than expected
illusion
perceptual misinterpretation of a real external stimulus
Positivist paradigm
perhaps the most common paradigm among traditional scientists, it suggests that there is only one true reality "out there" in the world - one that already exists and is waiting to be discovered.
purposeful sampling
permits deep understandings from information rich cases, talk to people that can answer the question
phobia
persistent, pathological, unrealistic, intense fear of an object or situation
qualitative often gives what details about an individual
personable, subjective experience
Three major research traditions
phanomenological, grounded theory, ethnographic
Which type of qualitative research is described as the "lived experience" with its foundation in philosophy?
phenomenological
Two types of qualitative research
phenomenological ethnographic
4 types of qualitative research
phenomenological grounded theory ethnographic historical
Process oriented and broad questions are characteristics of what?
phenomenon if interest
the qualitative design chosen should be true to what?
philosophical underpinnings
What is the foundation of phenomenological method?
philosophy
When a researcher explains why a qualitative method is needed they should always clearly identify what?
philosophy and methodological approach.
coprophagia
poop eating
The capacity to reject the null hypothesis is also known as
populaiton
The ability of the research to detect differences in the relationships that actually exist is called?
power
What is the ability of a study to detect differnces or relationships that exists in the populaiton?
power
What is power analysis used to determine?
power of a statistical test
How do you determine adequate sampling?
power of analysis
Paradigms
preferred ways of understanding reality, building knowledge, and gathering information about the world.
Challenging in reporting qualitative data The key aim in writing up qualitative evidence is to
present findings in an accessible form that will satisfy the research objectives and engage the target audience
reaction formation
psychoanalysis term - development of a socialized attitude or interest that is the direct antithesis of some infantile wish or impulse that is harboured consciously or unconsciously.
sublimation
psychoanalysis term - energy associated with unacceptable impulses or drives is diverted into personally and socially acceptable channels; unlike other defense mechanisms it offers some minimal gratification of the instinctual drive or impulse
secondary process thinking
psychoanalysis term - form of thinking that is logical, organized and reality orientated and influenced by the demands of the environment
primary process thinking
psychoanalysis term - mental activity related directly to the functions of the id and characteristic of unconscious mental processes; marked by primitive, prelogical thinking and by the tendency to seek immediate discharge and gratification of instinctual demands
narcissism
psychoanalysis term - primary narcissism refers to the early infantile phase of object relationship development, when the child has not differentiated the self from the outside world, and all sources of pleasure are unrealistically recognized as coming from within the self, given the child a false sense of omnipotence. secondary narcissism is when the libido, once attached to external love objects is redirected back to the self
incorporation
psychoanalysis term - primitive unconscious defense mechanism in which the psychic representation of another person or aspects of another person are assimilated into oneself through a figurative process of symbolic oral ingestion; special form of introjection and earliest mechanism of identification
undoing
psychoanalysis term - repetitive in nature by which a person symbolically acts out in reverse something unacceptable that has already been done or against which the ego must defend itself; commonly seen in OCD
repression
psychoanalysis term - unacceptable mental contents are banished or kept out of consciousness
displacement
psychoanalysis term - unconscious defense mechanism by which the emotional component of an unacceptable idea or object is transferred to a more acceptable one (common in phobias)
projection
psychoanalysis term - unconscious defense mechanism in which persons attribute to another those generally unconscious ideas, thoughts, feelings and impulsses that are in themselves undesirable or unacceptable.
cathexis
psychoanalytic term - a conscious or unconscious investment of psychic energy in an idea, concept, object or person
What type of sampling is used to identify the key informants?
purposeful (theoretical) sampling
types of research
quantitative and qualitative
What is often confused with random sampling?
random assignment
what are the two types of sampling methods?
random or pobability nonrandom or non-probability
Constructivism
realities are plural, established between humans - Research aims at gaining a deeper understanding of how humans construct their realities - Explain why and how the subjective experiences of people are meaningful - Qualitative methodology: verbal and narrative means to collect data; interdependence between researchers and those they study
Constructive
reality is constructed from individual perception- no absolute truths- truth is relative, subjective, based on perception
positivism
reality is singular and exists independently - Study reality objectively (models from natural sciences applied to social sciences) - Quantitative methodology - cause & effect - Deductive approach: from the general to specific
Postpositivist
reality still exists independently but human beliefs are multiple (subjectivity) - Humans interact in patterned ways (predictable) - Strive for objectivity: mostly QNM but also QLM to uncover complex phenomena
It provides an opportunity for further thought as the data are assembled into a coherent structure to convey the research evidence to the target audience. Data will be
reassessed, further analysed and then assembled into a final account which will display the findings with ordered and reflective commentary.
audit trails
records kept regarding what is done in the investigation
abulia
reduced impulse to act and to think; associated with indifference about consequences of action
constricted affect
reduction in INTENSITY of feeling tone that is less severe than that of blunted affect
restricted affect
reduction in intensity of feeling tone that is less severe than blunted but clearly reduced
Etic Perspective
refers to the OUTSIDERS of the experiences of that culture
Relevance in qualitative research
refers to the extent to which the research is viable
Rhizomatic
refers to the idea that meaning is root-like and therefore interconnected, interdependent, and complex.
Emic Perspective (members)
refers to the way the MEMBERS POV
emergent theory
relations between data and the categories they are coded to
interviewing does not use principles of ____ & _____
reliability and validity
logoclonia
repeated use of the same word (syn. perseveration)
echolalia
repeating words of one person by another
anacasm
repetitious or stereotyped behaviour or thought usually used as a tension-relieving device; synonym for obsession
Ethnography
research marked by long-term immersion into a culture and by the thick description of a variety of cultural aspects including language use, rituals, ceremonies, relationships, and artifacts.
Phase 3
research strategies: what approach do I choose? How does my choice impact my approach?
Phronetic Research
research that is concerned with practical contextual knowledge and is carried out with an aim toward social commentary, action, and transformation.
Narrative inquiry
research that views stories - whether gathered through field notes, interviews, oral tales, blogs, letters, or autobiographies - as fundamental to human experience.
nonparticipant/observe as participant
researcher as outsider
What is the triangulation method
researcher inductively develops a theory after completion of a theory the data is drived into the development of a psychosocial instrument
reflexivity
researcher knowing where you are in relation to your topic, researcher thinks in a certain way and they understand how that is informing their opinion or view
participant observation
researcher role is to activity participate as well as conduct the research study
poverty of speech
restriction in the amount of speech used; also known as laconic speech
noesis
revelation in which immense illumination occurs in associated with a sense that one has been chosen to lead or command
What is essential with historical method
review of all essential documets, critical presentation, evaluation, interpretation, and to authenticate all data
Complete participant
role as a researcher is hidden (may affect what's happening)
Participant as observer
role is acknowledged but also takes part in interaction (participate>observe)
Complete observer
role is hidden and researcher doesn't affect the interaction in any way
Persona
role of the author e.g. detective
cerea flexibilitas
same as waxy flexibility where one can be molded into any position by an examiner
What is the most objective way to identify the smallest sample size needed?
sampling size power analysis
Likert scale
scale commonly involved in research that employs questionnaires; rating responses not by yes.no, but instead by rating numbers held to different standards on a continuum
Etic
seeing through conceptual categories of theory - site as field
maximum variation sampling
seeks as much diversity from the population as possible
Sampling
selective and purposive; serve the research sampling criteria (framework, time, age, gender, status, purpose of study, etc.)
Key findings and commentary on policy and methodological implications may be disseminated through
seminars, workshops, conferences, briefing papers, journal articles and books. Less traditional outputs: theater, poetry, photography, music etc. See box 13.1 for more outputs. Outputs should be judged not only for their substantive contribution and impact, but also for their aesthetic merit and reflexivity.
depersonalization
sensation of unreality concerning oneself, parts of oneself, or one's environment that occurs under extreme stress or fatigue
carebaria
sensation or discomfort in the pressure of the head
paradigm
set of beliefs that guides actions and theory of research
examples of variables
sex, age, marital status, major, etc.
mimicry
simple, imitative motion activity of childhood
It is important to estimate the sample and sampling procedure with the greates accuracy in what
size and sampling procedure
hypersomnia
sleeping more
bradykinesia
slow movements
bradylexia
slowed reading
bradylalia
slowed speech
critical case
small number of important cases, select cases that offer a lot of information, application to other cases
discourse analysis
social construction of conversation, social implications of conversation, large variety of questions, reflexivity, transcriptions
Qualitative research explores
social meaning, the importance of context, understanding of long term processes
Sedimented
solid and difficult to remedy; the term is used by poststructural scholars, who argue that the examination of power relations is necessary in order to understand why some problems and ideas are held with more merit than others.
Site
specific physical place, where the researcher & actors coexist
cluttering
speech disorder - disturbance of fluency involving an abnormally rapid rate and erratic rhythm of speech that impedes intelligibility and the individual him/herself is unaware of communicative impairment
loosening of associations
speech disturbance in which unrelated and unconnected ideas shift from one to another
metonymy
speech disturbance that is seen in schizophrenia where the affected person uses a word or phrase that is related to the proper one but is not the one ordinarily used. e.g. consuming a menu (rather than meal) - subtype of paraphrasia
poverty of content of speech
speech that is adequate in amount but conveys very little information
agrammatism
speech where patient forms words into a sentence without regard for grammar - seen in alzheimer's and picks'
prolonged engagement
spending sufficient time in field to learn and understand the culture
What studies should you beware of?
studies that include statistical analysis while calling themselves qualitative
panel studies
studies when data is collected from the same set of people (sample) at several points in time; powerful because you can track patterns and events
iterative process
study begins with a few participants and finds more until trends in answers emerge and theory can be built
The 4 strengths of qualitative research methods are
study in context / sometimes cant experiment / deals with experiment's limits / helps with triangulation
naturalistic inquiry
study in the real world
epistemology
study of the nature of knowledge; how you know what you know
Critical tradition
study the relations between power, knowledge & discourse produced in the context of history & culture - Give disadvantaged groups a voice - communication as a possibility for change a. Feminism: researcher & participants should be equal b. Postcolonialism c. Critical race theory d. Cultural studies
Structuration theory
study the structures of meaning, power and norms in everyday life; duality of structure
example of a cohort study
studying success after graduation: surveying MSMC class of 2015 6 months post-grad, 2 years post-grad, and 10 years post-grad but is not the same exact people every survey so it can be representative of entire sample
Qualitative research is typically subjective or objective?
subjective
akathisia
subjective feeling of motor restlessness manifested by a compelling need to be in constant movement
In nonprobability sampling what can the researcher only talk about
subjects actually tested
othello syndrome
subtype of delusion of infidelity where one beliefs their spouse is unfaithful and associated with morbid jealousy. can end in violence like othello
intellectual insight
subtype of insight - the knowledge of the reality of a situation without the ability to use that knowledge successfully to effect an adaptive change in behaviour or master the situation
cataplexy
sudden loss of muscle tone - common in narcolepsy
Phase 5
the art, practice, and politics of interpretation and evaluation: how does the philosophical assumption frame the portrayal of my results?
what does random assignment refer to?
the assigning of subjects to either experimental or control groups in an experimental research design AFTER the sampling procedure is completed
Explaining the boundaries of qualitative research It is important to ensure that
the audience understands what qualitative research can and cannot do.
- The rationale and purpose of the research determine
the basis of the reporting strategy - The audiences the nature of the outputs required will inevitably depend on the specific audiences being addressed. - Meeting contractual/other obligations in both commissioned and grant- funded research, the range, type and format of written and other outputs that are to be produced will typically be agreed at the contractual stage with the client or funder. - The resources available there is no doubt that the resources available to a study or a research team will limit the research outputs that are possible.
Representativeness
the extent to which conclusions can be confidently generalised to wider population
validity
the extent to which the instrument captures what it is designed to measure
Participants
the focal people of the study.
Open coding
the initial unrestricted coding of data
Social construction
the interpretive idea that reality and knowledge are constructed and reproduced by people through communication, interaction, and practice.
In purposeful/theoretical/judgement sampling the researcher makes a judgement regarding what?
the key informants (not called subjects in qualitative research)
Codes
the links (categories) between the data
Phenomenon
the locus or topic of study.
Quantitative criticisms generally
the methods employed in biomedical and natural sciences are often inappropriate when studying human experiences, processes and behaviour
methodology
the methods used in the research process-- researcher works with details before generalizations, descibe in detail the context of the study and continually revise questions from experiences in field
According to Descartes, what is the easiest thing to know?
the mind
conation
the part of a person's mental life concerned with cravings, strivings motivations, drives and wishes as expressed through behaviour and motor activity
Culture is the way a group of people live
the patterns of activity and the symbolic structures (for example, the values and norms) that give such activity significance.
Displaying diversity The ability to identify the range and diversity associated with
the phenomena or topic being studied. Inclusively requires reporting and explaining the untypical as much as it does reporting the more recurrent themes.
bias
the philosophical, cultural and individual lenses through which each participant brings into a research study.
saturation
the point at which there is no new cases coming from each new participant and redundant information keeps coming up
saturation
the point of redundancy in data collection, at which the researcher is no longer gaining new information; No new themes are emerging.
Hyperreality
the postmodern idea that many representations or signifiers are constructed and consumed, but lack a specific or materially authentic referent.
Self-reflexivity
the practice of carefully considering the ways in which the researcher's background, points of view, and role impact the researcher's interactions within and interpretations of the research scene.
Bricolage
the practice of making creative and resourceful use of a variety of pieces of data that happen to be available.
- Summary outputs provide
the reader or listener with a condensed overview of the most important issues arising from the research. - Developmental outputs are designed to generate discussion and debate about emergent issues arising from the research - Selective outputs provide accounts of specific parts of the evidence
What is essential to question in critiquing research?
the representative nature of the sampling procedure
immediate memory
the reproduction, recognition or recall of perceived material within seconds after presentation (before transfer into short term memory)
Iterative Approach
the researcher alternates between considering existing theories and paying heed to emergent field site data.
axiology
the role of values in research-- researchers openly discuss values that shape the narrative and include own interpretation in conjunction with the interpretation of participants
example of a likert scale
the rosenberg self-esteem scale from the cyberbullying article that puts answers on a continuum
What is the major disadvantage of nonprobability sampling?
the sample may not be representative of the larger populaiton
positioning statement
the way in which a researcher explains his stance, role, and bias
The researcher needs to convey what in the theoretically coneptualized data?
their own experience
What are the number of key informants dependent on?
theoretical analysis and what is needed in the conceptualization, satuaration and not on specific number
culture-bound theories involves:
theory based in only one culture
method-bound theories involves:
theory based in only one methodology
methodology
theory of how inquiry should proceed
constructionism
theory of qualitative research that believes knowledge and reality are built on human interaction and experiences within a social context
critical inquiry
theory of qualitative research that emphasizes power relationships in society and uncovers issues of hegemony and injustice
Interpretivism
theory of qualitative research that seeks to understand and explain the phenomena in the research study
The reasoning of qualitative research is inductive in the development of what?
theory or conceptualization
questions of research
these questions are measurable; they can help make evidence and supports; they study social patterns, not individual ones
In determining the most appropriate structure for the evidence, writers need to
think creatively about the best way to engage and retain the reader's attention and make the story 'add up'.
concrete thinking
thinking characterised by actual things, events and immediate experiences rather than the abstract - thinking of children
illogical thinking
thinking containing erroneous conclusions or internal contradictions
autistic thinking
thinking in which the thoughts are largely narcissistic and egocentric, with emphasis on subjectively rather than objectivity and without regard for reality. interchangeable term with autism and dereism
- The hypothesis story =
this implies a three-part structure: stating a hypothesis, test it and then discussing the implications. - The analytic story = involves thinking about the key concepts used in the study, how the findings shed light on these concepts and what this means for the original research problem and for the existing literature. - The mystery story = this structure starts by pointing out mysteries and then gradually develops answers.
- The mystery story =
this structure starts by pointing out mysteries and then gradually develops answers.
Structuration theory
this theory directs the researcher's attention to the relationship between individuals and institutions; it focuses on the ways cultures, organizations, and social systems are constituted or created through the micro-practices of individual people.
descriptive
to describe the state of social affairs, tries to provide a detailed, precise picture of a population or phenomenon
Why are sampling procedures important?
to determine whether a researcher can make appropriate generalization's beyond one's sample
the two most common ways we know things
tradition and authority
Operational definition
translates the conceptual definition into behavior or verbalizations that can be measured
types of longitudinal research
trend studies, cohort studies, and panel studies
Confidence marker 1
triangulation and reflexivity - question yourself and inbuilt systems of questioning
inferential generalization
true outside study conditions
theoretical generalization
true to behavior beyond theory
What does probability sampling allow for?
true use of inferential statistics and generalizations beyond the sample
validity
truthfulness of the study; there are different types
intropunitive
turning anger inward toward oneself - seen commonly in depressed patients
What tests need a greater sample size?
two tailed-statistical tests
when relationship is modest then large sample sizes are need to avoid what?
type II errors
data collection and analysis should be consistent with what?
type of qualitative research design
example of reliability
typical bathroom scale: getting on the scale five times within five minutes and getting the same measurement each time
example of validity
un-rigging a bathroom scale that was intentionally set to ten pounds less
confabulation
unconscious filling of gaps in memory by imagining experiences or events that have no basis in fact
Phenomenology
understand the essence of the experience, shared by a few people (interviews mainly)
Ethnomethodology
understand the taken-for-granted aspects of everyday life
-Explaining boundaries of qualitative research It is important that the audience
understands what qualitative research can and cannot do. This will preferably include a discussion of the kinds of inference that can be drawn from qualitative data and its transferability to other settings.
glossolalia
unintelligible jargon that has meaning to the speaker but not the listener - seen in SCZ
conversational interview
unstructured interview with open-ended questions
eidetic image
unusually vivid or exact mental image of objects previously seen or imagined
Triangulation
use of MULTIPLE SOURCES draw conclusions about what constitutes the truth, can contribute to credibility
three ways to increase credibility are:
use reflexivity / make generalizable / triangulate
Constructivist Grounded Theory
used by nurses, positivist tradition
Theoretical sampling
used in grounded theory where the researcher selects experiences that will help the researcher test ideas and gather complete information about developing the concepts. Researchers knowledge of the population and its elements are used to select the sample and sampling is stopped with theory saturation or redundancy occurs.
Describe qualitative research
uses broad research questions, does not have variables or a hypthesis
holophrastic
using a single word to express a combination of ideas
example of criterion validity
using sat scores as a predictor of college success; in four year, comparing the grades in college with sat scores
negativism
verbal or non verbal opposition or resistance to outside suggestions and advice; commonly seen in catatonic schizophrenia
criterion validity
verified against another standard and can be an old or future measure
dependability
verify between participants and within participants, then explain your thinking process (audit trial)
lilliputian hallucination
visual experience of seeing small people and objects; subtype of micropsia
catatonic posturing
voluntary assumption of an inappropriate/bizzare posture maintained for long periods of time
middle insomnia
waking up after falling asleep without difficulty
tradition
we know things by them being passed down generations from parents or grandparents
common sense
we only feel comfortable making a case for what is the known truth (hindsight bias)
theory being useful by helping us make sense of our findings
we want to know what happens and why it happens to lead us to a deeper understanding unless it would not help us understand how things work
adynamia
weakness and fatiguability
paresis
weakness or partial paralysis of organic origin
picture books, social artifact
what is the unit of analysis?: Do children's picture books depict an equal amount of male and female characters?
neighborhood, group
what is the unit of analysis?: do neighborhoods with more young adults have higher crime rates than those with fewer adults?
amount of credits, social artifact
what is the unit of analysis?: what percentage of credits are taught by full-time faculty members?
faculty members, individuals
what is the unit of analysis?: what percentage of msmc faculty members are full time?
large corporations, organizational; large corporations
what is the unit of analysis?: WHat is the IV? Do large corporations hire a larger or smaller portion of minority group employees than smaller corporations?
authority
what we know comes from believing what we are told by trusting others
- Structuring around different time periods =
when a project studies a process or programme over time, or interviews participants on repeated occasions, the data may have an inbuilt progression or chronology that offers a clear narrative route.
• Structuring around different time periods
when a project studies a process or programme over time, or interviews participants on repeated occasions, the data may have an inbuilt progression or chronology that offers a clear narrative route. In determining the most appropriate structure for the evidence, writers need to think creatively about the best way to engage and retain the reader's attention and make the story 'add up'.
When and how is snowball sampling used?
when a researcher is looking for particualr people that is difficult to find such as Progeria The researcher identifies a few parents of children with Progeria and those parents refer the researcher to other parents they know who have children with Progeria.
when is data collection ended
when there is enough informants = when no one is telling the researcher anthing new Theoretical saturation
When is qualitative used?
when there is little understanding of the phenomenon or when you want rich details
What else needs to be determined with sampling
whether the sample size was large enough
Convenience sampling
whoever is available for the research (not good- doing the study in a context)
Experimental Design
This refers to a method used to test a specific hypothesis about a cause and effect relationship. Three steps are commonly taken: (1) measuring the effect variable; (2) exposing the effect variable to the cause variable; and (3) measuring the effect variable again to see if a change has occurred. Any factors that might affect the two variables being measured and that are not part of the causal relationship being tested must be controlled.
Correlation
This refers to a mutual relationship, connection, or association between two or more things.
Scientific Method
This refers to a particular method that includes observing, asking questions, developing a hypothesis, making predictions, conducting experiments or testing, recording and analyzing data, revising theory, and observing again (theory testing model).
Anonymity
This refers to a person or research participant who is not identified by name or other identifiable information.
Sample
This refers to a portion drawn from a population, the study of which may lead to statistical estimates of the attributes of the whole population.
Bias
This refers to a prejudice in favor of or against one thing, person, or group compared with another, usually in a way considered to be unfair, and sometimes unconscious; a partiality that prevents objective consideration of an issue or situation.
Informed Consent
This refers to a process of (1) disclosing to potential research subjects information needed to make an informed decision; (2) facilitating the understanding of what has been disclosed; and (3) promoting the voluntariness of the decision about whether or not to participate in the research.
Intervening Relationship
This refers to a relationship between two variables (A, B) that is dependent on the actions of a third variable (C). For example, working-class student (A) performs poorly on SATs (B). What might the explanation be? Working-class students go to low-quality schools (C). Here, a school-quality variable intervenes in the relationship between student social class and SAT score.
Rapport
This refers to a relationship of mutual understanding or trust and agreement between people; often this takes time to establish between a researcher and participant.
Historical Comparative
This refers to a research method in which historical accounts are observed and weighed in relation to each other.
Surveys
This refers to a research method that is often theory testing and draws on a large sample size (Big N).
Positivist Science
This refers to a scientific approach that emphasizes observable facts or perceptual experience and excludes metaphysical speculation about origins or ultimate causes; rooted in empiricism.
Likert Scale
This refers to a self-anchoring scale which presumes that you anchor yourself in an order. It is ordinal, but can sometimes be interval.
Standardized Questionnaire
This refers to a survey approach in which everyone gets the exact same questionnaire. Q: What is the problem with the standardized questionnaire? Close-ended, fixed responses, etc.
Fixed Response
This refers to a survey questionnaire approach in which the answers to a particular question are pre-set by the researcher. For example, "How likely are you to visit a health care provider?" Likely, somewhat likely, unlikely, etc.
Matrix Questions
This refers to a survey questionnaire approach in which there are a number of options listed to the side of the question for respondents to choose from. For example, "Your current GSI is supportive of your learning." 1 = of course, 2 = absolutely, 3 = without a doubt, 4 = you betcha, 5 = like no other, etc.
Theory
This refers to a system of ideas intended to explain something; an organized system of accepted (or not) knowledge that applies in a variety of circumstances to explain a set of phenomena.
Quota Sample
This refers to a type of non-probability sample in which the researcher selects people according to some fixed proportion, level, or strata.
Convenience Sample
This refers to a type of non-probability sampling which involves the sample being drawn from that part of the population which is close at hand; sometimes called opportunity sampling.
Dependent Variable
This refers to a variable that is "responds" to the independent variable; the presumed effect.
Independent Variable
This refers to a variable that is varied, manipulated, or controlled by the researcher; the presumed cause.
Transcription
This refers to a written or printed representation of something like an interview.
Hook
This refers to an approach interviewers take to draw the interviewee into the study.
Open-Ended Questions
This refers to an approach often during in-depth interviewing when a question is asked that allows for the participant to give an extended answer, opinion, etc. For example, "Describe your experience with substance abuse?"
Schemas
This refers to an internal representation of the world; an organization of concepts and actions that can be revised by new information about the world.
Semi-Structured Interviews
This refers to an interview method that is open and allows for new ideas to be brought up during the interview often as a result of what the interviewee says; though a framework of themes is generally explored.
Reliability/Validity
This refers to both consistency of observation such that the same results are obtained each time the observation is repeated, and whether the researcher is measuring exactly what they are claiming to measure.
Mutually Exclusive/Exhaustive
This refers to categories or values of close-ended, fixed-response questions that are not overlapping and in which every possible value is listed.
Ordinal Data
This refers to data that have a hierarchy, but we cannot measure the distance between or among the listed items. For example, very poor, poor, fair, good, excellent.
Nominal Data
This refers to data that have no logical way of measuring between or among them. For example, comparing ice cream flavors.
Interval Data
This refers to data where the distance between and among data points is meaningful and consistent throughout the scale. For example, the distance between an IQ of 100 and 110 is the same as the distance between 110 and 120.
Operationalization
This refers to defining a variable in such a way so as to tell what goes into that variable and what does not; a very defined variable.
Vulnerable Population
This refers to groups that are at greater than minimal risk and may not be freely available to grant voluntary consent. For example, minors, impaired, gravely ill, developmentally delayed, etc.
Longitudinal Study
This refers to information about an individual or group gathered over a long period of time; uses data gathered at several points in time.
Informants
This refers to key people who know what is going on in the community one is studying, or have first-hand knowledge about the community. For example, community leaders, professionals, or residents
Theory Testing
This refers to one of two models of research in the social sciences and typically draws on a large sample size and is quantitative (surveys).
Theory Generating
This refers to one of two models of research in the social sciences and typically draws on a small sample size and is qualitative (interviews).
Confidentiality
This refers to personal information intended to be kept secret; indicating that what one says is private or secret; entrusted with private or restricted information.
Selection Effects
This refers to pre-existing differences that lead certain people to be in certain groups.
Leading Questions
This refers to questions phrased in such a manner so as to suggest the desired answer; it can serve as a form of persuasion. For example, "What do you think of the horrible effects of pollution?"
Replicability
This refers to repeating a particular scientific experiment or trial to obtain a consistent result.
Causation
This refers to the action of causing something to happen.
Sampling Frame
This refers to the complete "list" of the population you are surveying in a study.
Values
This refers to the elements of a variable. For example, if the variable is family status, this would be: single, foster, married still living together, etc.
Population
This refers to the entire collection of items under consideration from which samples can be drawn.
Unit of Analysis
This refers to the major entity or element that is being analyzed in a study. For example, groups of people, institutions, etc.
Generalizeability
This refers to the possibility of a randomly selected sample having external validity or being more widely or generally applicable; making general statements by inferring from specific cases.
Random/Probability Sample
This refers to the possibility that each element in the population has a statistically equal chance of being in a sample.
Entrée
This term describes a process of winning trust and getting official permission to gather data from a particular social setting.
Front/Back Stage
This term describes what individuals do when they think others are or are not watching.
Variables
This term refers to a concept(s) that can take on more than one value. For example, the variable ethnicity may take on the values of African-American, Latino, etc.
Snowball Sample
This term refers to a non-probability sampling technique where existing study subjects recruit future subjects from among their acquaintances.
Representative
This term refers to the outcome of a random sampling technique.
Conceptualization
This term refers to the process of defining, describing, and/or mapping out an idea or topic of interest; an important first step in formulating a research topic.
Case-Oriented Analysis
Thorough, ideographic examination of a single case
Quantitative research typically has a __________ structure.
Tightly controlled
Feasibility
Time, money, expertise, access to subjects/participants, is it ethical?
What is the purpose of a totem in the movie Inception?
To allow a person to be sure that they are in reality and not a dream
Infallibilism
To be knowledge, a belief must be certain. If we can doubt a belief, then it is not certain, and so it is not knowledge.
Phenomenology
To describe experience as it is lived; the essence of an experience The focus is on writing in such a way that the essence of an experience is revealed A process of reading, reflecting and writing The writing is often evocative, poetic and is used to evoke understanding
Qualitative Data Analysis- main steps
Transcribe audio-recordings And/or write a narrative about video recordings Read transcriptions to identify: What is this? What is going on? What does it stand for? What else is like this? What is this distinct from? Develop a general coding scheme Based on reading the transcripts
Translation- back translation guide: transcripts
Transcripts Original transcripts in local language Translate transcripts into English Back-translate English transcripts into local language Have transcripts spot checked in original language for discrepancies Shortcut: bilingual translator reads from English version into spoken local language, which is compared by another person against original (local) transcript
Confidence marker 2
Transparency and clarity - explicitness about research methods
What is triangulation?
Triangulation is the process in which you try to boost the trustworthiness of data conclusions. This may be done by "cross-checking" in a variety of different ways.
T/F qualitative data collection and analysis takes place concurrently
True
T/F the researcher will take anyone who fits the inclusion-exclusion criteria in convenience sampling?
True
Qualitative Research Evaluation Criteria
Trustworthiness, credibilty, Transferability, Dependability
What are the three conditions of the Tripartite Theory of knowledge?
Truth, Justification, Belief; NOT soundness
Framework Analysis
Type of thematic analysis that brings in outside theory as an organizing principle (before or after the data is collected, certainly before analysis) Method frequently used in applied policy research Used to describe and interpret happenings in particular settings
Participatory Action Research
Working with people to improve the present All forms of knowledge are of value and can be applied to practical problems. Researcher identifies areas in which improvements in practice are needed, solutions are identified, actions taken to implement change in partnership with STAKEHOLDERS. "Look, think, act" Evaluation is done to ensure that changes have the desired effect. Application to health and wellness programs, program evaluation community programming. Researcher acts as a consultant, investigators immerse themselves in the field for deep understanding and to build trust and credibility; Sample is diverse perspectives backgrounds experiences. Example in class today from Deb's work
Frame
Using the metaphor of a picture frame, Goffman (1974) applies this term to reference how people treat what is currently relevant and irrelevant. Such treatment defines the frame through which a setting is constituted.
Review of quantitative analysis.
Usually has a concise focus, specific hypothesis (research question), interested in causality, deductive reasoning and tests the theoretical framework, utilizes a lot of control and manipulation, uses reliable and valid instruments, statistical analysis.
High attrition rates in a study represent a concern for the studies?
Validity
Compounding variables
Variables that are not accounted for in a study that confounds the data that is collected - it may or may not have an effect on the study; however, the variable is generally excluded if known.
Dependent Variable
Varies when the independent variable changes - not manipulated
Verstehen
a German verb (meaning "to understand"), used in English as a noun describing participants' first-person perspective on their personal experience as well as on their society, culture, and history.
KTA - Five main question
What should be disseminated? To whom should it be disseminated? By whom should it be disseminated? How should it be disseminated? With what effect should it be disseminated?
cohort study because it is focusing on a particular group in culture who experienced the same events
Which type of longitudinal?: One member of the research team is interested in the experiences in the class of 2001 who graduated after the 9/11 attacks. Each year from the sample collected from the project she selects a sub-sample consisting of graduates in 2001, and re-contacts them to collect more information
Gestalt
a German word meaning literally "form" or "shape" and is used in many European languages to refer to an integrated system or culture where the whole is more than a sum of its parts.
panel study because she is going back to the same people
Which type of longitudinal?: To study the experience of participating in the VISTA program affects participants' ideas about community service, new enrollees are interviewed at the start of the 2 year program, and re-interviewed every 6 months until the program ends
Who is credited with the Pragmatic Theory?
William James
Field Notes
With good ?, and methodology, this increses the validity of the study.
Infinite
Without any bounds or limits. E.g. the natural numbers from an infinite series, the numbers continue in both directions (positive and negative) without any end point.
Snowball sampling
Word of mouth
Recipient design
Work that is designed for a particular audience (the term derives from conversation analysis where it is used to describe how all actions are implicitly designed in this way).
Scene
a catch-all term that refers to the field, sites, settings, and groups of participants.
hypothesis
a clear statement to be tested about the relationship between variables (a prediction)
spurious relationship
a coincidental statistical correlation between two variables, shown to be caused by some third variable
What is essential with simple random sampling even with the chance for each individual to be selected and placed in the study?
a complete list of the population
index
a composite measure that combines many separate measures of a single variable
scales
a composite measure with items that have a logical structure: measures the intensity of a variable along a continuum
Look-glass self
a concept borrowed from symbolic interactionism, which suggests that identity is largely created through the reactions of others. (i.e., we see what others tell us they see).
Thick Description
a concept coined by Clifford Geertz (1973), which captures the fact that researchers immerse themselves in, and report on, particulars before moving toward grander statements and theories.
Scene
a construct made by participants for their social actions (theoretical)
coding
a data reduction process for a researcher to break down data into discrete themes or patterns - cycles of analysis become increasingly refined (Saldana, 2013)
Axiology
a discipline dealing with the values associated with an area of research and theorizing (e.g., the values of social justice are emphasized by the critical paradigm).
delusion
a false belief based on incorrect inference about external reality, that is firmly held despite objective and obvious contradictory proof or evidence
jamais vu
a false feeling of unfamiliarity with a real situation that one has previously experienced (opposite to deja vu)
fausse reconnaissance
a false recognition - a feature of paramnesia
Maximum variation sampling
a few criteria in which as much variation as possible
audible thoughts/Gedankenlautweden
a form of auditory hallucinations in which everything the patient thinks or speaks is repeated by the voices, also known as thought echo
magical thinking
a form of dereistic thought thinking similar to that of preoperational phase in children (See piaget) in which thoughts, words or actions assume power
Participatory Action Research (PAR)
a form of research based upon the notion that researchers should work together with research participants to help them address, understand, or improve local issues or dilemmas.
Site
a geographical or architectural area within a field (e.g., a fraternity house).
mood congruent delusion/hallucination
a hallucination or delusion with content that is mood appropriate
Duality of structure
a key part of structuration theory, this concept refers to the idea that structure is created from the top-down and from the bottom-up; structures are only made "valid" when individuals follow them and make decisions that are based upon them.
aphasia
a language disturbance (comprehension or expression)
Convenience sample:
a matter of taking what you can get. It is an accidental sample. Although selection may be unguided, it probably is not random, using the correct definition of everyone in the population having an equal chance of being selected. Volunteers would constitute a convenience sample.
in performing a power analysis you also need effect size which is?
a measuer of the strength of the relationship between two variables
phenomenology
a methodology that looks at the study of a phenomenon; researcher bias is removed to conduct the study
Commentary
a more elaborate reflection of a certain event/issue
chorea
a movement disorder characterised by involuntary quick, jerky and purposeless movements
Postmodern/Poststructural paradigm
a paradigm that approaches knowledge and power as dispersed, unstable, and plural, highlighting occasions of domination and self-subordination, but also avenues for resistance and change.
compulsion
a pathological need to act on an impulsive that if resisted produces anxiety
obsession
a persistent and recurrent idea, thought or impulse that cannot be eliminated from consciousness by logic or reasoning
belle indifference
a person showing disinterest in his or her physical complaint
false memory
a person's recollection and belief by the patient of an event that did not actually occur
Etic
a perspective in which behavior is described according to externally derived, non-cultural-specific criteria.
Emic
a perspective in which behavior is described from the actor's point of view and is context-specific.
twirling
a sign in autistic children who continually rotate in the direction in which their head is turned
Incommensurability
a situation where choosing one paradigm or way of seeing the world precludes another paradigm or way of seeing the world. (e.g., the positivist notion of a single true reality is incommensurable with the postmodern view that reality is multiple).
paranoia
a syndrome marked by gradual development of a highly elaborate and complex delusional system, generally involving persecutory or grandiose delusions, with few others signs of personality disorganization or thought disorder
Grounded Theory
a systematic inductive analysis of data (i.e., an analysis from the ground up, or a "bottom-up" analysis) developed by Glaser and Strauss (1967) and extended by Strauss and Corbin (1990) and Charmaz (2006).
audit trail
a systematically maintained documentation system; an organized collection of materials that includes the data generated in a study
Ethnography of Communication (EOC)
a theoretical framework developed by Dell Hymes, which is concerned with linguistic rules and how communication reveals norms of identity, relationships, or culture.
Sensemaking
a theory developed by Karl Weick and typified by the three-part process of enactment, selection, and retention; it emphasizes meaning making, ambiguity, and identity.
Epistemology
a traditional branch of philosophy that is concerned with the nature of knowledge.
Ontology
a traditional branch of philosophy, which is concerned with the nature of reality.
anecdotal evidence
a true story about a single person or event, often based on personal experience, something or someone we already know
Interpretive paradigm
a way of seeing both reality and knowledge as constructed and reproduced through communication, interaction, and practice.
Critical paradigm
a way of viewing the world based on the idea that thought is fundamentally mediated by power relations and that data cannot be separated from ideology.
zoophobia
abnormal fear of animals
xenophobia
abnormal fear of strangers
paraphrasia
abnormal speech in which one word is substituted by another
nymphomania
abnormal, excessive, insatiable desire in a woman for sexual intercourse (c.f. satyriasis)
autoethnography
about an individual person in context, personal narrative, may not be totally tied to culture
blocking
abrupt interruption in train of thinking before a thought or idea is finished; after a brief pause the person indicates no recall of what was being said or was going to be said
flat affect
absence or near absence of any signs of affective expression
conceptual definition
abstract;theoretical. Describing what your idea means, a dictionary-type definition
credibility (internal validity)
accuracy with which a description of particular events represents the data, findings relate truth, findings make sense, connect findings to professional discourse, "did we get the story right"
automatism
activity carried out without conscious knowledge
delirium
acute mental disorder, reversible, characterised by confusion and some impairment in consciousness - see notes/DSM
panic
acute, intense attack of anxiety associated with personality disorganized; impending feelings of doom
analytic coding
addresses the meanings and meaning making evident to the researcher in his or her textual data
illogical reasoning
aka faulty logic; when we believe there is an "exception that proves the rule"; In relation to group stereotypes
systematic value of social science research
aka rigorous methods; developing a plan before what we see/experience
trend studies
aka time series studies; shows how opinions of issues have changed in a whole population over time
thick descriptions
all the details (of setting, observations, participant responses)
Field
all the types of spaces where one could observe a phenomenon of interest; it consists of many potential sites, settings, and participants.
Audit trail:
allows the reader to see into the research process and follow its main stages. It may also be helpful to include some discussion of the epistemological orientation of the research team alongside description of methods.
confirmability
allows trust that the findings that are grounded in the actual data, scrutinze the analytic processes employed by the study, objectivity that is apparent in the interpretation of the data
dreamy state
altered state of consciousness likened to a dream situation that develops suddenly and usually lasts a few minutes. common in temporal lobe lesions
Power refers to obtaining what?
an accurate result from the statistical test.
What should be generated from a grounded theory?
an actual substantive theory
critical ethnographer
an advocate for empowerment, critical and transformitive, serves marginalized groups
ecological fallacy
an error in the unit of measurement that assumes what you learn about a larger-scale unit of analysis says something about the individuals of that unit
idea of reference
an idea of reference is a misinterpretation of incidents and events in the outside world as having direct personal reference to oneself; occasionally observed in normal persons but frequently seen in paranoid patients. If present with sufficient frequency of if organized and systematized they constitute delusions of reference
mannerism
an ingrained, habitual involuntary movement
-Telling the story The challenge is to tell the story in
an intelligible and coherent way that also does justice to the layered complexity of the participants descriptions.
Research question
an interrogative sentence or declarative statement about the relationship between two variables
realist ethnographer
an objective reporter of the facts (post-positivism), objective account, 3rd person,
Data Display
an organized, compressed assembly of information that permits conclusion drawing and action
Qualitative methods
an umbrella phrase that refers to the collection, analysis, and interpretation of interview, participant observation, and document data in order to understand and describe meanings, relationships, and patterns.
organization unit of analysis
analyses corporations, social organizations, colleges
group unit of analysis
analyses gang members, families, married couples, friendship groups
individual unit of analysis
analyses students, voters, parents, children, Catholics, etc.
social interaction unit of analysis
analyses telephone calls, dances, online chat rooms, fights
social artifacts unit of analysis
analyses things produced by people such as textbooks, speeches, books, clothing, or etc.
Document analysis
analyze the inscribed text of an artefact - Analyze their physical and semiotic qualities - Study the context of the objects- historical, cultural, interpersonal (memory & culture) - Qualities of sound, touch, smell, sight, taste - Other characteristics that convey meaning for the participants in the scene - Source of evidence and interaction (communication on paper) - Valid method; low costs- easily accessible (digitalization) - Review documents in a framework- coding
the two types of research
anecdotal evidence and social science data
questions of values
answers questions of what should be; answers the questions of what we value as important and depends on the individual
What is the foundation of ethnographic method?
anthropology
variables
any concept that can take on two or more characterisitcs
clouding of conscioussness
any disturbance of consciousness in which the person is not fully awake, alert and orientated
apperception
awareness of the meaning and significant of a particular sensory stimulus as modified by one's own experiences knowledge, thoughts and emotions
value of quantitative research
can reach larger populations and is easier to compare several responses because they are uniform responses for every individual
preoccupation of thought
centering of thought content on a particular idea, associated with a strong affective tone
cenesthesia
changes in the normal quality of feeling tone in a part of the body
example of face validity
changing a measurement of how happy one is from how many friends they have to a survey of their emotions
post-decisional justification
changing actions in one's mind so they feel better about them, and may change the details of the truth
syntactical aphasia
characterised by difficulty in understanding spoken speech, associated with gross disorder of thought and expression
It is advisable to make space in a working programme to give some
consolidated time to the process of writing. It is extremely difficult to keep alive the conceptual momentum needed for creative and penetrative writing if the researcher is simultaneously involved in other stages of another study or in totally different activities.
rumination
constant preoccupation with thinking about a single idea or theme
introspection
contemplating one's own mental processes to achieve insight
Purpose of qualitative
context, process, meaning
Action
contextual talk, texts, and interactions (e.g., documents, emails, verbal routines, text messages, and comments.
stereotypy
continuous mechanical repetition of speech or physical activities
- Meeting contractual/other obligations in both commissioned and grant- funded research, the range, type and format of written and other outputs that are to be produced will typically be agreed at the
contractual stage with the client or funder. - The resources available there is no doubt that the resources available to a study or a research team will limit the research outputs that are possible.
Name the three types of nonprobability sampling?
convenience sampling quota sampling purposeful/theoretical/judgment sampling
participatory action research
cooperative inquiry, change the balance of power in research by including those being studied in the data collection
logorrhoea
copious, pressured, coherent speech; uncontrolled, excessive talking; (also called tachylogia, verbomania and volubility)
Relevance marker 1
corpus construction
pica
craving and eating of non food substances such as paint and clay
longitudinal data
data is collected at more than one time period; powerful because we do not have to worry about post-deicisional justification and one's recollection being foggy
The use of illustrative material Illustrative material:
depending on the type of data collected, this can include verbatim quotations, summaries or pen portraits of particular cases, extracts from documents, sections of researchers' observational notes, photos, drawings and other images.
Ethnography of communication
describe how communication constitutes a certain culture
hermeneutical phenomenology
describe lived experience interpreting "texts" of life, researcher interprets meaning
Interpretive
describes AND interprets experience
phenomenology
describes common meaning of lived experience, "universal essence", focus is singular, interviews, bracketing (narrow-- broad)
Phenomenological Study
describes the common meaning of experiences of a phenomenon (or topic or concept) for several individuals . . . the researcher reduces the experiences to a central meaning or the "essence" of the experience (Moustakas, 1994; Creswell, 2013, p. 285) • Goal of phenomenology is to have a Deeper understanding of a context, process, program, relationship, etc., shared by a group of people (the lived experience)
context
describes the settings, conditions, background, and/or history given in a particular research study
ethnography
describes values, behaviors, beliefs, language of a culture-sharing group, participant observation, research immerses self in day-to-day
Ethnography
describing/interpreting a culture-shared group (interviews & observation)
Participant observation
describing/interpreting the observable relationship between social practices and systems of meaning - First-hand experience and exploration of a cultural setting - Thick descriptions (validity!)
Emergent Design
design changes as researchers research and make decisions about WHAT THEY'VE LEARNED
purposeful sampling
designed to get the richest data possible by carefully selecting participants
decompensation
deterioration of psychic functioning caused by a breakdown of defense mechanisms
Grounded theory
develop a theory from the field by studying an action involving many people (interviews with 20-60 people in order to come up with a good theory)
conversion phenomena
development of symbolic physical symptoms and distortions involving the voluntary muscles or special sense organs that cannot be explained by a physical disorder
initial insomnia
difficulty falling asleep
expressive dysphasia
difficulty in expressing verbal language
dyscalculia
difficulty in performing calculations
dyskinesia
difficulty in performing movements (e.g. EPSE)
dyslalia
difficulty in speaking due to faulty articulation
dysarthria
difficulty in the articulation of words
dysgraphia
difficulty in writing
dysphonia
difficulty or pain with speaking
mydriasis
dilation of pupils
What is it called with the researcher can not control the many variables in research? (ie pts with a number of pre-existing pathology that are undergoing a number of therapies?
dirty research
Grounded theory research Focuses on the
discovery of a basic PROBLEM that a DEFINED GROUP START WORKING ON THE GROUND AND BUILD THEORY
pseudologia phantastica
disorder characterised by uncontrollable lying in which patients elaborate extensive fantasies that they freely communicate and act on
asyndesis
disorder of language in which the patient combines unconnected ideas and images
catalepsy
disorder where a person maintains the body posture into which they are placed - seen in catatonia, c.f. waxy flexibility
akataphasia
disordered speech form where thoughts cannot be expressed directly but are expressed indirectly such as by making a similar sound (displacement paralogia) or by being derailed into another thought (derailment paralogia)
acataphasia
disordered speech in which statements are incorrectly formulated. patients may express themselves with words that sound like the ones intended but not appropriate to the thoughts, or they may use totally inappropriate expressions
fugue
dissociative disorder/dissociative amnesia. period of almost complete amnesia, during which a persona actually flees from an immediate life situation and begins a different life pattern; apart from amnesia all other mental faculties are intact
dysmegalopsia
distortion in which size and objects are misperceived - alice in wonderland syndrome
circumstantiality
disturbance in the associative thought and speech processes in which a patient digresses into unnecessary details and inappropriate thoughts before communicating the central idea
expressive aphasia
disturbance of speech in which understanding remains bu ability to speak is grossly impaired
amnestic aphasia/anomi\c aphasia
disturbed capacity to name objects even thought they are known to the patient
twilight state
disturbed consciousness with hallucinations
demand characteristics
do participants feel they HAVE TO give a certain answer
artifact
document, object or archival data of import to a participant - allows for triangulation
Rene Descartes developed a method of which of the following to defeat skepticism?
doubt
Narrative interview
dual nature - focus on storytelling and content - Personal & collective narrative (reality
apathy
dulled emotional toned associated with detachment or indifference
transcedental/psychological phenomenology
epoche/bracketing of researcher's perspectives, percieved as if for the first time, textural (what), structural (how), goal (essence)
Which type of qualitative research is describes cultural groups and beliefs and is based on cultural anthropology?
ethnographic
example of theory being useful by directing our research questions
finding our keys in the dark: helps us find a logical approach, such as re-tracing our steps and developing a strategy
deviant sampling
finds outliers, the unusual is the focus of the study
catatonic rigidity
fixed or sustained motoric position that is resistant to change
emergent design
flexibility in research designs; changes as you go through data collection
intrinsic case
focus on case itself for unusual situation
collective or multiple case
focus on one issue or concern, select multiple cases
single instrumental case
focus on one issue or concern, select one bounded case
Feminist Research
focuses on GENDER DOMINATION AND DESCRIMINATION within particular societies
Narrative Analysis
focuses on STORY of the object of inquiry
Critical Ethnography
focuses on raising consciousness in the hope of EFFECTING SOCIAL CHANGE
pragmatism
focuses on the outcome of the research, want to solve the problem, use methods to best answer the problem
conversation analysis
focuses specifically on talk, aim to understand the order of conversation, does not go in with a prior question
Interview schedule
formal, structured set of questions (same order for all); for many interviewers
Coding
forming links between data, categories
example of a panel study
fragile families project: following 5,000 children born in 1998-2000 to see how children fare with single mothers and follow those same 5,000 children throughout the lifespan
stuttering
frequent repetition or prolongation of a sound or syllable
- Developmental outputs are designed to
generate discussion and debate about emergent issues arising from the research - Selective outputs provide accounts of specific parts of the evidence
grounded theory
generate theoretical explanation, new theory, grounded in data that is collected, process or action, inductively derived, systematic data collection and analysis
Advantages of focus groups
get data quickly with less cost; interact directly with respondents; large & rich data
purposive sampling & symbolic representation
get the specific group members so you can generalize
Jamison's four observation-specific ethics issues
justification of not getting informed consent / participants can remove data after research / those in power can't abuse it / - 'deviants' break laws
Formula for probability with systematic sampling
k = N/n N=the accessible populaiton n= the sample size
What are the people interviewed called
key informants
acathexis/decathexis
lack of feeling associated with an ordinarily emotionally charged subject; in psychoanalyses it denotes the patient's detaching or transferring of emotion from thoughts and ideas
anhedonia
lack of interest in and withdrawal from all regular and pleasurable activities
akinetic mutism
lack of movement AND speech in a patient who is otherwise alert
Why is nonprobaility used?
less expensive and complicated
value of qualitative research
gives opportunity to say anything that is important. More detailed, specific, and also gives a chance to explain their answer (offers depth and explanation)
derailment
gradual or sudden deviation in train of thought without blocking
bruxism
grinding or gnashing of teeth typically occurring at night
What is the most frequently used method in nursing?
grounded theory
What is the systematic procedure known as constant comparison method that facilitates the development of a substantiative theory.
grounded theory
focus groups
groups with common experiences interviewed together
hypnagogic hallucination
hallucination experience when one is falling asleep
hypnopompic hallucination
hallucination experience when one is waking up from sleep
olfactory hallucinations
hallucination involving smell
somatic hallucination
hallucination involving the perception of a physical experience within the body
tactile hallucination
hallucination primarily involving touch
The two limitations of qualitative research methods are
hard to replicate, hard to generalize (low population validity)
What involves systematic compilation of data describing some past event?
historical research
Descriptive Studies
holistically describe phenomena, researchers analysis of narrative to understand themes and patterns
in nursing and clinical studies, researchers need to make their sample as ______ as possible
homogenous
epistemological reflexivity
honest about own assumptions about subject & adjust for them
Epistemology
how is it that people come to have knowledge about the external world
What does effect size tell you?
how much difference there is between the groups
epistemology
how researchers know what they know-- researchers collaborate and spend time in field with participants, to become insider and rely on quotes from participants as evidence
Symbolic interactionism
how the self and the social environment shape each other through communication; the role of symbolic expression
theoretical sampling
how to do grounded theory- select experiences that will test ideas and gather complete info about developing concepts
scope
how wide is what we are looking at, scale of data, range of settings, sources of data
data collection should focus on __________
human experience & describe data collection methods
deductive
hypothesis to logical conclusion, from general to specific
According to David Hume's theory of phenomenalism, all human knowledge is based upon relations among
ideas
theory
ideas about the way the world works and usually explains the relationship between concepts
case study
identifies specific case, specifies intent, in-depth understanding of case, multiple or single case, in depth description of the case (themes, situations), assertions/lessons learned by studying case
Dimensionalization
identify properties of categories through constant comparison
Example of cluster sampling
if researcher wants to sampling to select RNs in the US step 1: choose states at random step 2: then randomly choose a cluster or 3 hospitals from each district
- Structuring around a typology =
if the research has identified and developed a typology that cuts across the report findings, then this may be a useful tool around which to structure the findings - Structuring around different populations = if the research has included interviews with different population groups, the reporter will need to decide whether to deal with the themes emerging from each group separately or whether to integrate them within an overall thematic framework. - Structuring around different time periods = when a project studies a process or programme over time, or interviews participants on repeated occasions, the data may have an inbuilt progression or chronology that offers a clear narrative route.
agnosia
inability to understand the import or significance of sensory stimuli; cannot be explained by a defect in sensory pathways or cerebral lesions
la belle indifference
inappropriate attitude of calm or lack of concern about one's disability - seen in conversation disorders
Criterion sampling
inclusion/exclusion based on the purpose of the study
word salad
incoherent essentially incomprehensible mixture of words or phrases
hyperphagia
increase in eating
pressured speech
increase in the amount of spontaneous speech
Because there is not random selection used with nonprobability sampling each subject does not have what?
independent chance of being included in the study
types of variables
independent, dependent, and intervening
the different directions of theory
inductive and deductive theory
deductive because you are starting with a theory then collecting the data
inductive or deductive?: According to labeling theory, punishment labels an offender as deviant in the eyes of others and leads more people to act in ways that conform to the label. Based on this theory, I hypothesize that high school students who are suspended for fighting will be more likely to re-offend than those who commit the same offense but are given only a warning, then I design an experiment to test my hypothesis
inductive because observations of group are done first then a theory was built around those observations
inductive or deductive?: While conducting participant observation in high school, a researcher notices two groups who behave in similar ways and are treated differently. Observes for a longer period of time to determine why this is the case
What approach generates theory reather than testing it in qualitative research?
inductive vs. deductive
Crisis of representation
influence of gender, class, age, on how as a researcher you represent your participants
Informant interview
inform about the studied scene (key processes & features); speak about others
Ethnographic interview
informal & situational - takes place in the field
Interview guide
informal, flexible non-directive questions per topic area
Lewis's four ethical concerns
informed consent / anonymity / confidentiality / harm
Ethical issues
informed consent, participants' rights, confidentiality & anonymity, data stored in secured place, vulnerable groups/sensitive topics
Descriptive Phenomenology
insists on the careful PORTRAYAL OF ORDINARY EXPERIENCE of everyday living, seeing, hearing, feeling, believing, etc.
Sensitizing concepts
interpretive devices that serve as jumping-off points or lenses for qualitative study.
In depth individual interviews
interview talks with one individual at a time, can be either structured or unstructured guide- limitations: more time confusing, interviewer effects, role confusion, limited sample size,limited generalizability benefits: can be done in variable settings, confidentiality and privacy, sensitive topics, richer data in words of respondent,
participants in quota sampling are divided how?
into strata based on specific characteristics the quota is computed according to the proportion and subjects are solicited through nonrandom sampling
causal hypothesis
involves 2 variables, independent and dependent
- The analytic story =
involves thinking about the key concepts used in the study, how the findings shed light on these concepts and what this means for the original research problem and for the existing literature.
anecdotal evidence
is weak evidence because we do not know how typical this story is
How social research is distinctive
it combines theory and empirical data
Why is nonprobability used in nursing and medical research?
it is not feasible, economical, timely, or ethical to collect a random sample
Post-positivism
like positivism, this paradigm assumes a single true reality, but it suggests that humans' understanding of reality is inherently partial and that it is impossible to fully capture reality.
- The resources available there is no doubt that the resources available to a study or a research team will
limit the research outputs that are possible.
intervening variable
links the independent and dependent variables (part of a causal chain)
Dependability
listed THEME AND STATEMENTS ,keeping records of coding and findings
If probability in systematic sampling the individuals in the sampling frame need to be....
listed randomly
What may present some study background but does not have the literature background as in quantitative?
literature review
Research design
logical structure of elements of the study; evidence needed to answer convincingly
postpositivism
logical structured approaches; based on cause and effect thinking, rigorous, inquiry (logical, related steps), influenced by previous hypothesis, examine multiple perspectives, multiple perspectives create reality
focused-ethnography
looks at sub-culture, less time, understand component
critical discourse analysis
looks at the discourse in conjunction with other social processes, aims to find hidden agendas and right the "wrongs" of society
Qualitative research typically has a __________ structure.
loose
sensory aphasia
loss of ability to comprehend meaning of words, also receptive/fluent/wernicke's aphasia
acalculia
loss of ability to do calculations; not caused by anxiety or learning disorder
nominal aphasia
loss of ability to name objects
anterograde amnesia
loss of memory for events SUBSEQUENT to the index incident/onset of amnesia
retrograde amnesia
loss of memory for events preceeding the onset of dementia
acenesthesia
loss of sensation of physical presence
aphonia
loss of voice
postmoderism perspectives
marginalized populations, characteristics of participants and recognize those as important, want to change people's thinking, not as action oriented
Fill In the Blanks Sampling Theory is a ______ method of ______ _____ for determining the most efficient way of selecting a sample.
mathematical decision making
What is power analysis?
mathmematical way of computing the minimum size of the needed sample.
Krieken et. al 2006 on positivism
matter can be explained as a reaction to external stimuli because it has no consciousness. Because people actively construct their own reality it is inadequate at dissecting their behaviour
social constructivism
meaning is experience; inductive (build conclusion based on sample), open ended questions, follow-up questions and interaction
verbigeration
meaningless and stereotyped repetition or words or phrases
bogardus scale
measures how closely people are willing to associate with others (measures social interactions)
example of content validity
measuring academic ability and looking at all subjects instead of just grades in math and science
retrospective falsification
memory becomes unintentionally distorted by being filtered through a person's present emotional cognitive and experiential state
folie a deux
mental illness shared by two persons, usually with common delusional system (3 - folie a trois)
monomania
mental state characterized by preoccupation with one subject
The researcher could inductively deleope a theory and model and follow it with what in the development of an instrument?
methodological triangulation
grounded theory
methodology seeking to create a theory based on findings
Phase 4
methods of collection and analysis: how does my choice of appraoch guide the methods I use in my study?
transparent value of social science research
methods should be clear, people can see how you arrived at your conclusions (can test the logic in the experiment)
Socio-cultural tradition
micro & macro practices of communication - Society as a complex network of forces - Structural determinism vs. individual agency - Relations between social levels (individual - group - society)
most nursing studies are considered to have ____ effect sizes
modest
lethologica
momentary forgetting of a name or proper name
triangulation
more than one source of data, multiple methods, multiple orders, multiple theories, and viewpoints-- use different components to create a complete picture
deductive theory
moves from the general to the specific; 1. look at general theory 2. collect data to support theory
inductive theory
moves from the particular to the general; Looks at observations and uses them to form generalizations 1. looking at data 2. trying to build a theory from data examination
space triangulation involves:
multiple cultures
method triangulation involves:
multiple methods
observer triangulation involves:
multiple observers
theory triangulation involves:
multiple theories support research
logical support requirement for agreement reality
must make sense
empirical support requirement for agreement reality
must not contradict actual observation
Case Study Method
• First, description • Then, inductive inference
astasia abasia
inability to stand or walk in a normal manner
Non-directional
States the relationship exists, not direction
Data Reduction
The process of selecting, focusing, simplifying, abstracting, and transforming the data
Coding
The progressive marking, sorting, resorting, defining, redefining the collected data
Critical Theory
concerned with a CRITIQUE of society and the envisioning of NEW POSSIBILITIES
waxy flexibility
condition in which a person maintains the body position into which they are placed
deja pense
condition in which a thought never entertained before is incorrectly regarded as a repetition of a previous thought
command automatism
condition in which suggestions are followed automatically
synesthesia
condition in which the stimulation of one sensory modality is perceived as sensation in another modality e.g. a sound produces a sensation of colour
Member validation
find out if our interpretation of the key issues makes sense to the participants
convenience sample
find readily accessible research participants, non-random selection
Typical case sampling
find representable cases for the study topic
A-typical case sampling
find the opposite of a representable case for the study
dysamnesia
impaired memory
dysgeusia
impaired taste
simultanagnosia
impairment in the perception or integration of visual stimuli appearing simultaneously
importance of theories in social science research
important because they help us explain recurring patterns (not one-time events) about aggregates (not individuals) meaning they are not predictive of one's individual actions, but generalities and odds
example of deductive theory
improving consistency on exam scores: 1. believing you do better when you study in groups 2. studying in groups and employing other studying methods and comparing
example of inductive theory
improving consistency on exam scores: 1. looking at all the exams to try and find a pattern 2. determine the factors that effect consistency
vegetative signs
in depression - sleep disturbance, decreased appetite, constipation, weight loss and loss of libido
One context in which number can be helpful is
in describing the basic characteristics of the achieved sample. In terms of interpreting the findings and considering how applicable they are likely to be, either to the population from which they were drawn or to other populations.
Simulacrum
in postmodern theory, this term refers to a representation that is a copy of something that never actually existed (e.g., Disneyland's "Main Street").
scotoma
in psychiatry a figurative blind spot in a person's psychological awareness
Sampling Considerations
in qualitative, random sampling not usually used
theoretical sampling
in relation to how you sample for what your theory is expressing (emergent design)
Alexithymia
inability or difficulty in describing or being aware of one's emotions or moods
apraxia
inability to co-ordinate movements/perform voluntary purposeful movements
receptive aphasia
inability to comprehend what is being said and meaning of words - wernicke's/fluent aphasia
constructional apraxia
inability to copy a drawing such as a cube, clock or petagon
distractability
inability to focus one's attention
astereognosis
inability to identify familiar objects by touch
amimia
inability to make gestures or comprehend gestures of others
anomia
inability to name things
adiadochokinesia
inability to perform rapid alternating movements - neuro deficits, particularly cerebellar lesions
case study
"analysis consists of making a detailed description of the case and it's setting" (Creswell, 2013).
transferability (external validity)
"how can one determine the extent to which the findings of a particular inquiry have applicability in other contexts or with other subjects?"
What do we mean by an "a priori" framework?
"in advance" - researchers start with some framework - then they go back and check to see if the data still fits the framework.
Qualitative Research: Triangulation
"the expansion of research methods in a single study or multiple studies to enhance diversity, enrich understanding, and accomplish specific goals" Purpose is to increase the credibility and validity of the results. By combining multiple observers, theories, methods, and empirical materials, researchers hope to overcome the weakness or intrinsic biases and the problems that come from single method, single-observer and single-theory studies.
Definition of Qualitative Research
'the investigation of phenomena, typically in an in-depth and holistic fashion, through the collection of rich narrative materials using a flexible research design'
Coding
(1) the sorting of raw data, such as responses to open-ended questions or field observations, into categories (2) for computer analysis, coding consists of assigning numbers or symbols to variable categories
Bracketing
(As part of step 1) the deliberate putting aside of one's own belief about the phenomenon under investigation or what one already knows about the subject prior to and throughout the phenomenological investigation (Carpenter, 2007). Requires a willingness to respond in the affirmative to 2 important questions: 1.) Are we humble enough to learn about the experiences of others? 2.) Can we equip ourselves to adopt an attitude of conscious ignorance about the issue under investigation?
Theoretical samplinng
(e.g., if theory raises question of whether certain type of person would help elucidate the theory, and researcher seeks such participants)
agraphia
(loss of ability) inability to write
Types of Sampling
- Convenience sample Widespread invitation - first come basis Strength: easier to recruit Weakness: Hard to ensure will get relevant information - Snowball sampling Early participants recommend others Strength: relatively easy to recruit, trust based on referral Weakness: could be small group of friends with one perspective - Theoretical sampling Used in grounded theory Sample is identified as the study proceeds to 'develop theory as it emerges' Strength: sample will inform theory Weakness: requires complete immersion in data to identify next target sample - Purposive sampling 1. Maximum variation sampling Informants have diverse ethnicity, gender, viewpoints. Strength: common themes can emerge regardless of variation Weakness: may need larger sample size 2. Homogeneous sampling All members similar Strength: smaller sample size, more focused Weakness: not sure if themes are only limited to this group
Internal validity: Do the study findings make sense? Are they credible to informants and research audience? External validity: Are study findings transferable to other contexts? How far can they be "generalized"? Triangulation: 2 or more methods of dcollection (combining for ex IDI, FG), data sources (i/vs with different groups), investigators, Reflexivity: personal, prof, intellec, biases at outset....Dr. Catallozzi's example of bringing in outside person to interview analysis team about biases; her work with Dr. Bell on partner violence Clear exposition of : "clear account of the process of dc and analysis...provide clear account of how early, simpler systems of classification evolved into more sophisticated coding structures...d.efined concepts and explanations. Read should be able to judge whether interpretation offered is adequately supported by the data. P+M also---attention to Negative Cases....disucss elements of data that seem to contradict emerging themes.
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Framework "tool"
- Case & theme based approach - Hierarchy of themes and sub-themes - Reduces data through summarization & synthesis - Retains link to original data
Interpretive standards
- Contribution to our understanding of sth - More personal connection with the research - Reflexivity & impact on the readers
Methodological perspective
- Data collection and analysis technique need to be described - Reflexivity (subjectivity & assumption) - Social significance
Transcripts for Computer Assisted Qualitative Data Analysis (CAQDAS)
- Depends on the software. - Identify speakers - Marking units of text
Types of Probes
- Detail Can you give me a specific example of what you just described - Elaboration Tell me more about that - Clarification I was a bit confused...can you clarify - Supportive Thank you.. - Summary Transition So far, we talked about...any other thoughts?
Components of a Practice Guideline
- Evidence Component Typical effect of this intervention on the typical patient Must be valid and up-to-date - Detailed Instructional component Here is exactly what to do with this patient Must have relevance to patient population
Postmodern framework
- Fairness: balance stakeholders views - Sharing knowledge & fostering social action - Relations with respondents, set of stances, promote justice
Data Collection: Unstructured interviews Semi-structured interviews Focus group interviews Joint/dyadic interviews Life histories Oral histories Critical incidents Diaries & Journals Think aloud Photo elicitation Data from the Web - Participant observation Physical setting Participants Activities & interactions Frequency & duration Precipitating factors Organization Intangible factors - Recording observations Notes/tools
- Fieldwork Gaining trust/gaining entrée Pacing Reflexivity Emotional involvement Non verbal is important too -Recording, transcribing & storing data audio/video recordings Transcription: Professional transcription or transcription by researcher/research team Transcript verification Review for non-verbal cues
IV and DV
- In an experiment, the independent variable is the variable that is varied or manipulated by the researcher, and the dependent variable is the response that is measured. - "There will be a statistically significant difference in graduation rates of at-risk high-school seniors who participate in an intensive study program as opposed to at-risk high-school seniors who do not participate in the intensive study program." IV: Participation in intensive study program. DV: Graduation rates.
advantages quantitative
- Isolating variables to examine their relationships - Collected in the same way: comparison between participants - Controlled environment - Replication & validation
Respect for Persons how to apply: - Autonomy - Ability to give or refuse their consent to participate. - Practical application: Consider participant autonomy in research design Consider factors that can diminish participant autonomy Consider how to respect the dignity of those lacking autonomy
- It is unacceptable to treat individuals solely as means (mere objects or things) to an end (a research goal). - The welfare and integrity of the participant must take priority over all else in human research. - Respect for Persons includes: individuals or groups directly involved in research as participants individuals or groups involved in research through the use of their data or biological materials
Know when someone would use a t-test or chi-square
- Know that t-test is used when you have continuous Dependent Variable and categorical Independent variable with only 2 categories - Know that Chi-square is used when you have a categorical DV and categorical IV
disadvantages qualitative
- Not used for testing predictions - Time and resources needed - Not generalizable findings
Justice How to apply: In research design and REB review, it is important to address the following issues: - Who are the participants? Why this group and not others? - Are any participant groups over- or under-represented because of their vulnerable circumstances? - Are there measures in place to treat people in vulnerable circumstances justly in the context of the research? - Is there an imbalance of power between participants and researchers?
- Obligation to treat all people fairly and equitably. - Fairness is treating all people with equal respect and concern for their welfare - it does not necessarily mean treating everyone the same. - Equity involves the distribution of the benefits and burdens of research participation. No segment of the population should be unfairly burdened with the harms of research. Nor should any individuals or groups be neglected or discriminated against in the opportunity to benefit from knowledge generated by research.
Rigour vs Validity Vs Trustworthy
- Prolonged engagement Multiple interviews Interviews long enough - Persistent observation ethnography - what is 'enough' time? - Reflexivity strategies Self-interrogation & reflection Journaling/diary Notes during coding Interview self or 'bracketing' interview to expose personal perspectives - Data triangulation Uses multiple data sources Time triangulation - multiple times Space triangulation - multiple sites Person triangulation - multiple types - Methods triangulation Eg interviews, observations & documents - Audit trail Raw data Theoretical notes Process notes Instrument development (pilot versions) Drafts of final report - Member checking *quiz* Show participants data & get feedback Face to face or via writing take findings and bring back to participants. Ask "is this true for you?" - Triangulation Investigator triangulation - More than 2 people make coding decisions Theory triangulation - Use competing theories to analyze data Analysis triangulation - Two or more analysis methods used on same data - Confirming/disconfirming evidence Others review data Negative case - Peer review & debriefing Sessions with peers to assess for bias - Inquiry Audits Do data support findings
Methods of Control (Internal Validity)
- Randomization Groups have equal chance of receiving intervention - Crossover Participants serve as own controls - Gets intervention, then doesn't get intervention - Homogeneity Groups as similar as possible (control for confounding without randomization? - Matching Eg. Case-control: try to ensure groups are similar - Statistical Control Advanced planning for 'controlling' potential confounders
Non-systematic Reviews
-Discusses available research in broad terms -No clear indication of: evaluation of research methods study quality assessment
Reporting voice and language Flick (2009) refers to van Maanen's classification of three basic forms of presenting research findings in ethnographic studies:
- Realist tales the author is absent from the text, observations are reported as facts etc. (experience-distance) - Confessional tales authors expressing the role they played in what was observed. Mixture of descriptions of the phenomena being studied and the researcher's experiences of studying them. - Impressionist tales written in the form of a dramatic recall, often via narratives. The tone and style of language that will be appropriate will vary according to the objectives and the target audience.
Statistical significance via p-values
- Research is trying to prove that the difference in groups (or the strength of relationship) did not happen by chance, but is instead the result of the intervention being studied. - alpha =0.05 indicates: Standard that is used unless otherwise indicated there is 5 in 100 (1 in 20) chance you are wrong and the difference actually occurred by chance. The probability of committing a Type I error is 5%. - alpha =0.01 indicates: there is 1 in 100 chance you are wrong and the difference actually occurred by chance. The probability of committing a Type I error is 1%. - alpha =0.001 indicates: there is 1 in 1000 chance that you are wrong and the difference actually occurred by chance. The probability of committing a Type I error is 0.1%.
Threats to External validity
- Selection biases and effects Generalizability Need representative sample population - Reactive effects e.g., Hawthorne effect (is a type of reactivity in which individuals modify or improve an aspect of their behavior in response to their awareness of being observed.) - Measurement effects pre-test may influence post-test responses
Levels of transcription
- Semi-transcription: just the important stuff - Full transcription: all the words (often "cleaned up") - Colloquial transcription: all the words, using spellings that approximate colloquial pronunciation --> Pauses, interjections, prosody (rhythm, stress, intonation)
advantages qualitative
- Strong understanding of meanings people use and attach to behavior - Examining interaction in the real environment (real experiment) - Interactants at center of inquiry - Discover new phenomena
Other options of structuring a report:
- Structuring around a typology = if the research has identified and developed a typology that cuts across the report findings, then this may be a useful tool around which to structure the findings - Structuring around different populations = if the research has included interviews with different population groups, the reporter will need to decide whether to deal with the themes emerging from each group separately or whether to integrate them within an overall thematic framework. - Structuring around different time periods = when a project studies a process or programme over time, or interviews participants on repeated occasions, the data may have an inbuilt progression or chronology that offers a clear narrative route.
Ethnography
- Studies of people in natural settings or "fields" - Study social meanings and ordinary activities. - Extending understandings of how humans live. - The interconnection of the empirical, the analytical, and the theoretical.
Discourse Analysis
- Study of well-established meanings or ideas that shape language use. - Relationship between language and power. - How do meanings change?
Qualitative research outputs There is no standard format for reporting qualitative research. Researchers may choose, or be required, to present emergent or headline findings through an oral presentation or interim report. Comprehensive outputs provide a detailed and extensive portrayal of the methodology, findings and implications from the research and are most commonly presented as written accounts.
- Summary outputs provide the reader or listener with a condensed overview of the most important issues arising from the research. - Developmental outputs are designed to generate discussion and debate about emergent issues arising from the research - Selective outputs provide accounts of specific parts of the evidence
Threats to Internal Validity
- Temporal ambiguity Independent variable may not clearly precede DV. - History other activities taking place that might confound findings (cant tell the intervention made a difference. Eg. Natural disaster) - Maturation biological processes that would impact outcomes - Testing repeat tests might influence survey responses. ( - Instrumentation changes in measurement techniques between study subjects - Mortality/Attrition loss of study subjects (death or drop out) May increase sample size to anticipate drop outs - Selection bias e.g., only highly motivated subjects enrolled. Preaching to the converting
Deciding on a narrative and structure Much thinking had to take place before writing begins in earnest so that the writer has a clear idea of how the journey through the research evidence is to be made. Silverman (2010) suggests three models to work from in planning an overall structure for presenting research findings, each of which provide a different frame on which to hang the key themes and concepts emerging from a study:
- The hypothesis story = this implies a three-part structure: stating a hypothesis, test it and then discussing the implications. - The analytic story = involves thinking about the key concepts used in the study, how the findings shed light on these concepts and what this means for the original research problem and for the existing literature. - The mystery story = this structure starts by pointing out mysteries and then gradually develops answers.
Significant considerations:
- The rationale and purpose of the research determine the basis of the reporting strategy - The audiences the nature of the outputs required will inevitably depend on the specific audiences being addressed. - Meeting contractual/other obligations in both commissioned and grant- funded research, the range, type and format of written and other outputs that are to be produced will typically be agreed at the contractual stage with the client or funder. - The resources available there is no doubt that the resources available to a study or a research team will limit the research outputs that are possible.
Factors that will determine the forms of research outputs:
- The rationale and purpose of the research: will determine the basis of the reporting strategy. - The audience: the nature of the outputs required will inevitably depend on the specific audience being addressed. -Silverman identifies four key audiences for qualitative research: o Academics: theoretical factual or methodological insights o Policy-makers: practical information relevant to current policy issues o Practitioners: framework for understanding their clients better and practical suggestions for better procedures or practice o General public: new facts, guidelines for how to get better services, and assurances that others share their experiences or problems. o Additional audience: study participants - Meeting contractual/ other obligations: the range, type and format of written and other outputs that are to be produces will be agreed at the contractual stage with the client funder. - The resources available
disadvantages quantitative
- Too focused: may miss key points of influence - No understanding of people's interpretations - Weak for discovering new phenomena
In general, however, we suggest that there are ways in which most numeric or quasi-numeric statements about the data can be avoided so that the presentation of findings remains more in line with the purposes of qualitative research. Specific strategies include:
- Turning a sentence around and to talk about issues rather than cases. - Presenting views, characteristics or experiences in sets, such that an array of response can be seen. - Presenting the array of responses in some more classified form, clustering the responses into a number of groups (rather than cases). - Focusing on differences between groups of cases, where these occur. These are a few ways that the use of numbers or statements of prevalence can be avoided in qualitative reporting.
Critique of Guidelines - 4 B's
-Burden of illness Expected Event Rate (EER) -Beliefs of individual patients -Bargain cost-effective? -Barriers geographic or other
Practice Guidelines as Evidence-based Information
-Definition Systematically developed statements to assist practitioner and patient decisions about appropriate healthcare for specific clinical circumstances (Institute of Medicine, 1990) -Science based -Explicit, yet flexible -Developed by practitioners -Subject to revision
Guideline Development Process
-Extensive interdisciplinary clinical review of needs, practices, emerging technology -Comprehensive literature review -Ranking of evidence quality -Peer review of guideline drafts -Pilot review with intended users
How to measure each factor:
-Reach The absolute number, proportion, and representativeness of individuals who participate in a given initiative, intervention or program. -Representativeness refers to whether participants have characteristics that reflect the target population's characteristics. For example, if your intent is to increase physical activity in sedentary people between the ages of 35 and 70, you wouldn't test your program on triathletes. -Effectiveness/Efficacy The impact of an intervention on important outcomes. This includes potential negative effects, quality of life, and economic outcomes. -Adoption The absolute number, proportion, and representativeness of settings and staff who are willing to initiate a program or approve a policy. -Implementation At the setting level, implementation refers to how closely staff members follow the program that the developers provide. This includes consistency of delivery as intended and the time and cost of the program. -Maintenance At the setting level, the extent to which a program or policy becomes part of the routine organizational practices and policies. At the individual level, maintenance refers to the long-term effects of a program on outcomes after 6 or more months after the most recent intervention contact.
Challenges in reporting qualitative data The key aim in writing up qualitative evidence is to present findings in an accessible form that will satisfy the research objectives and engage the target audiences. The analytic output from qualitative research involves evidence of a very different kind from statistical tables and charts. This poses certain challenges when writing up qualitative evidence:
-Telling the story -Displaying the evidential base -Displaying diversity -Length in written accounts -Explaining boundaries of qualitative research
The analytic output from qualitative research involves evidence of a very different kind from statistical tables and charts. This poses certain challenges when writing up qualitative evidence: -Telling the story -Displaying the evidential base -Displaying diversity -Length in written accounts -Explaining boundaries of qualitative research
-Telling the story The challenge is to tell the story in an intelligible and coherent way that also does justice to the layered complexity of the participants descriptions. -Displaying the evidential base Integrity in reporting requires a demonstration that the interpretations and conclusions presented are generated from, and grounded in, the data. By the time the data appear in a written account they will have been analyzed and investigated so there needs to be a clarity and balance between displaying the subtlety and detail of the original material and the classification, explanation and interpretation that has taken place. -Displaying diversity Inclusivity requires reporting and explaining the untypical as much as it does reporting the more recurrent themes. Not only the dominant message/result but also the exceptions. -Length in written accounts It is inevitably a choice to be made about leaving some of the findings out, otherwise readers will be swamped by the evidence and drown in the detail. Difficult to do because accounts rich in the kind of detail often considered necessary to assess the quality of qualitative interpretations within the constraints of journal articles and report for funders. -Explaining boundaries of qualitative research It is important that the audience understands what qualitative research can and cannot do. This will preferably include a discussion of the kinds of inference that can be drawn from qualitative data and its transferability to other settings.
grounded code
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guilt
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hallucination
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techniques for identifying codes
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What four things do you not do with qualitative research
-do not combine various qualitation methods -do not combine the philosophical underpinnings of one type with another -combine qualitative and quantitative research designs within a study -do not use any numerical counting to qualitative: such as word stress was used how many times during the interview
Name the 4 major types of probability sampling
-simple random sampling -stratified random sampling -cluster sampling -systematic sampling
Give two examples of going native
-when a researcher loses their objectivity ie Blenner's study of stress on an African expedition -an anthropologist who starts dressing and behaving like on eo fthe natives
Data reduction
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Negative Cases
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Reflexivity
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Replication in Qualitative Research
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Triangulation
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Validity and Realism
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When a sample is randomly chosen it is more what of the populationcaurate representation
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coding themes
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5 types of audiences
1. Area specialists 2. General disciplinary readers 3. Human science readers 4. Action-oriented readers 5. General readers
Limitations of qualitative research
1. Can be very time-consuming to collect. 2. Can generate large amounts of data that is difficult to analyze. 3. Potential susceptibility of the results to get misused or misinterpreted 4. Results not necessarily representative of the whole population 5.Researcher's role is extremely critical, can lead to ambiguous or at times misleading results.
anosognosia
inability to recognize a physical defect in oneself (e.g. denying that limb is paralyzed)
What are the 2 types of substance?
1. Material 2. Mental
Validity and Reliability in Qualitative Research Creswell's Validation Strategies
1. Prolonged engagement in the field 2. Using multiple and different sources, methods, investigators, and theories to provide corroborating evidence (P+M "triangulation") 3. Peer review or debriefing, which provide an external check of the research process 4. Clarifying researcher bias from the outset of the study (P+M "reflexivity) 5. Member checking, in which researchers solicit participants' views of the credibility of the findings (P+M "respondent validation") 6. Rich, thick description, which allows readers to make decisions regarding transferability (P+M "clear exposition of methods of dc and analysis") 7. External audits, in which an external consultant examines both process and product Try to engage at least two during any given study
Membership categorization device
A collection of categories (e.g. baby, mommy, father = family; male, female = gender) and some rules about how to apply these categories.
Deciding on a narrative and structure Three models to work from in planning an overall structure for presenting research findings, each of which provide a different frame on which to hang the key elements and concepts emerging from a study:
1. The hypothesis story: implies a three part structure: stating a hypothesis, test it, and then discussing the implications. Less suited to qualitative studies where hypotheses are more often developed inductively, during the course of analysis, rather than shaping all analyses. 2. The analytic story: involves thinking about the key concepts used in the study, how the findings shed light on these concepts, and what this means for the original research problem and for the existing literature. 3. The mystery story: starts by pointing out mysteries and then gradually develops answers.
Preference organization
A concept derived from conversation analysis which suggests that recipients of actions recognize a preference for what they should do next.
Hyphenated phenomena
A concept which refers to the way in which apparently stable social phenomena (a 'tribe' or a 'family') take on different meanings in different contexts. Thus a-family-as-seen-by-the-oldest-child takes on a different meaning than a-family-as-seen-by-the-youngest (see constructionism).
Phenomenological
Aimed at obtaining a description of an experience as its lived, to understand the meaning
1. The hypothesis story
: implies a three part structure: stating a hypothesis, test it, and then discussing the implications. Less suited to qualitative studies where hypotheses are more often developed inductively, during the course of analysis, rather than shaping all analyses. 2. The analytic story: involves thinking about the key concepts used in the study, how the findings shed light on these concepts, and what this means for the original research problem and for the existing literature. 3. The mystery story: starts by pointing out mysteries and then gradually develops answers.
2. The analytic story
: involves thinking about the key concepts used in the study, how the findings shed light on these concepts, and what this means for the original research problem and for the existing literature. 3. The mystery story: starts by pointing out mysteries and then gradually develops answers.
hebephrenia
= disorganized schizophrenia - characterised by wild or silly behaviour, or mannerisms, inappropriate affect and delusions and hallucinations that are transient and unsystematized
haptic hallucination
= tactile hallucination = hallucination of touch
Conversation analysis
A qualitative approach based on an attempt to describe people's methods for producing orderly talk-in-interaction. It derives from the work of Harvey Sacks (1992).
Non-participant observation
A researcher observes a group or activity he or she is studying, without participating in the group or activity.
Subculture
A set of beliefs, values and behaviours shared by a particular group.
Theory
A set of interrelated concepts, definitions and propositions that convey a systematic view of phenomena
Simple Idea
A single, uniform conception, with nothing distinguishable within it.
Gettier Case
A situation in which we have justification, truth and belief but not knowledge, because the belief is only accidentally true, given the evidence that justifies it.
Advantages of close ended questions
Advantages of Closed By "forcing" R to answer in a particular manner, have standard comparable data across groups Attention to YOUR research question The data can be quantified (easily summarized)
Advantages of Open ended questions
Advantages of Open Permits R to answer in own words, on own terms (you can understand topic as seen by R) Reduces (but does not eliminate) researcher bias Allows discussion of context, meaning, things not easily put into preset categories
Qualitative Research: Interview: + and -
Advantages: Researcher able to observe for clues in non-verbal behavior as they answer questions Better response rate than questionnaires, as subject does not have to write down answers Access to vulnerable populations (children or people who are unable to complete questionnaires) Allow for a richer and more complex data to be collected especially in the case of unstructured or semi-structured interviews Researcher controls the order of questions for all participants (makes sure all questions asked). May add new question to future interviews as new information disclosed Disadvantages: Social desirability: people are known to answer questions in a way that makes a favorable impression The researcher assumes the subject is telling the 'truth'. Not always the case Interviewer must be trained to prevent interviewer bias (adding in own views) Potential reaction to interviewer-will this affect my care? Did I pass?
In depth interviewing
Advantages: More respondents/ interaction Disadvantages: Less control and/or depth
Surveys
Advantages: more depth Disadvantages: Fewer respondents; not generalizable
Participant observation
Advantages:More control of topics/breadth of topics Disadvantages: Not in naturalistic setting
B. A basic set of beliefs about the world that guide actions
After researchers make a stance on their assumptions, they further shape their research by bringing to their inquiry certain paradigms. Paradigms can best be described as:
Silverman Criticism of Quantitative 3
After the fact speculation about the meaning of correlation can result in the common-sense reasoning that science is trying to avoid
Steps in Coding 7. Make a coding plan and apply the codes
After there is sufficient agreement and the codebook is finalized, a plan is made to apply the codes and the research team engages in: More Open Coding: the process of initially assigning codes to subsequent transcripts
Argument From Perceptual Variation
Against DR: Different people perceive the same physical object differently. Therefore, what each person perceives is how the object appears to them. This appearance is mind-dependent sense data. Physical objects are therefore not perceived directly.
Argument from Illusions
Against DR: Objects can be "subjectively indistinguishable" from veridical perception, e.g. (a crooked stick in water) so we see sense data, and not physical objects, immediately.
Argument from Hallucinations
Against DR: The possibility of experiences that are subjectively indistinguishable from a veridical perception means we don't immediately perceive physical objects, but sense-data.
Steps in Coding 8. Determine Agreement Rate
Agreement Rate (AR): (AR): # of agreements/ total # agreements and disagreements Aim to achieve a 70% inter-coder reliability Aim to achieve a 90% intra-coder reliability
Foundational Similarities between quantitative and qualitative research
All qualitative data can be measured and coded using quantitative methods. Quantitative research can be generated from qualitative inquiries. Example: Patient reported outcomes (PRO) Tools that are used to gain insight from the patient's perspective into the perceived effects that the impact of the disease and treatments have on aspects of their health, their lifestyle and subsequently their quality of life.
Copy Principle (Hume)
All simple ideas are copies of impressions.
Berkeley's Idealism
All that exists are minds and ideas. What we think of as physical objects are, in fact, bundles of ideas. The immediate objects of perception are idea, mind-dependent objects. Esse est Percipi - to be is to be perceived.
What is a strength about a case study?
Allows you to study a specific/rare situation. Case studies are useful because the data recieved is very rich. Rich data means that the data is extensive and thorough.
CPHS
Also known as the Committee for the Protection of Human Subjects which serves the Institutional Review Board (IRB) and aims to ensure the protection of the rights and welfare of all human participants in research conducted by university faculty, staff, and students.
Hermeneutics
An approach concerned with interpretation (originally derived from the study of biblical texts).
Empiricism
An approach which believes that evidence about the world does not depend upon models or concepts (see positivism).
Cosmological Argument
An argument for God's existence that claims that unless God exists, the question "why does anything exist?" is unanswerable. Arguments from causation claim that everything must have a cause, and causal chains cannot be infinite, there must be a first cause. Arguments from contingency claim that every contingent thing must have an explanation for its existence, and this ultimately can only be provided by something that exists necessarily.
coding frame
An exhaustive list of all possible values that codes may take in content analysis. A list of the codes in use in a qualitative data analysis project usually containing their definitions and a set of rules or guidelines for coding. Also called a code book.
Empirical
Based on evidence through observation or experiment.
Steps in Coding 4. Create a codebook
Based on team agreements about emerging ideas and important concepts within the data, assign one team member to create the codebook Components of the codebook Code name: A label or code name that makes for easy reference Definition: Brief and full definitions of code A description of when to use a code A description of when NOT to use a code An example quotation Code names Own invention: code name logically related to data it represents, and sufficiently graphic to remind analyst of its referent. A priori: code names taken from analyst's disciplinary and professional experience. "In vivo": code names based on catchy words and phrases used by informants.
Narrative interview
Based on the assumption that humans are storytellers. The respondent is asked to tell their story of something they have experienced to show individual interpretations.
Inductive
Based on the study of particular cases rather than just derived from a theory.
qualitative research
Based on written words, symbols, observations, non-numerical data
P-value interpretation rules
Baseline p-values: -Should be GREATER THAN alpha cut-off -Shows that groups were equal at baseline Results p-values: -Can conclude statistically significant differences or relationships if p-value is LESS THAN alpha cut-off -P-values can't show precision Need confidence intervals
Informed consent
Between researcher and participant. Do not exploit people to further own cause; sharing results; quitting study at any time.
Qualitative Research: Triangulation: types
Data triangulation: using a variety of data sources in a study-different settings, different collection times, methods Investigator triangulation: investigators or evaluators are from different backgrounds Theory triangulation: different theoretical approaches to the interpretation of the data Methodological triangulation: different methods used to study the data Interdisciplinary triangulation: other disciplines increase the understanding of the phenomena
Researcher-provoked data
Data which are actively created and, therefore, would not exist apart from the researcher's intervention (e.g. interviews, focus groups).
Naturally occurring data
Data which derive from situations which exist independently of the researcher's intervention.
Who believed that the Self is a fiction?
David Hume
Who is referred to as the "serious empiricist"?
David Hume
Who thought that Berkley did not go far enough?
David Hume
Who was a Radical Skeptic and a Phenomenalist?
David Hume
Who was the most thoroughgoing of the British Empiricists?
David Hume
Operational Notes
Deal with methodological issues - ideas and reminders about coding process itself
Analyze and Interpret the data
Debriefing/Note based Tape/Abbreviated Transcript Tape/Transcript-based
What is quantitative methodology?
Deductive, draws small conclusions from big ideas. Answers in numbers, tries to establish a cause and effect relationship by manipulating variables.
Ethnographic Data Analysis Methods
Definition: - Analysis of individuals' behaviour (data collected through participant observation) and thoughts (data collected through key informant interviews) to identify patterns and ultimately describe cultural symbols Procedures/methods - During participant observation - make field notes including early identification of patterns - Draw flow charts or others pictures to show relationships between people and/or the things they say and/or the things they use (artefacts) - Identify and categorize descriptors - Discover repetitive patterns in the context of the culture - Abstract the patterns into themes
Grounded Theory Data Analysis Methods
Definition: - Constant comparative analysis of mostly narrative data to identify categories and relationships between categories (to identify a theory) Procedures/methods: - breaking down sentences, observations or incidents described by participants - Assign codes to data (words or sentences) - Specify the relationships between the codes by constantly comparing to other participants codes and to the participants own codes - Identify emergent theory/conceptual description
Beneficence
Do no harm - maximize possible benefits
Consistency
Degree to which studies have similar and different designs yet the same research question and findings
"I am a thing that thinks."
Descartes
Who believed that you exist innately by intuition, but not sensation?
Descartes
What do feminist epistemologists critique?
Descartes' mind body distinction and positivism
Descriptive
Describes HUMAN EXPERIENCES → descriptive themes (Husserl)
Phenomenological Data Analysis Methods
Description: - interpretation of the narrative stories to identify themes and present a holistic description Procedures/methods: - Read transcripts - Identify 'meaning units' from data (could be a full sentence or only a word) - Organize 'meaning units' into themes - Integrate results into a thorough description of the phenomenon
Two Types of Phenomenological research
Descriptive and Interpretive
Levels of Evidence V
Descriptive or Qualitative Studies
Representational generalization
Findings from qualitative research studies can be applied to similar populations outside the population of the study as the populations, not the settings, need to be similar.
Explain the three types of questions used in interviews.
Descriptive questions: Questions which are like "tours" they require the interviewee to describe something themselves. Questions like this include, "describe your day at school." Structural questions: Questions that are searching for a specific answer, they are structured. It might be the interviewees have to arrange words into an order or they are asked yes or no questions, etc. Contrast questions: Questions where interviewees are asked to compare different things in order for the interviewer to gain some perspective on their opinions.
Ethnographic
Designed to produce cultural theory- scientifically describes cultural groups to understand their view of the world
In-Depth Interviews
Detailed interviews; often recorded
Generate and pre-test the interview guide
Determine the structure of the focus group (Morgan reading) moderator involvement Specificity or standardization of Qs in topic guide Draft transition and key questions Pre-test the guide
Methods of Evaluating Qualitative Research: Trustworthiness
Developing standards of quality Lincoln and Guba's classic work shed light on how to assess truth in a qualitative report Offered four alternate tests of quality that reflect the assumptions of the qualitative paradigm: Credibility Dependability Transferability Confirmability
Ethnographic Research
Disciplinary root- cultural anthropology & sociology Seeks to understand human behavior by studying it from the perspective of individuals within that culture. (learning cultural patterns) Includes knowledge, beliefs and activities of group under study combining the EMIC perspective (insiders view) with the ETIC Perspective (researcher's view) Researcher enters the world and attempts to make sense of it. Ex: "How Northern Saskatchewan Families with Preschoolers Define and Practice Health" would tell us about cultural norms and knowledge and other contextual behaviors that would influence the health experience of a particular population in this specific setting-
Grounded theory
Discovering how people describe their own reality and how their beliefs are related to their actions in a social scene. Code certain reactions into different categories (ex. coping with a seriously ill child). The core of grounded theory analysis is based on three related processes: description, coding and connecting themes to produce an account.
Reliability Methods
Display reliability estimate as correlation coefficient / tests for 3 attributes
prosopagnosia
inability to recognize familir faces
ETHNOGRAPHIC RESEARCH Structure of Study
Ethnographers make their own beliefs explicit and bracket (set aside) their personal biases as they seek to understand the worldview of others and to avoid leading the participant to issues that may be only important to the researcher. Ex. Suppose that a nurse conducting research does not personally believe in homeopathic medicines curing disease- believes in traditional health care. Own beliefs will have to be carefully bracketed and recorded along with observations and reports from researcher's sample. Sample Selection- cultural group that is living the phenomenon under study. Data is collected from both key informants and general informants. Key informants- individuals that possess special knowledge, status, or communication skills and are willing to teach ethnographer about the phenomenon. Purposive Sampling- participants specifically selected because they are knowledgeable on the subject under study. Identified by the Researcher in advance from thoughtful inquiry. Snowball Sampling- asking key informants to identify other key informants they know as friends, relatives, others who have information to share
Cross-case analysis
Examination of similarities across cases (inductive approach to variable-oriented analysis)
Sense Experience
Experiences given to us by our senses.
Qualitative Research Studies
Explore reported findings including perceptions, feelings, preferences, trends, and other phenomena that cannot be adequately measured by NUMBERS Provide data to research questions that cannot possibly be measured by RCTs. This includes identifying themes, unexpected impacts, patient satisfaction, improvement in staff morale, etc. Has been (Somewhat!) negatively viewed for many years as "non-valid research" but is rapidly evolving to be its own science with credibility and significant value for decision-making Critical appraisal processes apply here as well.
Interpretive Phenomenology
INTERPRET AND UNDERSTAND HUMAN EXPERIENCE Heidegger influenced
Grounded Theory
Explores social or psychological processes Based on symbolic interactionist approach (people behave based on ways they interpret symbols and experiences) Builds a theory about a process Uses inductive and deductive approaches Constant comparative analysis Theoretical sampling
Framework analysis- 5 step process
Familiarization Identifying a thematic framework Indexing (coding) Charting (data display) Mapping & interpretation (map back onto your thematic framework to ensure the most thorough analysis)
D. Women's diverse situations and the institutions that frame those situations
Feminist research is concerned with:
Purposive sampling usually used
Finding people with "typical" experience or with different or extreme examples
Participatory Action Research
Finding solutions to problems in partnership with participants, implement, evaluate
Representational generalization
Findings from qualitative research studies can be applied to populations outside the population of the study.
Key Features of Framework Analysis
Grounded or generative Dynamic: it is open to change, addition and amendment throughout the analytical process Systematic Comprehensive: allowing a full rather than partial or selective review of the material collected Easy retrieval: allowing access to, and retrieval of, the original textual material It is accessible to others: the analytical process and interpretations derived from it can be viewed and judged by people other than the primary analyst
Snowball sampling
Have participant help RECRUIT OTHERS
Explain this quote by David Hume: "I am myself a bundle of perceptions." How does the quote illustrate Hume's ideas about personal identity?
He defines the identity of a person as nothing more than the totality of perceptions, this bundle making up the "identity" of the person. However, these perceptions are always changing since there's no moment during conscious life where our perceptions remain constant. Since identity of a personality is the constituents of its perceptual bundle, and those constituents are always changing, personal identity does not exist.
Power analysis
Helps with validity. How many people do we need in the study before we begin?
Non-propositional knowledge
INformal, implicit and derived primarily through practice
Write one example of a procedural knowledge claim
I know how to make a cake
Write one example of a propositional knowledge claim
I know what a bachelor is, it's an unmarried man.
How is "cogito ergo sum" best translated?
I think, therefore I am
Main data source of phenomelogical
IN DEPTH CONVERSATIONS with a small number of participants who have experienced the phenomenon, not opinions, but accurate descriptions of experiences
Case Study
IN DEPTH investigation of one single entity or a small group
What is the view that says, "only minds and their ideas exist."?
Idealism
What view says, "if a substance can be perceived, that's all there really is."?
Idealism
Integrating Memos
Ideas about how to organize axial codes into a coherent account of the data
Analysis
Identify KEYWORDS AND PHRASES that stick out (anger- "just about murdered that woman")
Code Notes
Identify code labels and meanings to researcher
example of the ecological fallacy error in the unit of measurement
If we knew that neighborhoods with more young adults have higher crime rates, and we assume that younger people commit more crimes
Name two journals that frequently publish qualitative research?
Image Advances in Nursing Science
Who said that "reading Mr. Hume awakened me from my dogmatic slumber."
Immanuel Kant
Who tried to refute Hume's position on causation?
Immanuel Kant
Finding qualitative data helps the researcher?
Labels/ simplifies the data - clustering/ helps to be able to analyze the data later
visual agnosia
inability to recognize objects or persons
Who championed the idea of no innate ideas?
John Locke
Who is the father of modern empiricism?
John Locke
Who wrote "The Essay Concerning Human Understanding"?
John Locke
Edmund Gettier's Problem of Accidental Correctness attempts to question which element of the tripartite theory of knowledge?
Joint sufficiency
Data Based Literature
Journal studies - empirical science
Tripartite Theory of Knowledge
Justified, True, Belief is necessary and sufficient for propositional knowledge. S knows that P if and only if S believes that P, P is true and S's belief that P is justified.
Axial Coding
Key codes and concepts of interest are identified and regrouped of data into main coding scheme
Constant Comparative Method
Key feature of GTM; 1- Comparing incidents across cases, 2- Developing/Adopting concepts, 3- Comparing concepts across cases, 4- Integrating concepts from different avenues of inductive inquiry, 5- Delimiting the theory (creating/adopting theoretical approach and ruling out less important concepts), 6- Writing theory - explaining approach to others
Acquaintance Knowledge
Knowing "of" someone or some place. For example, "I know the manager of the restaurant" or " I know Oxford well."
Propositional Knowledge
Knowing "that" some claim - a proposition - is true or false, e.g. "I know that Paris is the Capital of France".
What is the meaning of the Greek word "episteme?
Knowledge
According to the theory of rationalism/foundationalism what is true?
Knowledge is possible only if based on self-evident and absolutely certain principles, knowledge is a priori and sense experience cannot provide the certainty needed to guarantee what we know is true; FALSE: We should trust sense experience as a source of knowledge
A posteriori
Knowledge of propositions that can only be known to be true or false through sense experience.
A priori
Knowledge of propositions that do not require sense experience to be known to be true or false.
Innate
Knowledge or ideas that are in some way present "from birth".
A priori
Knowledge that is inferred through language rather than experience
Phenomenological research focuses on the
LIVED EXPERIENCES of humans through many different traditions-description and interpretation of people's lived experience
why correlation does not equal causation
One does not equal the other because there could be something else causing the correlation driving them such as a third variable (spurious relationship)
Necessary Condition
One proposition is a necessary condition of another when the second cannot be true while the first is false. For example, being a man is a necessary condition of being a bachelor, as if you are not a man you cannot be a bachelor.
Sufficient Condition
One proposition is a sufficient condition of another when one cannot be true while the other is false. For example, being a dog is sufficient for being an animal, because something can't be a dog without also being an animal.
Categories of questions
Opening- Participants get acquainted and feel connected Introductory- Begins discussion of topic Transition- Bring general topic to individual level of experience Key- Obtains insight on areas of central concern in the study Ending- Helps researchers determine where to place emphasis and brings closure to the discussion
Identification of the target group
Operationalize concepts from RQ Who should participate Where can they be found? What type of purposive sampling will you use? Size of groups Number of groups segmentation saturation
Step 2.) Identification of Target Group
Operationalize concepts from RQ (answers "who") Who should participate (target group issue) Where can they be found (what type of purposive sampling will you use to recruit) Size of groups (how many to recruitment) Number of groups Segmentation (target and recruitment issue) Saturation (recruitment)
Thematic analysis (2/2)
Organizing, understanding and presenting codes and findings by themes found within the data A theme can be a combination of codes emerging from the data that gets put under one category, or themes can be derived directly from key questions and you take the major coded messages and arrange them by those themes
What is the difference between covert and overt observations?
Overt observations, participants are aware that they are being observed. Covert observations are undercover.
Thematic Analysis: Step by step
Phase 1: familiarize yourself with the data Phase 2: generate initial codes Phase 3: search for themes Phase 4: review themes Phase 5: define and name themes Phase 6: produce the report
C. The meaning of experiences of a phenomenon for several individuals.
Phenomenological research describes:
Phenomenology: Human experience
Phenomenology is a school of thought that emphasizes a focus on people's subjective experiences and interpretations of the world. Focus: reveal the meaning of the lived experience from the perspective of participants-those living the experience Written or oral data Importance: Study a new topic or adding fresh perspective to new topic Examples: experience of men facing prostate surgery, experience of spouses of home dialysis patients in Saskatchewan
Direct Realism
Physical objects exist independently of our minds and of our perceptions of them and the immediate objects of perception are mind-independent objects and their properties.
Concept Mapping
Placing concepts into graphical format to help with organization
Data collection; the start
Planning and pioting; ID unexpect issues, confirm study feasibility, allow for revisions, determine and address all key study elements, and the type of data needed.
PICOT
Population, intervention, control, outcome, time
Relationship of sample to population (small to large)
Population, target population, accessible population, sample
Vulnerable population
Populations that do not have control over their SES; or health in the community - Willowbrook study
Belief in which theory causes a person to deny the existence of God?
Positivism
Which theory states that the only "true" or valid form of knowledge is that which is "scientific?"
Positivism
Would research about abortion conducted by a mother of three be valid according to a positivist? Why or why not
Positivism states that the only knowledge is "scientific" and you have to keep emotions, beliefs etc. out of your thoughts. A mother of three already believes that abortion is wrong because she already has had 3 children. Her thoughts are to have child's instead aborting them so a positivist would say that this is invalid because the mother will fail to keep her emotions and beliefs outside of her mind when she's researching about abortion.
D. All of the above
Postpositivism tends to be:
What is the capacity to reject the null hypothesis?
Power
What theory says that a proposition is true if it works, and if it is useful?
Pragmatic Theory
In the film Inception, Mal's plea with Cobb to "choose" his reality is most closely related to which theory?
Pragmatism
What theory considers practical consequences in decisions regarding the truth of knowledge claims
Pragmatism
B. Will employ BOTH quantitative and qualitative sources of data collection
Pragmatism:
Steps to Determining Clinical Relevance vs Statistical Significance
Process of inquiry - Who is affected by the outcome of the research? - What is the impact of the change/outcome? - Do the benefits of the measured outcome warrant a change in practice? - What are the implications if practice remains the same?
Inter-rater reliability
Process of multiple researchers coding same raw data and comparing notes for concensus
Qualitative Data Coding
Process of transforming raw data into a standardized form using a conceptual framework - can be classified or categorized into either quant. or qual. categories
Grounded theory
Process; What is the process of recovery following breast cancer?
Silverman Criticism of Quantitative 5
Producing hypothesis prior to research means that you cannot generate new ideas from the data
Systematic random sampling
Progression of random sampling - such as picking every 4th person; getting samples by intervals that were set up
Primary Quality
Properties that are "utterly inseparable" from the object, whatever changes it goes through, even if it is divided into smaller and smaller pieces. The object has these properties "in and of itself". Locke lists extension, size, shape, solidity and number as primary qualities.
Secondary Qualities
Properties that physical objects have that are "nothing but powers to produce sensations in us." Locke lists colour, sound, taste and so on, later adding smells and temperature.
Critical incident interviews
SPECIFIC INCIDENTS that had a discernible IMPACT on some OUTCOME
Qualitative Research: Trustworthiness of Data
Sample (size, setting, recruitment strategy and informed consent obtained). General numbers (may be more or less in each) 1. Grounded (20-30 subjects) 2. Ethnography (up to 50 subjects) 3. Phenomenological (10 or fewer subjects) Data collection: interviews, participant observation, length of interviews. Data analysis: how analysed? Coding procedure, categories and themes clearly described.
Sample size
Sample size guided by data saturation Must have enough data to illuminate patterns, categories & dimensions of phenomena Depends on scope of project & type of research. At least the following amounts: Ethnography: N=50 Phenomenology: N=10 Grounded theory: N=30
Theoretical sampling
Sampling method recommended for field researchers by Glaser and Strauss. Sample is drawn in a sequential fashion, with settings or individuals selected for study as earlier observations or interviews indicate that these settings or individuals are influential.
Segmentation in focus group study design
Segmentation is a strategy that involves purposely dividing groups based on a characteristic Recommended when people are likely to have different experiences based on the segmentation variable people are likely to be more comfortable in a segmented group the purpose of the research is to compare groups
What is statistical generalization? How does it relate to case studies?
Statistical generalizations is when the research is just used to expand on other similar cases. Data gathered from a case study may be used to help analyze other similar cases.
Explain "confirmability" in qualitative research (Lincoln and Guba).
Similar to objectivity. Just, in qualitative it is believed that subjectivity is important and instead it is valued that the research is described detailed enough that it can be repeated.
Levels of Evidence VI
Single Descriptive or Qualitative Study
Conduct the group
Site Length Travel Equipment Respondent reminder Respondent remuneration Snacks
Which sampling techniques are used in interviews and why?
Snowballing: Chosen participants are told to invite people they know. Good for qualitative because if you choose one person relevant to the study, the people in their social circles will most likely share these traits. Purposive sampling: Specific people are chosen because they know a lot about the subject and can offer information. These are used because interviews require rich data, data that can only be obtained if the interviewee has a lot to say on the subject. Also, the interviews use specialist topics, which require a "relevant" person.
B. Seek understanding of the world in which they live and work
Social constructivists:
Gatekeeper
Someone that you may have to go thru in order to gain access to a culture that you want to study; based in trust.
Charting
Specific pieces of data that were indexed in the previous stage are now arranged in charts of the themes. This means that the data is lifted from its original textual context and placed in charts that consist of the headings and subheadings that were drawn during the thematic framework, or from a priori research inquiries or in the manner that is perceived to be the best way to report the research. Sometimes called a data display
Methods
Specific research techniques. These include quantitative techniques, like statistical correlations, as well as techniques like observation, interviewing and audio-recording.
3 attributes in the reliability method
Stability, equivalence, internal consistency
Secondary Source
Summary of material, critique, analysis of theory
Principles of Causation (Hill)
Temporal Relationship: Exposure always precedes the outcome Strength: The stronger the association, the more likely it is that the relation of "A" to "B" is causal Consistency: The association is consistent when results are replicated in studies in different settings using different methods Biological Gradient (Dose-Response Relationship): An increasing amount of exposure increases the risk Plausibility: The association agrees with currently accepted understanding of pathological processes Coherence: The association should be compatible with existing theory and knowledge. Experiment: The condition can be altered (prevented or ameliorated) by an appropriate experimental regimen. Consideration of Alternate Explanations: In judging whether a reported association is causal, it is necessary to determine the extent to which researchers have taken other possible explanations into account and have effectively ruled out such alternate explanations. Specificity: This is established when a single putative cause produces a specific effect
What established John Locke as an Empiricist and kicked off the empiricist movement?
The Essay Concerning Human Understanding
Knowledge Innatism
The claim that there is at least some innate knowledge, not derived from experience but somehow part of the structure of the mind.
Method triangulation
The comparison of data which comes from different methods (e.g. both qualitative and quantitative methods).
Horizontalization
The data analysis step in a phenomenological study where you highlight significant statements, sentences, or quotes that provide an understanding of how the participants experience d the phenomenon.
Foundational Differences between quantitative and qualitative research
The major difference between qualitative and quantitative research stems from the researcher's underlying strategies and engagement. Quantitative research is viewed as confirmatory and deductive in nature (confirming a theory or hypothesis with the data i.e. general to specific) Qualitative research is considered to be exploratory and inductive- ( generalize, conceptual framework theory- from specific data)
C. What is the process of research?:
The methodological assumption questions:
Methodology
The overarching and theoretical framework that guides the research process
Secondary Analysis
The practice of analyzing data that have already been gathered by someone else, often for a distinctly different purpose. As a research method, it saves both time and money and avoids unnecessary duplication of research effort.
What is inductive content analysis? (thematic content analysis)
The process of identifying themes form the qualitative data of an interview. The data will be categorized into subordinate and superordinate (over-arching) themes so that researchers can reach conclusions about their data.
Thematic Analysis
The process of recognizing and recovering the emergent themes
Ethnographic Research
Understanding culture; rounded and not segmented understanding. Method includes the Gatekeeper, emic perspective, and etic persspective
Content Analysis Units
Units may be analyzed as full letters, paragraphs within letters or even individual sentences. The scope is determined by researcher.
Unstructured interviewing
Unstructured interviewing involves using a topic guide that is simply a list of topics you want to cover Best for exploratory research with an experienced moderator Used with observation methods
Grounded Theory Method
Use of cross-case analysis to inductively create/adopt concepts and build theory
Variable-Oriented Analysis
Use of independent variable to predict an outcome of a dependent variable
Method triangulation
Use of multiple methods of data collection to study the same phenomenon.
Network Sampling / Snowball
Use social networks to connect with similar people
Direct observation
Using different interviews; structured and semi-structured interviews - also, video recordings
Define methodological triangulation.
Using different methods to understand a topic. This might include different types of research methods, or using a combination of quantitative and qualitative methods.
Define theoretical triangulation.
Using different theoretical approaches to understand a situation. E.g applying evolutionary psych and cognitive psych to one specific situation.
Induction
Using quantitative or qualitative data to build theory
Deduction
Using quantitative or qualitative data to test theory
motor aphasia
inability to produce words in a fluent manner, also known as broca's aphasia or non fluent aphasia. understanding remains intact
Steps in Coding 2. Understand the subjectivities & biases of the team
Ways to surface team biases: Bring in an outside facilitator to interview team members and create a subjectivity report Have each team member write a subjectivity memo and discuss as a group Create a plan to address the team's subjectivies throughout the analysis process
Hume's Fork
We can have knowledge of just two sorts of claim: the relations between ideas and matters of fact.
Data Outcropping
We go and look for something because theory tells us that the "thing" we are looking for is likely to be there. In other words, choosing a place you're likely to find a lot of people that can speak to your research question(s)/interest.
Indirect Realism
We perceive physical objects, which exist independently of our mind, indirectly via sense data which are caused by and represent physical objects.
Transferability, durability, credibility
What are the 3 most importatnt factors to consider when reviewing a quantitative study?
Proposition
What is claimed by a declarative statement such as "mice are mammals." Propositions can go after "that" in "I believe that" or "I know that".
exploratory example
What is hook-up culture? What are some key themes?
Justification
What is offered as grounds for believing an assertion.
Epistemology
What is truth? How do we know what we know?
example of an intervening variable
What is variable 'z' an example of? IV: college graduation status z: occupation type DV: income
spatial agnosia
inability to recognize spatial relations
Immediate objects of Perception
What we are directly aware of in perception. which may be physical objects or sensations of these.
Impression
What we are immediately and directly aware of, which can either be impressions of "sensation" or impressions of "reflection." Impressions of sensation derive from our senses, impressions of reflection derive from our experience of our mind, including emotions.
What do we mean when we talk about "inter-rater reliability?"
When two or more people look at the results, tools, survey - and agree that they will accurately measure the results.
trend study because it is tracking the same population
Which type of longitudinal?: Every year, a team of researchers surveys a sample of the American population about their participation in and attitudes about public service and a new sample is chosen each year
how science guards inaccurate observation
You can make a conscious activity so you pay more attention; use simple and complex measurement devices to help guard against this; They add a degree of precision past the capacity of the unassisted human senses
Inductive reasoning
a "bottom-up" type of reasoning that begins with specific observations and particular circumstances and then moves on to broader generalizations and theories.
Deductive reasoning
a "top-down" type of reasoning that begins with broad generalizations and theories and then move to the observation of particular circumstances in order to confirm or falsify the theory.
post positivism
a philosophical paradigm that accepts the belief that there is a universal reality, but asserts that humans are limited to perceiving that reality through an individual contextual lens. - bracketing monitors subjectivity
Lived Experience
a phrase used in phenomenological studies that emphasizes the importance and value of individual experiences of people as conscious human beings (Moustakas, 1994)
Patiche
a postmodern term that refers to the endless imitation, appropriation, and recycling of older cultural forms (e.g., much of what is fashionable today layers trends from the past).
Triangulate
a practice in which researchers use multiple types and sources of data, variant methods of collection as well as various theoretical frames and multiple researchers.
cryptographia/cryptolalia
a private written language/spoken language
triangulation
a procedure used to verify validity of the data by testing one source of data against another (Fetterman, in Creswell, 2012).
falsifiable criteria for a good hypothesis
a requirement that claims that evidence would show statement to be true or false
specific criteria for a good hypothesis
a requirement that states a particular prediction, not a question but a statement
Nuremberg Code
a research ethics code that arose in repsonse to the Nazis' inhumane experimentation; the code includes clauses on voluntary and informed consent, freedom from coersion, comprehension of the potential risks and benefits of the research, and a scientifically valid research design.
thick description
a rich recording of environment, circumstances, meanings, intentions, strategies, and motivations that characterize a particular observation. - Contributes to trustworthiness (Morrow, 2005)
What is the exhaustive ist of all the Cali RNs an example of
a sampling frame - all possible individuals withing the target population
Paradigm
a set of beliefs and practices, shared by communities of researchers- guides the knowledge development process
Ideology
a set of doctrines, myths, or beliefs, which guide or have power over individuals, groups, or societies.
melancholia
a severe depressive state characterised by anhedonia, or lack of mood reactivity. also 3 of depression that is subjectively different from grief or loss, severe anorexia, psychomotor changes, early morning wakening, excessive guilt and mood that WORSE in the morning
Avoiding numerical statements about qualitative findings Common difficulty with qualitative accounts is that they contain statements about how many people have said something. View of the book:
any numerical or statistical inference based on qualitative research is likely to be at best misleading and at worst erroneous because qualitative samples are not designed for such purposes. If qualitative reports refer to the recurrence of particular views or experiences or to clusters of response within the sample, this should be in order to explain why such patterns occur.
when the sample is a more acurate represenation of the population the sample statistics witll what?
approximate the population more precisely
Developmental outputs:
are designed to generate discussion and debate about emergent issues arising from the research. They are often produced during the analysis stage of a study as issues and concepts begin to emerge from the data. Presenting interim findings can allow funders, commissioners or colleagues the opportunity to suggest further analysis of areas of interest. Selective outputs: provide accounts of specific parts of the evidence. They may be targeted at the interest of particular audiences, such as professionals or service users, or at conferences or journals with particular substantive remits.
What questions should be asked with the findings of qualitative research?
are the researcher's conceptualizations true to data? Are the findings presented within a context?
thematic analysis
as coding and memoing takes place, themes begin to emerge from the data; a transcript of an interview is marked in relation to emerging themes.
When are decisions regarding key informants decided
as study progresses
snowball samples
ask one person, then have them suggest another, repeat step 1
ego-syntonic
aspects of personality that are viewed as acceptable and consistent with that person's total personality
overgeneralization
assuming that a small number of observations is evidence of a larger pattern; we over-extend on the basis of limited observations
if probabilty in systematic sampling the first individual is chosen how?
at random from the sampling frame
neurological amnesia
auditory amnesia - loss of ability to comprehend sound or speech tactile amnesia - loss of ability to comprehend or judge shapes of objects by touch verbal amnesia - loss of ability to remember words visual amnesia - loss of ability to recall or recognize familiar objects or painted words
dereism
autistic thinking
example of the bogardus scale
based on a woman as a police officer: ranging from 1. they have a right to be in the career to 5. women and men's abilities are equal in being a cop
substantiative theory is aka
basic social process
In general, however, we suggest that there are ways in which most numeric or quasi-numeric statements about the data can
be avoided so that the presentation of findings remains more in line with the purposes of qualitative research.
With the greater the number of variables the sample size needs to ......
be increased
Length in written accounts There is inevitably a choice to be made about leaving some findings out, otherwise readers will simply
be swamped by the evidence and drown in the detail.
Why Babbie says authority and tradition are double-edged swords
because they can prevent us from looking at things in a new way because we rely on experts but should look to fresh research also
acting out
behavioural response to an unconscious drive or impulsive that brings about temporary partial relief of inner tension; relief is attained by reacting to a present situation as if it were the situation that originally gave rise to the drive or impulse
theoretical sensitivity
being aware of what is important in developing a theory and what is not, choosing what is important
critical theory
break free of social constraints, ethnography, social action, break social constraints that might be present for members of a social class
analysis
breaking down a data set and then reassembling it into meaning that informs your research question
Asides
brief, reflective bits to clarify a field note
what types of questions are asked with interviewing
broad and open ended
Qualitative research does not have hypothesis but rather what?
broad research questions
causalgia
burning pain that may or organic or psychic in origin
overvalued idea
by definition a false or unreasonable belief or idea that is sustained beyond the bounds of reason, held with less intensity than a delusion
grandiosity
by definition are exaggerated feelings of one's importance, power, knowledge or identity
irritability/irritable mood
by definition is abnormal or excessive excitability, with easily triggered anger, annoyance or impatience
judgement
by definition is the mental act of comparing or evaluating choices within the framework of a given set of values for the purpose of electing a course of acting
free floating anxiety
by definition is the severe, pervasive, generalized anxiety that is not attached to any particular idea, object or event.
anorexia
by definition this is a loss or decrease of appetite
somatopagnosia
inability to recognise a part of one's body as one's one (also autotopagnosia)
Narrator
characters in the text
member validation
check with sampled to see if right
What for of sampling takes place in stages?
cluster sampling
In vivo coding
coding in the terms used by social actors to characterize their own scene
ambivalence
coexistence of two opposing impulses at the same time
Categories
collections of general phenomena (concepts, constructs, etc.)
global aphasia
combination of grossly non fluent aphasia and severe fluent aphasia
face validity
common agreement that a measure makes sense
What is non-participant observation
commonly used in psychology studies were the researcher observes only
Social constructionism
communication as the symbolic resource that constructs reality
incoherence
communication that is disconnected, disorganized or incomprehensible
Relevance marker 4
communication validation - presenting your data back to participants
Constant comparative method
compare units of data
Subsequent interviews
comparing data set to data set --> comparing data set to theory
Triangulation
comparison between 2 or more forms of data for the research interest - Multiple sources - Multiple methods (between/across methods) - Multiple researchers (within the method) - Increases reliability, validity & captures a more complete portrayal of the units under study
dipsomania
compulsion to drink alcoholic beverages
How else in simplke random sampling can a list of random numbers be generated?
computer
the two types of social science definitions
conceptual and organizational
The process of simple random sampling ensures what?
each participant has an equal and independent chance of being selected
terminal insomnia
early morning awakening or waking up > 2 hours before planning to
ineffability
ecstatic state in which persons insist that their experience is inexpressible and indescribable and that it is impossible to convey what it is like to one who never experienced it
Other factors that influence the adequacy of the sample size in the power analysis include
effect size
If there is considerable differnce between the groups who does this affect affect size?
effect size is large, hence detecting is easy and requires only a small sample and vice versa
ego-alien
ego-dystonic - aspects of a person's personality that is viewed as repugnant, unacceptable or inconsistent with the rest of the personality
Respondent interview
elicit open-ended responses about themselves - Meanings of common concepts - Interpretations & opinions
inappropriate affect
emotional tone out of harmony with the idea, thought, or speech accompanying it.
interview
encourage others to freely share their interests & experiences - subjective realities - Characteristics: wide scope of topics, loose, open-ended, interactive
Structure
enduring schools of knowledge, societal norms, and myths that shape and delimit action.
example of an index
enlisting six types of political action people can take and combining them all to determine their degree of political activism
-Displaying diversity Inclusivity requires reporting and explaining the untypical as much as it does reporting the more recurrent themes. Not only the dominant message/result but also the
exceptions. -Length in written accounts It is inevitably a choice to be made about leaving some of the findings out, otherwise readers will be swamped by the evidence and drown in the detail. Difficult to do because accounts rich in the kind of detail often considered necessary to assess the quality of qualitative interpretations within the constraints of journal articles and report for funders. -Explaining boundaries of qualitative research It is important that the audience understands what qualitative research can and cannot do. This will preferably include a discussion of the kinds of inference that can be drawn from qualitative data and its transferability to other settings.
The final stage of the process is reporting and preventing the findings. The aim is to
explore, unravel and explain the complexity of the findings in an engaging and insightful way while at the same time producing an accessible and coherent narrative. It provides an opportunity for further thought as the data are assembled into a coherent structure to convey the research evidence to the target audience. Data will be reassessed, further analysed and then assembled into a final account which will display the findings with ordered and reflective commentary.
Chapter 13- writing up qualitative research Final stage of the qualitative research process, reporting and presenting findings. Goal:
explore, unravel and explain the complexity of findings in an engaging and insightful way while at the same time producing an accessible and coherent narrative.
expansive mood
expression of feelings without restraint, frequently with an overestimation of their significant or importance
catastrophic reaction
extreme emotional state characterised by restlessness, irritability, crying, anxiety and uncooperativeness
hyperalgesia
extreme sensitivity to pain
hyperacusis
extreme sensitivity to sounds
hyperaesthesia
extreme sensitivity to touch/tactile stimulation
Effect size is the degree to which the null hypothesis is ______
false
alogia
inability to speak
• Structuring around different populations:
if the research has included interviews with different population groups, the reporter will need to decide whether to deal with the themes emerging from each group separately of whether to integrate them within an overall thematic framework. • Structuring around different time periods when a project studies a process or programme over time, or interviews participants on repeated occasions, the data may have an inbuilt progression or chronology that offers a clear narrative route. In determining the most appropriate structure for the evidence, writers need to think creatively about the best way to engage and retain the reader's attention and make the story 'add up'.
- Structuring around different populations =
if the research has included interviews with different population groups, the reporter will need to decide whether to deal with the themes emerging from each group separately or whether to integrate them within an overall thematic framework. - Structuring around different time periods = when a project studies a process or programme over time, or interviews participants on repeated occasions, the data may have an inbuilt progression or chronology that offers a clear narrative route.
• Structuring around a typology:
if the researcher has identified and developed a typology that cuts across the report findings, then this may be a useful tool which to structure the findings. • Structuring around different populations: if the research has included interviews with different population groups, the reporter will need to decide whether to deal with the themes emerging from each group separately of whether to integrate them within an overall thematic framework. • Structuring around different time periods when a project studies a process or programme over time, or interviews participants on repeated occasions, the data may have an inbuilt progression or chronology that offers a clear narrative route. In determining the most appropriate structure for the evidence, writers need to think creatively about the best way to engage and retain the reader's attention and make the story 'add up'.
when can one use a one-tailed?
if there is good evidence of support in the theoretical framework
deja vu
illusion of visual recognition in which a new situation is regarded as a previous experience or repetition
deja entendu
illusion that what one was hearing has heard previous - type of paramnesia
Challenges in reporting qualitative data The key aim in writing up qualitative evidence is to
present findings in an accessible form that will satisfy the research objectives and engage the target audiences. The analytic output from qualitative research involves evidence of a very different kind from statistical tables and charts. This poses certain challenges when writing up qualitative evidence: -Telling the story -Displaying the evidential base -Displaying diversity -Length in written accounts -Explaining boundaries of qualitative research
independent variable
presumed to influence change in another (pushes the other variable)
Observer as participant
primary observer but might interact, however no central role (observe>participate)
Levels of data
priori framework, descriptive, synthesis formed, increased complexity and case variance, and the gold standard; a product that comprehensively explains a complex human phenomenon.
another name for random sampling
probability
what are the 2 basic approaches to sampling?
probability and non-probability
the p value referes to ....
probability of rejecting the null hypothesis
Besides open ended questions what else does the interview guide have?
probes
method
procedure to collect data
abreaction
process by which repressed material (particularly painful experience or conflict) is brought back to consciousness; in this process, the person not only recalls but also relives the repressed material with an affective response
recall
process of bringing stored memories to consciousness
Reflexivity
process of reflecting on one's self and attending to PERSONAL VALUES that could affect data collection and interpretation, primarily used by qualitative researchers e.g. maintain journal through research
Author
produces the text
what is the method of increasing the representativeness of the variables in the actual study sample?
proportional stratifeid sampling
Comprehensive outputs:
provide a detailed and extensive portrayal of the methodology, findings and implication from the research and are most commonly presented as written accounts. Summary outputs: provide the reader or listener with a condensed overview of the most important issues arising from the research. In written form these are often presented as 'Executive Summaries', 'Research Briefs' or 'key findings', stand-alone documents which allow people access to the main findings of a research study without needing to read the full report. Developmental outputs: are designed to generate discussion and debate about emergent issues arising from the research. They are often produced during the analysis stage of a study as issues and concepts begin to emerge from the data. Presenting interim findings can allow funders, commissioners or colleagues the opportunity to suggest further analysis of areas of interest. Selective outputs: provide accounts of specific parts of the evidence. They may be targeted at the interest of particular audiences, such as professionals or service users, or at conferences or journals with particular substantive remits.
dissociation
psychoanalysis term - defense mechanism involving the segregation of any group of mental or behavioural processes from the rest of the person's psychic activity
Selective outputs:
provide accounts of specific parts of the evidence. They may be targeted at the interest of particular audiences, such as professionals or service users, or at conferences or journals with particular substantive remits.
Summary outputs:
provide the reader or listener with a condensed overview of the most important issues arising from the research. In written form these are often presented as 'Executive Summaries', 'Research Briefs' or 'key findings', stand-alone documents which allow people access to the main findings of a research study without needing to read the full report. Developmental outputs: are designed to generate discussion and debate about emergent issues arising from the research. They are often produced during the analysis stage of a study as issues and concepts begin to emerge from the data. Presenting interim findings can allow funders, commissioners or colleagues the opportunity to suggest further analysis of areas of interest. Selective outputs: provide accounts of specific parts of the evidence. They may be targeted at the interest of particular audiences, such as professionals or service users, or at conferences or journals with particular substantive remits.
explanatory
provides reasons for phenomena, tries to explain why something is happening or implies a causal relationship
guilt
psychoanalysis term - a feeling of culpability that stems from a conflict between the ego and the superego.
substitution
psychoanalysis term - a person replaces an unacceptable wish, drive, emotion or goal with one that is more acceptable
symbolization
psychoanalysis term - an idea or object comes to stand for another because of some common aspect or quality in both; based on similarity and association; the symbols formed protect the person from the anxiety that may be attached to the original idea or subject
suppression
psychoanalysis term - conscious act of controlling and inhibiting an unacceptable impulse, emotion or idea
devaluation
psychoanalysis term - defense mechanism in which a person attributes excessively negative qualities to self or others
regression
psychoanalysis term - defense mechanism in which a person undergoes a partial or total return to earlier patterns of adaptation
rationalization
psychoanalysis term - defense mechanism in which irrational or unacceptable behaviour, motives or feelings are logically justified or made consciously tolerable by plausible means
denial
psychoanalysis term - defense mechanism in which the existence of unpleasant realities is disavowed
hallucinosis
state in which a person experiences hallucinations without any impairment of consciousness
introversion
state in which a person's energies are directed inward to ward the self, with little or no interest in the external world
stupor
state of decreased reactivity to stimuli and less than full awareness of one's surroundings
true insight
state of insight where the understanding of objective reality coupled with the motivational and emotional impetus to master the situation or change behaviour
reliability
states a study is dependable and consistent (can count on repeatedly over time to get the same results)
Silverman Criticism of Quantitative 2
statistical correlations may be based upon variables that are arbitrarily predefined by the researcher
What step of simple random sampling is the researcher identifying the target populaiton such as all the RNs in Cali
step 1
Describe the steps fo proportional stratified sampling with gender
step 1: the target population consists of 3000 men and 7000 women step 2: the sample size is calcualated proportionally 30% men and 70% women step 3: therefore in a sample of 100 subjects would consist of 30 men and 70 women
What step of simple random sampling is the researcher getting an exhaustive list of all the cali RNs from the BON?
step 2
what step of simple random sampling is after the sample frame has been created that each individual is given a number?
step 3
What step of simple random sampling is a random process of choosing subjects through a table of random numbers?
step 4
posturing
strange, fixed and bizarre bodily positions held by a patient for an extended time
Methodology
strategies for gathering, collecting, and analyzing data.
What type fo sampling method is used when you want to ensure the representative nature of certain groups in the population?
stratified random sampling
automatic obedience
strict obedience of command without critical judgement.
-Length in written accounts It is inevitably a choice to be made about leaving some of the findings out, otherwise readers will be
swamped by the evidence and drown in the detail. Difficult to do because accounts rich in the kind of detail often considered necessary to assess the quality of qualitative interpretations within the constraints of journal articles and report for funders. -Explaining boundaries of qualitative research It is important that the audience understands what qualitative research can and cannot do. This will preferably include a discussion of the kinds of inference that can be drawn from qualitative data and its transferability to other settings.
What is the foundation of grounded theory?
symbolic interactionism
what does grounded theory use as its philosophical model guiding the researcher?
symbolic interactionism
Grounded theory must use what two things
symbolic interactionism and comparision method
Codes
tags or labels assigned to the themes
Telling the story The challenge is to
tell the story in an intelligible and coherent way that also does justice to the layered complexity of the participants' descriptions.
theory being useful by directing our research questions
tells us where to look and guides our research, helps us make sense of what we find
Descriptive Qualitative Study
tend to be eclectic in design and method and are used on the GENERAL PREMISES of constructivist inquiry, NO SPECIFIC DISCIPLINE OR ROOTS
The typical alpha refers to .05 which means
that% probability of there is a 5% probability of obtaining an inaccurate result or a 95% probability of obtaining an accurate result
The research question determines
the TYPE OF STUDY (what is birth trauma-qualitative, how can we prevent birth trauma-quantitative)
Hierarchy of themes
the arrangement of codes so that some codes (sometimes called sub-codes or children) at a particular level are associated with one code (sometimes called a parent) at the immediately higher level.
Explaining methods It is important for outputs to outline the rationale for using a qualitative approach and to communicate clearly the uses to which such research can and cannot be put. Explain why particular qualitative approaches and methods were chosen to meet the aims of the research and provide practical detail about how the research was conducted. This can be done in
the body of the report or in a technical appendix. Audit trail: allows the reader to see into the research process and follow its main stages. It may also be helpful to include some discussion of the epistemological orientation of the research team alongside description of methods.
Displaying the evidential base Integrity in reporting requires a demonstration that the interpretations and conclusions presented are generated from, and grounded in
the data.
-Displaying the evidential base Integrity in reporting requires a demonstration that the interpretations and conclusions presented are generated from, and grounded in,
the data. By the time the data appear in a written account they will have been analyzed and investigated so there needs to be a clarity and balance between displaying the subtlety and detail of the original material and the classification, explanation and interpretation that has taken place. -Displaying diversity Inclusivity requires reporting and explaining the untypical as much as it does reporting the more recurrent themes. Not only the dominant message/result but also the exceptions. -Length in written accounts It is inevitably a choice to be made about leaving some of the findings out, otherwise readers will be swamped by the evidence and drown in the detail. Difficult to do because accounts rich in the kind of detail often considered necessary to assess the quality of qualitative interpretations within the constraints of journal articles and report for funders. -Explaining boundaries of qualitative research It is important that the audience understands what qualitative research can and cannot do. This will preferably include a discussion of the kinds of inference that can be drawn from qualitative data and its transferability to other settings.
impaired judgement
the diminished ability to understand a situation correctly and to act appropriately
impaired insight
the diminished ability to understand the objective reality of a situation
the interview guide does not use pschometric principles of relaibility and validity but can be modified in what direction?
the direction of the evolving conceptualizations as the study proceeds.
Hermeneutics
the discipline of interpreting texts by empathically imagining the experience, motivations, and context of the speaker/author, and then by engaging in a circular analysis that alternates between the data texts and the situated scene.
- The audiences the nature of the outputs required will inevitably depend on
the specific audiences being addressed. - Meeting contractual/other obligations in both commissioned and grant- funded research, the range, type and format of written and other outputs that are to be produced will typically be agreed at the contractual stage with the client or funder. - The resources available there is no doubt that the resources available to a study or a research team will limit the research outputs that are possible.
Setting
the specific parameters of the space of study within a field and a site (e.g., the basement).
Define effect size
the standardized numerical index of the magnitude or size of a research finding, including the magnitude of a correlation between the variables or the magnitude of difference between the groups.
Ethnonursing Research
the study and analysis of the local and indigenous people's viewpoints, beliefs, and practices about the nursing care behavior and process of designated cultures
qualitative research
the study of a certain phenomena of interest using a variety of means associated with qualitative inquiry, including case study research, interviewing, narrative inquiry, participant observation, discourse analysis, and phenomenological research. Any research project that uses one of the aforementioned methods.
affect
the subjective and immediate experience of emotion attached to ideas or mental representation of objects. the outward manifestation of mood
Autoethnography
the systematic study, analysis, and narrative description of one's own experiences, interactions, culture, and identity.
Ethnographic methods
the use of participant observation and field interviews, but not necessarily accompanied by immersion in the field or by a holistic cultural analysis.
member check
the validation of data gathered from interview by calibrating findings with participants in the project
quantitative counts numbers while qualitative collects
words
Qualitative research outputs Different kind of research outputs:
written report, thesis or monograph, present emergent or headline findings through an oral presentation or interim report. Key findings and commentary on policy and methodological implications may be disseminated through seminars, workshops, conferences, briefing papers, journal articles and books. Less traditional outputs: theater, poetry, photography, music etc. See box 13.1 for more outputs. Outputs should be judged not only for their substantive contribution and impact, but also for their aesthetic merit and reflexivity.
document
written texts prepared for personal reasons
Can the interview be modified as the study proceeds?
yes
Heightened confidence
you can adequately begin to answer questions (credibility of claims/concepts)
Qualitative Research
• A process of understanding based on a distinct methodological tradition of inquiry that explores a social or human problem. • Associated with efforts by researchers to better understand what is being explored by building a complex and holistic picture that analyzes words, reports detailed views of informants, and conducts the study in a natural setting (Creswell, 2007). • 2 Significant Points o The researcher is the primary instrument for data collection and analysis in qualitative research. o All findings are mediated through this human instrument.
Analytic codes (metacodes)
• Analytic codes (metacodes)
Use of quotations = cited passages. Quotations are essential in bringing alive the content and exposition of people's accounts, their role in providing testimony is more limited. Seven potential purposes for including verbatim quotes:
• As the matter of enquiry • As evidence • As explanation • As illustrations of themes emerging from analysis • To deepen understanding • To give participants a voice • To enhance readability
Analytic Induction (AI)
• Building causal explanations • Progressive redefinition of the phenomenon - Collect data, refine, redirect à redirect hypothesis, collect data
Reporting voice and language Try to ensure while the viewpoints of interviewees take centre-stage, the distinction between researcher and participant interpretation is clear. Three basic forms of presenting research findings in ethnographic studies:
• Realist tales , where the author is 'absent' from the text; observations are reported as facts; interpretations are not formulated as subjective formulations; the viewpoints of interviewees are emphasized; and subject's statements are transferred to a general level using 'experience-distance' concepts. • Confessional tales , characterized by a highly personalized authorship with the authors expressing the role they played in what was observed, their interpretations and the formulations used, often resulting in a mixture of description of the phenomena being studied and the researcher's experiences of studying them. • Impressionist tales, which are written in the form of a dramatic recall often via narratives.
Other options for structuring a report based on substantive, cross-sectional thematic analysis of the kind described in this book include:
• Structuring around a typology: if the researcher has identified and developed a typology that cuts across the report findings, then this may be a useful tool which to structure the findings. • Structuring around different populations: if the research has included interviews with different population groups, the reporter will need to decide whether to deal with the themes emerging from each group separately of whether to integrate them within an overall thematic framework. • Structuring around different time periods when a project studies a process or programme over time, or interviews participants on repeated occasions, the data may have an inbuilt progression or chronology that offers a clear narrative route. In determining the most appropriate structure for the evidence, writers need to think creatively about the best way to engage and retain the reader's attention and make the story 'add up'.
Strategies to avoid numeric or quasi-numeric statements
• Turning a sentence around and to talk about issues rather than cases. • Presenting views, characteristics or experiences in sets, such that an array of responses can be seen. • Presenting the array of responses in some more classified form - clustering responses into a number of groups • Focusing on differences between groups of cases, where these occur.
Interpretive Research
• an approach to qualitative research that recognizes and draws upon the self-reflective nature of this type of inquiry and thereby emphasizes the role of the researcher as an interpreter of the data and as an individual who represents information; • this approach recognizes and acknowledges the value of language and discourse and issues of power, authority and domination (Creswell, 2007).