QM 2016 Exam

Pataasin ang iyong marka sa homework at exams ngayon gamit ang Quizwiz!

akinesia

lack of movement

ageusia

lack or impairment of sense of taste

laconic speech

condition characterized by a reduction in the quantity of spontaneous speech; replies are brief and unelaborated, common in MDE/SCZ; also called POVERTY of SPEECH

Effect size

How large of a difference between the control group and the intervention group is needed?

Rational Data

This is basically the same as interval data, but has a true zero

time triangulation involves:

multiple time periods (longitudinal v. cross-sectional)

requirements of agreement reality

must have logical and empirical support

Qualitative research environments are typically ____?

naturalistic

Mind-dependent

Depending upon the mind for existence or definition e.g. ideas are mind-dependent.

Directional Hypothesis

States which way the relationship should exist

T/F the significance of the research should be identified.

True

Emic

"going native" - site as scene

What means "does not contradict reality"?

True

All qualitative interviewing (in observation, in-depth individual interviews and focus group discussions) features open-ended questions.

--

Apply all your codes to the whole data set! Something you come across later on may change how you want to code the data You may not have noticed a new pattern in the data until you had coded a number of interviews In this lengthy process, you may find that previously coded data does not need to be coded at the newly created code, but you can't know this without checking

--

Tools for focusing attention

-Alerts and reminders -Remind the user of problems that might otherwise be overlooked e.g., abnormal lab values, potential drug interactions, guideline compliance

NCLEX Definitions of Informatics

-Informatics stores, translates, links, and aggregates clinical data. -Computer patient records and clinical information systems -Wireless and portable devices -Physician order entry minimal informatics competencies that nurses should possess?: a. Implement policies to protect privacy and confidentiality b. Maintain security of information c. Record data relevant to the nursing care of patients -Telehealth removes time and distance barriers from the delivery of health care services or related health care activities. -Standardizing electronic data interchange -Information technology improves patient care through comprehensive evaluation of the safety, effectiveness, and cost/benefits.

Alerts Used to prevent errors when doing computerized provide order entry

-Notification of potential problem -Common application is adverse drug event prevention: Dosage Drug-drug interaction Allergy Drug-laboratory value interaction -Frequently tied to computer-based provider order entry (CPOE)

Tools for Patient-specific Consultation

-Provide custom-tailored assessments or advice based on sets of patient-specific data e.g., decision analysis, DXplain, guideline or protocol eligibility -Can be Knowledge-based or Model-based -Knowledge-based systems QMR, Mycin, DXplain -Model-based expected value decision making

RE-AIM

-Reach Target audience (individual level) -Efficacy maximize efficacy (individual level) -Adoption Maximize adherence (organizational level) Targeted audience (organizational level) -Implementation Intervention fidelity (organizational level) -Maintenance Sustained delivery (individual & organizational level)

Clinical Pathways (aka - integrated care pathways)

-Structured, multidisciplinary plans of care designed to support the implementation of clinical guidelines and protocols -Designed to support clinical management, clinical and non-clinical resource management, clinical audit and also financial management -Provide detailed guidance for each stage in the management of a patient (treatments, interventions) -Define specific condition over a given time period, and include progress and outcomes details

Reminders Are softer than alerts, used to remind about a guideline

-Typically guideline-related -Preventive care: Mammograms Immunizations Diabetic care Hypertension management -Generally improved clinician compliance with guideline recommendations -Some positive impact on patient outcomes

RN role in research

-consumer -question generator -investigator -protector of participants -change agent

In essence what three things needs to be presented by the researcher?

-description of site -key informants -thought involved in the researchers' conceptualization throughout

name three qualitative researcher characteristics

-engages as a whole person -needs to be authentic -more subjective than objective

Example of systematic sampling with probability

-population consists of 5000 people -you need a sample of 500 -Formula: 5000/500 yields a k of 10 -the starting number is randomly chosen selecting a nuumber 1-10 -If 9 chosen then every 10th subject such as 9, 19, 29, 39 and so forth

Audit Trial

...

Case and Theme Approach

...

Laboratory study

A method used in quantitative research in which subjects are placed in an artificial environment and their responses to various stimuli are measured.

What are Kant's two types of knowledge?

1. Apriori 2. Aposteriori

What asserts that ther eis a relationship between the variables or a differnce between groups

2 tailed

epistemological revolution

200 years ago, the dominant epistemological lens was religion. During the industrial revolution, science replaced religion. In the 20th century there was an epistemological revolution where began to question the relevance of scientific method in understanding human behaviour

Lemma

A claim made partway through an argument.

Participant observation

A research method in which investigators systematically observe people while joining them in their routine activities.

Inductive content analysis

A type of analysis in which researchers derive themes and constructs from the data without imposing a prior framework and without counting.

Online focus groups

Adv.: less costs, broad geographic scope, reach travelers, convenient & comfortable Disad.: loss of role/authority of moderators & ability to feel/experience, inability to use group dynamics, no attentiveness

A posteriori knowledge is acquired

After sensory experience

What is the knowledge that one has after sensation?

Aposteriori

Narrative presence

Author Persona Narrator Passive or active tone

CAQDAS

Computer-assisted qualitative data analysis software.

Positivism

Focusing on logical reasoning; grounded theory research

Genealogical

Following Foucault (1977; 1979), the study of the ways in which discourses have been structured at different historical points.

What computer program uses power analysis?

G*Power3

Skeptics have argued that which element of the tripartite theory of knowledge is impossible to satisfy?

Justification

What means "supported by evidence"?

Justified

What is the main function of the Institutional Review Board?

Protection of human subjects

Fieldnotes

Records of observations and speech fragments arising from the field.

Data Saturation

Recurrent themes / repeated data

Researcher collects the data themselves through examination of documents of observations.

Researcher as key instrument

Semiotics

Science of signs.

Hermeneutics

UNDERSTANDING THE MEANING of art, text, object

experiments that include control groups and random assignment

What are research methods that give us evidence for causation?

ethnography

a methodology that is the study of a culture

auto-ethnography

a methodology that is the study of your personal experience

positivism

a philosophical paradigm rooted in the belief that there is a universal reality that humans can know through empirical investigation

testable criteria for a good hypothesis

a requirement saying it can be tested against empirical evidence (through experience)

Conceptual Framework

a structure of concepts or theories that provides the basis for development of research questions

fluent aphasia

aphasia characterised by inability to understand the spoken word (syn. wernicke's and receptive aphasias)

clang association/clanging

association or speech driven by the sound of the word rather than meaning

What must the key informants be when choosing?

authentic

dependent variable

changed by / depends on another variable

Grounded theory analysis involve

core variable

give examples of strata

ethnicity, gender, age, or educational level

congruency

everything fits

EThnographic reserach Relies on

extensive, labor-intensive fieldwork

negative signs of schizophrenia

flat affect, alogia, abulia and apathy

Case study

in-depth description/analysis of a case/s (interviews, observation, study artefacts)

purposive sampling

intentional, guided by emerging data analysis

coprolalia

involuntary use of profanities

Explaining methods A number of writers have stressed the importance to giving a clear account of research methods as part of displaying the credibility of the evidence. It is important for outputs to

outline the rationale for using a qualitative approach and to communicate clearly the uses to which such research can and cannot be put.

etic

outsider

Phase 1

researcher as a multicultural subject: what do I bring to the study?

Qualitative research tends to have a _________ range of info

rich

Categorization

sorting units of data based on what they have in common

dyslexia

specific learning syndrome affecting ability to read

What are variables such as ethnicity, gender, age, or educational level called?

strata

autoscopy

the perception of seeing oneself

Confidence to act

with the quality and quantity of information I have, I am willing to go forward with a change in practice and advise others to do the same.

What claims certainty because of a lack of certainty?

Skepticism

What is a self-refuting position?

Skepticism

What says, "You cannot be certain of anything", and "I will spend judgement."?

Skepticism

What is local skepticism?

Skepticism about a particular type of knowledge claim

Memoing

The process of writing memos to yourself as you develop the coding scheme to keep track of ideas for coding and concept creation as data analysis progresses

Relevance marker 3

Surprise value - reader must be interested in where the results surprise the expectation s of the researcher and predict previous findings

Conceptual Definition

Derived from the literature

Who tried to rescue causation?

Kant

Generalizability

Minimize researcher bias by considering sufficient study background data to infer about generalizability.

Member/Respondent validation

Minimize researcher bias by consulting the research participants regarding raw data, codes, interpretations, etc.

Negative Cases

Minimize researcher bias by exploring cases that are contrary to the emerging or prevailing perspective.

Inter-rater reliability

Minimize researcher bias by minimizing researcher bias

Trustworthiness

Minimize researcher bias by providing enough raw data (e.g., quotes) to support interpretations.

Who believed that you can have knowledge AND opinion?

Plato

The key objective is to find a form of presentation that

has an underlying and authentic narrative and somehow compels the reader to want to find out more.

complete participant

helps establish rapport, totally immersed participant

transformative framworks

knowledge is not neutral; advocacy, marginalized groups and individuals, work with participants to define questions and processes

Data analysis

labeling and breaking down raw data by reconstituting it into patterns

anergia

lack of energy

inaccurate observations

making mistakes in our own observations; Sometimes memory and eyesight fail cause this. Our observations are semi-conscious

Core Variable

manner in which people RESOLVE MAIN CONCERN

Avoiding numerical statements about qualitative findings The purpose of qualitative research is to

map range and diversity and to explore and explain the links between different phenomena. In general, however, we suggest that there are ways in which most numeric or quasi-numeric statements about the data can be avoided so that the presentation of findings remains more in line with the purposes of qualitative research.

exploratory

mapping out a topic that may allow further study in the future; to become familiar with the topic

cohort studies

people in the same category or age group that experienced similar events; studies a sub population of the sample

trailing phenomenon

perceptual abnormality associated with hallucinogenic drugs in which moving objects are seen as a series of discrete and discontinuous images

the higher the value of effect size (y) then the greater of what?

power of the test the relationship between the 2 variables is strong also the more stringent the p value

Grand narratives

powerful systems of stories suggesting that people or processes unfold in a particular way (e.g., the notion that aging equates with decline).

operational definition

precise; specifying exactly how your idea will be measured

Whay type of nonprobability sampling is simialr to stratified random sampling?

quota sampling

Define probabolity sampling

randomized method of selecting subjects for a research study who are the most representative of the target population

what part of probability sampling offers the best advantage of being the most representative?

randomness

flight of ideas

rapid succession of fragmentary thoughts or speech in which content changes abruptly and speech may be in coherent, seen in mania

pseudocyesis

rare condition in which a non pregnant patient has the signs and symptoms of pregnancy

Confidence in qualitative research

readers should have confidence in the quality of your research and its accuracy

What type of smpling can either be probability or nonprobability sampling?

systematic

opportunity sampling

take who volunteers and is available

Another name for random

representative

What is good quantitative research?

representativeness, reliability, validity

symbolic representation

represents larger group

long term memory

reproduction, recognition or recall of experiences or information that was experienced in the distant past

Quantitative methods

research methods that use measurement and statistics to transform empirical data into numbers and to develop mathematical models that quantify behavior.

snowball sampling

research participant tells researcher about other potential participants, the next respondent then does the same

criterion sampling

research participants, sites, supporting materials are selected based on some stated criterion, selective is purposive, criteria can be derived from theory or from context

complete observer

researcher neither seen nor noticed

memoing

researcher's ideas about process, writing down constant ideas on how something works, connecting different relationship

Symbolic interactionism

researchers using this theoretical approach (which was developed by Herbert Blumer) investigate how meaning and identity are co-created through interaction.

Second-order interpretations

researchers' interpretations or explanations of participants' interpretations or explanations.

Appraisal tools for good qualitative research in systematic reviews

responsiveness to social context, flexibility of design, evidence of theory or purposive sampling, ethics, adequate description, quality of data, theoretical adequacy

aggregates, not individuals

social science research generally look at patterns that reflect the collective actions and situations of many individuals

In any study where two populations are compared, the null hypothesis states what?

that there si no difference between them OR zero

units of analysis

the "what" of your data; what you are studying and the choice determines the results you get

According to Plato, where do you live before you were born and then when you die?

the World of Forms

Naturalistic inquiry

the analysis of social action in uncontrived field settings.

reliability

the extent to which the test is internally consistent and yields the same results

content validity

the full capacity of a concept is covered in the measurement

formication

the hallucinatory experience of small creatures crawling on the skin

Actor network theory

the importance of non-human artifacts

hindsight bias

the inclination after an event has occurred to see the event as having been predictable, despite there having been little or no objective basis for predicting it.

example of a trend study

the tolerance of different races in the catholic religion in the 1950's, 1970's, and 1990's

Critical paradigm

the understanding of reality is based on power relations that are socially and historically constructed (developed in discourse) - Support subordinate groups for justice and equality - Study and challenge the ways oppression is created - Qualitative methodology

T/F the level of statistical significance is specified for a one-tailed or 2 tailed

true

Epistemology

This refers to the theory of knowledge especially with regard to methods, validity, and scope; beware that the rules for knowing what we know are socially created.

Goal of semiotics?

To learn the meaning of language, symbols and behavior within a social setting. Also focuses on dramaturgy of everyday life

Transferability

Transferability refers to the generalizability of the study findings to other settings, populations, and contexts Report must provide sufficient detail so that readers can assess this Lack of transferability is viewed as a weakness of qualitative methods Ask- Are the findings only applicable to individuals who are similar to those in study? Do your experiences resonate what the findings are telling you? Can lead to instrument development. Do the results add to body of nursing knowledge?

Member

Used by Garfinkel (1967) to refer to participants in society. It is a shorthand term for 'collectivity member' (see ethnomethodology).

Leverage

Used by Marx (1997) to describe ways of finding multiple publishing outlets for one piece of research.

Triangulation

Using 3 different strategies to get at the same in formation

explanatory example

What effect does the hook-up culture have on relationships? Long-term relationships? Why is this a culture?

Outputs should be judged not only for their substantive contribution and impact, but also for their

aesthetic merit and reflexivity.

labile affect

affective expression characterized by rapid and abrupt changes, unrelated to external stimuli

blunted affect

affective presentation where there is severe reduction in the INTENSITY of externalized feeling tone

Unlike the quantitiatve focus on reliability and valididty for scientific rigor, qualitative designs focus more on the _______ or ______ of the data.

credibility or relevance

How does cluster sampling differ from other types of random sampling?

data is collected from clisters instead of individuals

cross-sectional data

data that is conducted at one single point in time

hypoactivity

decreased motor and cognitive activity, as in psychomotor retardation; visible slowing of thought, speech and movements

nihilism

delusion of the non existence of the self or part of self. a depressive delusion where the world and everything related to it has ceased to exist

somatic delusion

delusion pertaining to one's body functioning

thought withdrawal

delusion that one's thoughts are being removed from one's mind

thought insertion

delusion that thoughts are being implanted into one's mind

erotomania

delusional belief that someone else is in love with them

pseudodementia

dementia like disorder that can be reversed by appropriate treatment not caused by organic brain disease

What is the major use of power analysis?

estimating the size of the sample needed to obtain significant results

what is the third step in systematic sampling is probability?

every kth (constant) element is chosen to be in the sample

hypochondria

exaggerated concern about health that is based not on real medical pathology but on unrealistic interpretations of physical signs of sensations as abnormal

hypermnesia

exaggerated degree of retention and recall; can be elicited by hypnosis and may be seen in certain prodigies

hypervigilance

excessive attention to and focus on all internal and external stimuli

emotional lability

excessive emotional responsiveness characterised by unstable and rapidly changing emotions

aerophagia

excessive swallowing of air

hyperpragia

excessive thinking and mental activity

catatonic excitement

excited, uncontrolled motor activity seen in catatonic schizophrenia

researchers often need to makea number of criteria that subjects need to be _______

excluded

What is the best way to make your sample as homogenous as possible?

excluding people on certain variables

Focus groups

exploit the group effect (shared fund of experiences) - 6-12 participants; 30-120 min - Interviewer=moderator (intro, rules, guides through sensitive issues)

Narrative research

explore the individual life/lives (mainly interviews & documents)

delusion of control

false belief that one is being controlled by external forces

delusion of persecution

false belief that one is being harassed or persecuted

delusion of poverty

false belief that one is bereft or will be deprived of all material possessions

delusions of grandeur

false belief that one is of great importance, has great talents or is in a position of great power

delusions of infidelity

false belief that one's lover is unfaithful

T/F qualitative uses numbers and stats

false

delusions of reference

false belief that the behaviour of others refers to oneself or that events, objects, or other people have a particular or unusual significance

delusion of self-accusation/delusion of guilt

false feeling of remorse or guilt

command hallucinations

false perception of orders that a person may feel obliged to obey

hallucination

false sensory perception occuring in the absence of any relevant external stimulation of sensory modality involved

parapraxis

faulty act such as the slip of the tongue or misplacement of an article; freudian slip

erythrophobia

fear of blushing

ailurophobia

fear of cats

acrophobia

fear of high places

agoraphobia

fear of open places or leaving the familiar setting of home

algophobia

fear of pain

anxiety

feeling of apprehension caused by anticipation of danger, which may be internal or external

exaltation

feeling of intense elation and grangeur

unio mystica

feeling of mystic unity with an infinite power

dysphoria

feeling of unpleasantness or discomfort; a mood of general dissatisfcation and restlessness.

thought broadcasting

feeling that one's thoughts are being broadcast or projected into environment

malingering

feigning disease to achieve a specific goal

Field

general intersections of topic & territory

What does nonprobability no allow for?

generalization

When the sampling is the most representative what does it allow more of

generalization to the target population

If the sampling procedure is random what can researchers appropriately do?

generalize beyond the study's sample and back to the total population

B. A bounded system within its larger context or setting

A qualitative case study provides an in-depth study of:

What is Locke's theory known as?

"The Representationalist View of Knowledge"

"Ese est percipi" translates to,

"To be, is to be be perceived."

phenomenological tradition

"verstehen"; understand the other's experiences and viewpoint, motives

Quantity

# of studies that have evaluated the research question

Reliability

'The degree of consistency with which instances are assigned to the same category by different observers or by the same observer on different occasions' (Hammersley, 1992: 67) (see validity).

alexia

(loss of ability) inability to read

Data chunking

...

Content Analysis - Initial Process

1) Text scanned 2) Units determined 3) Units tagged with one or more markers 4) Markers are used later for sorting

reflexivity

1) the process of critical self-reflection re the ways in which a researcher's individual perspective may influence the study. 2) The act of reflecting back upon the communications, decisions, and consequences during the research process (Galletta, 2013)

What 3 groups do not understand Locke's Principles?

1. Children 2. Savages 3. Idiots

What are three common Truth Theories?

1. Correspondence Theory 2. Coherence Theory 3. Pragmatic Theory

Steps in Formulations & Conducting Research

1. Define research population and goal 2. Develop an exact, specific research question to be answered by your study 3. Link research design to research question 4. Implement the research plan 5. Data analysis 6. Dissemination of findings

Steps in the design and use of focus groups

1. Define the problem and formulate the RQ 2. Identify the target group 3. Generate and pre-test the interview guide 4. Identify the moderator 5. Recruit the sample 6. Conduct the group 7. Analyze and interpret the data 8. Write up the report

Name the 3 prominent Continental Rationalists:

1. Descartes 2. Spinoza 3. Leibniz

Guidelines for writing open ended questions

1. Do not use dichotomous questions. 2. Do use supposition lead-in. 3. Do use illustrative role format. 4. Do use role play simulation 5. Do use prefactory statements. 6. Use the question, why? sparingly. 7. Be prepared to use prompts and probes to elicit further information.

The purposes of research

1. Exploratory 2. Descriptive 3. Explanatory

Characteristics of Qualitative Research that Apply ACROSS Disciplines, and now recognized in Health Care:

1. Flexible, capable of adjusting to what is being learned during data collection; 2. Requires the researcher to become intensely involved over extended lengths of time; 3. Requires ongoing analysis of data to formulate subsequent strategies (data mainly in text form); 4. Tends to be holistic, striving for an understanding of the whole; 5. Typically involves a merging together of various data collection strategies; and 6. Study participants typically described as informants.

Process of observing

1. Gain access 2. Establish time length in field 3. Decide on unit of observation 4. Decide on collection techniques (when take notes? Record?) 5. Leaving the field

Romanticism

An approach taken from nineteenth-century thought in which authenticity is attached to personal experiences (see emotionalism).

What is an observation?

A qualitative/quantitative method of research conducting without manipulating any variables and instead merely watching to receive results.

the value of social science research

1. It is systematic 2. It is transparent 3. It is replicated

Name the 3 prominent British Empiricists:

1. Locke 2. Berkley 3. Hume

Qualitative approaches

1. Narrative research 2. Phenomenology 3. Grounded theory 4. Ethnography 5. Case study

Theoretical traditions

1. Phenomenological tradition 2. Socio-cultural tradition 3. Critical tradition

Social survey

A quantitative method involving the study of large numbers of people, often through the use of questionnaires.

What are the two types of qualities?

1. Primary 2. Secondary

What are two ways to study knowledge?

1. Rationalism 2. Empiricism

Willig (2001) Stages of IPA

1. Reading and rereading of the transcipts 2. Identification of emergent themes 3. Structuring emergent themes 4. Creation of a summary table of the structured themes and relevant quotations that illustrate each theme.

Steps for conducting Phenomenological Research

1. Remove all biases and subjectivities 2. Identify potential people to interview 3. Create strong interview questions (data collection) 4. Analyze the data 5. Write up your findings

how science guards selective observation

1. Research design will specify in advance the number of observations to be made and specify 2. The kind of observations to be made which set a basis for reaching a conclusion 3. When making direct observations of an event, they make a special effort to find deviant cases (those who do not fit into the general pattern)

how science guards overgeneralization

1. Scientists seek a sufficiently large sample of observations 2. Employ the replication of inquiry, meaning they repeat a study to check to see if the results occur each time 3. Test can be repeated under slightly varied conditions

What are the 2 types of sensory experience?

1. Sensation 2. Refection

What are the two types of ideas?

1. Simple 2. Complex

What 4 things did Hume reject?

1. The Self 2. All Substance 3. God 4. Causation

the three requirements of establishing causality

1. a correlation (positive or negative) 2. temporal order (time order) 3. eliminating of alternatives: making sure nothing else is causing this

the two standards of correlation

1. changes in one variable are associated with changes in another 2. certain attributes of one variable are associated with particular attributes of the other

the three different types of measurement validity

1. face validity 2. content validity 3. criterion validity

Errors of logic using personal judgements

1. inaccurate observations 2. overgeneralization 3. selective observation 4. illogical reasoning

the five different units of analysis

1. individuals 2. groups 3. organizations 4. social interactions 5. social artifacts

criteria for a good hypothesis

1. specific 2. testable 3. falsifiable

how theory is used in research

1. to direct our research questions 2. to help us make sense of our findings

How many informants does saturation usually occur at

15-50

What is often considered the minimum sample size?

30, but really too small

positivism, postpositivist, constructivism, critical paradigm

4 paradigms

3. The mystery story

: starts by pointing out mysteries and then gradually develops answers.

What is an instrumental case study?

A case study which can be used to describe other situations or build up relevant theories.

Assent

A child's permission - understanding regarding an intervention / needed in addition to a parents informed consent.

Clear and Distinct Ideas

A clear idea is "present and accessible to the attentive mind"; a distinct idea is clear and sharply separated from other ideas so that every part of it is clear.

Homogenous Focus Group

A focus group where participants share key features (e.g. they all work in a library).

Culture

A common set of beliefs, values and behaviours.

Interview

A data collection technique in which an interviewer poses questions to the interviewee.

Describe what we mean when we talk about "thick description?"

A deeper, more detailed description - feelings, behaviors, of an experience

Chicago School

A form of sociological ethnography usually assumed to originate in the 1920s when students at the University of Chicago were instructed to put down their theory textbooks and to get out on to the streets of their city and use their eyes and ears. It led to a series of studies of the social organization of the city and of the daily life of various occupational groups.

Control group

A group not given some stimulus provided to another group; a control group is used for comparative purposes.

What object served as Descarte's example of why the senses cannot be trusted to reveal the true nature of things?

A piece of wax

Hypothesis

A proposal or tentative insight into the natural world intended to explain certain facts or observations; a concept that is not yet verified but that if true would explain certain facts or phenomena.

Synthetic

A proposition that is not analytic, but true or false dependent on how the world is.

Analytic

A proposition that is true (or false) by virtue of the meanings of the words. For example, "a bachelor is an unmarried man" is analytically true while "a square has three sides" is analytically false.

Veridical

A proposition that is true or an experience that represents the world as it actually is.

Grounded Theory Method

A research approach that uses a systematic set of procedures to arrive at a theory about basic social processes - How does this social group interact to ______? GOAL: to generate a theory from data collected

Intellectual Virtues

A skill, ability or trait of the mind or person that contributes to gaining knowledge and forming true beliefs.

Focus group

A small group of 6-10 individuals who are led in discussion by a professional consultant to gather opinions on and responses to issues being researched.

Code

A symbol or notation to label patterns within the data in some sort of systematic way.

Grounded theory

A theory which involves three stages: an initial attempt to develop categories which illuminate the data; an attempt to 'saturate' these categories with many appropriate cases in order to demonstrate their relevance; and the attempt to develop these categories into more general analytic frameworks with relevance outside the setting.

Interactionism

A theory, commonly used in qualitative sociological research, which assumes that our behaviour and perceptions derive from processes of interaction with other people.

Phenology

A type of qualitative study that focuses on "lived experiences"

Introduction to Coding What is coding?

A way to reduce data by classifying it into meaningful and relevant themes Themes are overarching categories into which you organize your data, they can be derived from: The key questions in your guide Literature related to your RQ The data itself

According to standpoint epistemologists, what is affected by the person's relation to the center of power in society?

Access to knowledge

Time Lag Argument

Against DR: Because it takes time for us to perceive physical objects, we don't perceive them directly. For example, as light takes 8 minutes to reach the Earth from the sun, if you look at the sun you are actually seeing it as it was eight minutes ago. Therefore, you are not perceiving the sun directly.

Focus group- advantages

Advantages of open-ended questions Interaction Researcher interacts directly Flexible Literacy not needed Results easy to understand

Participant expectation

Also called reactivity; the participants' ideas of the research and the researcher which can affect the trustworthiness of the data. Ex. The participant acts in a such a way that he/she thinks they're helping the researcher.

Complex Idea

An idea that is made up of two or more simple ideas.

Observation

An information-gathering technique that involves watching people by using other people or by using a camera.

Semi-structured interview

An interview in which the interviewer determines the major question beforehand, but allows sufficient flexibility to probe into other areas as needed to evaluate an applicant's personality.

Content Analysis

Analysis of existing documents to reveal important information about human behavior

Qualitative Research

Any research that produces findings not arrived at by means of statistical procedures or other means of quantification Is used to develop concepts and understand social phenomena in natural settings Emphasizes meanings, experiences and views of participants

Artifacts

Anything that was important to the subject; WWII vet keeps things from the war.

Other issues in focus group study design

Assistant moderator Budget Timeline Equipment Rural/refugee settings Ethics

Levels of Evidence II

At least one RCT

Cognitive anthropology

Attempts to understand the structures that organize how people perceive the world. This leads to the production of ethnographies, or conceptually derived descriptions, of whole cultures, focused on how people communicate.

Attribution Error

Attributing meaning to an observation without verifying it (by testing). For example, you think someone is angry based on the way they act but you can't know this for sure simply based on observation (dispositional vs. circumstantial).

What means "something you personally agree with"?

Belief

Who believes that there is ONE of everything?

Berkley

Life histories

CHRONLOGY of Narrative self-descriptions of life experiences

Auditability

Can you follow the thinking of the researcher?

Senses

Capacities that give us experience of the external world. They include sight, smell, touch and so on.

Negative case analysis

Cases that do not fit in to the categories, asking why the don't fit is very useful.

Open coding

Categorizing data so that it makes sense

Nominal

Classify or categorize data

Coding of latent content

Classifying by the underlying meaning of a phrase

Concepts

Clearly specified ideas deriving from a particular model.

Clinical Significance

Clinical significance requires that research have an important outcome that generates a noticeable (sizable) difference for patients or is large enough to warrant change in practice.

Content Analysis Sampling

Cluster sampling is common - researcher identifies unit (ie paragraphs) and then draws a sampling of said unit from text

descriptive coding

Coding to codes that simply refers to surface features of the people, events, settings etc in a study. Much descriptive coding can be done using variables in MAXqda or attributes in NVivo. Families in Atlas.ti can server a similar purpose.

representation

Denzing and Lincoln (2006) questions whose reality is really represented - member checks

name a book to help with power of analysis?

Cohen's Statistical Power of Analysis for the Behavioral science later she talks about "A Power Primer"

What theory says that a proposition is true if it fits with your other beliefs?

Coherence Theory

Data triangulation

Collecting data over different times, locations and participants.

Supplemental use of focus groups

Common role of focus groups in combination with surveys/experiments Research Question: What is the optimal consent process for minimal risk studies from the parental perspective, and what is the impact of different consent processes on research participation? Methods: Parent focus groups (preliminary) surveys of 161 parents

Advantages to mixed ethod research

Complementarity—words and numbers,Quicker feedback loops,strengthens ability to make inferences

Operationalization

Content Analysis allows for revisions

Confidence marker 3

Corpus construction - maximising sampling variety

What theory is a proposition that is like a picture of reality?

Correspondence Theory

cross-sectional because it is talking about when data was distributed, not about when the focus was (not done over course of 4 years)

Cross-sectional or longitudinal?: A researcher interviewed a sample of MSMC seniors in 2012 and asked them to describe how their study habits evolved over 4 years

longitudinal study because it was administered over time

Cross-sectional or longitudinal?: A researcher surveyed a sample of MSMC freshmen in Fall 2009 about their methods of studying and in 2011 the researcher studied the sample of MSMC seniors and asked the same question

Primary Source

Data based- theory- research

Quasi-experimental - Examines why certain effects occur

Data collection method - questionnaire, scales, or biophysi

Qualitative Content Analysis Methods

Definition: analysis of the content of narrative data to identify prominent themes and patterns among the themes Procedures/methods: Read transcripts Break down interviewees words into smaller data units Name the units according to the content they represent Group the units based on shared concepts

Duncan Watts

Did a Ted talk based on his book "Everything is obvious...once you already know the answer"

Qualitative Research: Data collection: Direct Observation

Direct observation is where the researcher observes the actual behaviors of the subjects, instead of relying on what the subjects say about themselves or others say about themselves. Example: Observe behaviors of nurses and physicians regarding "speaking up"

C. The meaning of inclusion in schools and encompasses administrators, teachers, and parents who have children with disabilities.

Disability theories address:

Disadvantages of close ended questions

Disadvantages of Closed Don't get info in respondent's "own words" Q's may reflect interviewer bias (and not what's really important) May not include all relevant/possible answer categories

Disadvantages of Open ended questions

Disadvantages of Open Takes more time (during and after interview) Response may be irrelevant to question/problem/issue of interest Hard to get comparable data

Informed Consent

Disclosure Understanding Voluntariness Competence Consent Consent/REB approval should be described in research article

Data reduction

Distill down you themes, reducing data to the basic common underlying theme

YES

Does sample size matter?

Turn Signals

During an interview, this refers to a marked shift in the flow of the discussion. For example, "Up to now we've been talking about X; now I'd like to explore Y."

The statement "How can you ever be sure that you know anything about reality and not just your own ideas?" represents Locke's ________ ____________.

Egocentric Predicament

Theory

Empirically falsifiable set of abstract statements about reality

What is the approach to knowledge that that says that ALL your knowledge arises from SENSATION alone?

Empiricism

Steps in Coding 5. Apply the codes to a second pre-selected group of transcripts

Engage in open coding: the process of initially assigning codes What to keep in mind during the coding process: The primary message context Whether the content of the message is meant to represent individual or group-shared ideas The degree to which the speaker is representing actual versus hypothetical experience

What is an approach to knowledge?

Epistemology

A priori coding

Establishes the categories before the data are collected, based on some theoretical or conceptual rationale

A. Observations and a prolonged period of time spent by the researcher in the field

Ethnography is based primarily on:

External World

Everything that exists outside of our minds.

Levels of Evidence VII

Evidence from the opinion of authorities

Sampling; exclusion criteria

Exclusionary barriers; restrictions are placed to exclude subjects

Conversation analysis

Extremely close scrutiny of the way people converse with one another; crucial to ethnomethodology

T/F the process of data collection can be carefully developed and planned before implementaiton?

False

T/F the complete list of the population should be ordered by any riteria such as educational preparation?

False, should not

Qualitative research

Focus on words to understand and give meaning to a phenomenon or event

Elemental Memo

Final coding scheme is dependent upon the compilation of these memos - contain detailed accounts of relatively specific points of interest to researcher

Define data triangulation.

Finding different data to gain a sort of "average". This can be done by collecting data from different schools, or at different times, etc.

The Qualitative Paradigm: Ethnography

Focus: To describe and interpret a culture-sharing group Best used when a researcher wants to ____________ Data come mostly from participant observations, notes, interviews, perhaps other sources during extended time in field Data are analyzed to describe the culture-sharing aspects about the group & themes about the group

The Qualitative Paradigm: Grounded Theory

Focus: To develop a theory grounded in data from the field Best used when the researcher wants to develop theory that is grounded in the views of participants Data come primarily from interviews or focus groups with 20-60 people Analysis is done through open coding, axial coding, selective coding

Coming into contact with a copy reminds you of its _____.

Form

Propositional knowledge

Formal and explicit - derived from research and scholarship

Anecdotalism

Found where research reports appear to tell entertaining stories or anecdotes but fail to convince the reader of their scientific credibility.

Who is credited with the Coherence Theory?

GWF Hegel

semi=structured interview

Galletta, 2013

Judith Butler applied the concept of constructionism to what

Gender

Inductive Thinking

Generalizations are developed from specific observation. Particular --> General

Who is the primary proponent of Idealism?

George Berkley

Interpretive Phenomenological Analysis

Goal is insight into an individual's unique perception of an experience. Based on grounded theory.

Grounded theory: social processes

Grounded theory focuses on 'social processes related to human interactions'. Foundation of Grounded Theory- social science (sociology) and symbolic interaction Developing a theory based on observations. Inductive approach- process of reasoning from specific observations to more general rules Used to construct theory where no theory exists, or when the existing theory fails to explain a set of circumstances.

Focus groups

Group discussions usually based upon stimuli (topics, visual aids) provided by the researcher.

Ethics

Guidelines or principles relating to good professional practice.

Systematic errors are errors that?

Happen repeatedly throughout the study for specific reasons

Steps in coding: 1. create a team of coders and review sub-sets of transcripts

Have everyone read a subset of transcripts and take margin notes early in the data collection process Engage in code creation: the process of brainstorming codes based on margin notes Meet as a team to review notes, select key codes, and develop formal code definitions After the initial phase of code creation and meetings, assign one individual to create the codebook (Step 4)

Explain Descartes' wax example

He describes the shape, the color, the sound it makes when it strikes. Then, he melts the wax and everything he described of the wax changed but he still knows what wax is. We understand what wax is in our mind eased on intuition.

Quantitative research typically has _______ reliability.

High (easy to repeat)

Qualitative research typically has _______ ecologically validity.

High (very real life)

Qualitative research typically is _______.

High reflexivity

What does Descartes doubt the most?

His own senses

Researchers attempt to develop a complex picture of a problem under study

Holistic Account

Heterogeneous

How are they different? To what degree?

think about what you are doing with the data you collect

How do you determine what type of research it is, quantitative or qualitative?

Constructionist view

Humans don't crease knowledge; but rather they find it thru interactions; grounded theory

Who believed that "Causation is habit of our speaking."

Hume

Who believed that there is no rational knowledge?

Hume

Deductive Thinking

Hypothesis are derived from theory. General --> Particular

Write one example of an experiential knowledge claim

I know how said it is when your dog dies since my dog passed away recently.

Sampling; inclusion criteria

Imposed by the researcher; must include

Dependability

If the findings are true? Are they true all the time?

Intervention and advocacy

If there is an issue with a study, are you willing to do something about it?

D. Attempts to develop a theory that explains some action, interaction, or process

In Grounded Theory the researcher:

Interviews

In depth individual, focus groups -> unstructured topic guide, structured question guide, consensus methods

Control Variable/Group

In experimental studies, this term refers to a group or element separated from the rest of the experiment where the independent variable being tested cannot influence the results; this isolates the independent variable's effects on the experiment and can help rule out alternate explanations of the experimental results.

Ethnography/Participant Observation

In participant observation, the researcher "gets to go home at night" but in this research methodology the researcher is there "24/7" (live, interact, participate with subjects).

Deviant case analysis

In qualitative research, involves testing provisional hypotheses by 'negative' or discrepant' cases until all the data can be incorporated in your explanation.

B. Attempts to lessen the distance between him/herself and that being researched

In the epistemological assumption, the researcher:

D. Is informal, using a personal voice and narrative style

In the rhetorical assumption the researcher:

Gatekeepers

Individuals who are formally in charge of giving access to a particular social setting.

Ethnography Sampling

Informal conversations with MULTIPLE INTERVIEWS with SMALL # GROUPS of key informants

Emic Perspective

Informants perspective

Locke argued that the Principle of Identity was NOT ______.

Innate

IPA

Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis

Focus Group Interviews

Interviews in SMALL GROUPS led by a MODERATOR

Reflexivity

Involves a researcher analyzing and critically considering their own role in, and affect on, the research.

Credibility

Is it true as judged by your participants?

What did John Locke believe about the mind at birth?

It is a tabula rosa waiting to be written upon by experience

What is reflexivity?

It refers to the researcher's need to be constantly reflective during the entire qualitative process. All personal beliefs and biases must be acknowledged and the method itself must be assessed. This can be done by keeping a diary or being interviewed by a fellow researcher. All of this must be included in the final report.

Ability Knowledge

Knowing "how" to do something e.g. "I know how to ride a bike."

What is justified true belief?

Knowledge

Historical Research

Learning from the past; research

Why use CAT's?

Lend credibility to your own research - get the basic information on the table, highlight the important data

GOLD STANDARD OF DATA

Level - A product that comprehensively explains a complex human phenomenon

Nominal, Ordinal, Interval, Ratio

Levels of measurement

examples of scales

Likert and Bogardus

Qualitative research typically has _______ reliability.

Low (hard to repeat)

Cluster sampling

Making divisions within groups. How do I want to narrow this down? From where, what?

What did Berkley believe that the one type of substance was?

Mental

Sense Data(um)

Mental images or representations of what is perceived, the "content" of perceptual experience. If sense data exist, they are the immediate objects of perception and are "private" and "mind-dependent" mental things.

Many false knowledge claims throughout history have been causes by

Mistaken justifications

Focus on multiple forms of data (interviews, documents, observations) instead of one form of data

Multiple sources of data

A. A study of stories of descriptions of a series of events that accounts for human experiences

Narrative Research can be described as:

The Qualitative Paradigm: Creswell's "5 Approaches to Inquiry" (2007)

Narrative research Phenomenological research Grounded theory research Ethnographic research Case study research

Constant Comparative Method

New data are compared as they emerge with data previously analyzed

Participant Anonymity

No one outside the research team should know the identity of the participant/s.

Content Coding Options

Nominal, Ordinal or Interval

Levels of Evidence IV

Nonexperimental Study

Mind-independent

Not depending on a mind for existence or definition. According to realism, physical objects are mind-independent.

Worthiness of the project

Not wasting time, money, resources

Sorting Memos

Notes regarding organization and compilation of elemental memos

Trustworthiness

OVERALL INTEGIRTY of study's evidence, equivalent to internal validity

Qualitative studies

Often are very small; n=6 to 10 subjects - data is collected until saturation

Debriefing

Often in psychological research, this refers to a short semi-structured interview/conversation that takes place between researchers and research participants immediately following their participation in a psychology experiment.

Axial coding

Once done with open coding, narrowing the data more

Steps in Coding 6. Meet as a team to discuss codes and finalize the codebook

Ongoing Coding Reliability Check To sharpen code definitions and their application to data, two people code the same data set The team then considers: Have the two coders agree on how big a codable block of data is? Have they use the same code for the same blocks of data?

Ordinal

Order and rank values without equal intervals

CAQDAS

Otherwise known as Computer Assisted Qualitative Data Analysis Systems.

Sensation

Our experience of an object outside the mind, perceived through the senses.

Ethics; generalizing beyond scope of evidence

Over-interpretation, or under / wishful thinking

C. Beliefs of the researcher

Paradigms represent the:

Thick description

Part of sampling; must describe everything in the sampling; How ? of a description was there in the words that the sample was stating?

Qualitative Research: Data collection Multiple methods

Participant Observation The researcher literally becomes part of the observation. Example: One studying the homeless may decide to walk the streets of a given area in an attempt to gain perspective and possibly subjects for future study.

What is important in an Ethonographic reserach?

Participant observation is a particularly important source.

Refereed Journal

Peer reviewed, blind reviewed. judged using a set of criteria

Respect for persons

People have the right to self determination and to be treated as autonomous agents

Bandura's Social Cognitive Theory

Personal-> behavior-> environment

Normative

Pertaining to a norm or value; prescriptive.

A. An individual's choice of qualitative research

Philosophical assumptions of the researcher lead to:

Who is credited with founding the skeptics?

Phrryo

Researchers should not waste time, money, or other resouces, so a smart researcher might first do a?

Pilot studies

"A bachelor is an unmarried male" is an example of which type of knowledge claim?

Priori

Semantics - Quantitative = Validity

Qualitative = Credibility

Exploratory descriptive - answers what questions describes frequency of occurance

Questionnaire and scales - data collection method

Probes

Questions or statements to obtain MORE information when participants give responses that are uni dimensional

What is the approach to knowledge that says that some knowledge is available from reason alone?

Rationalism

Which school of thought supports the idea that the foundation of knowledge lies in the mind and not in the senses?

Rationalism

Immanuel Kant was a _______________.

Rationalist

What was Plato?

Rationalist

Who believes that you are born with some knowlege?

Rationalists

Reports; realist tales

Real life accounts, 3rd person voice

Post-postivsim

Reality exists but we will never fully understand it; grounded theory

Critical Theory

Reality is constructed by who has power. Reality is imperfectly understood, shaped by cultural, political and social forces

What is the process of gaining once again the vivid knowledge that lies inside you, but which you have forgotten since leaving the World of Forms?

Recollection

What do we mean by the term MEMOING?

Recording of the data, getting ideas when reading the info, and making notes - why did I think that? Does the study still represent the hypothesis?

Qualitative Research: Saturation

Refers to a situation in data analysis where participants' descriptions become repetitive and confirm previously collected data An indication that data analysis is complete When data analysis is complete, data collection is terminated. "Once a preliminary conceptual framework was emerging from the data, a thorough review of the literature through the year 2000 was conducted to augment and help shape future theory development."

Empirical

Relating to or deriving from experience, especially sense experience, but also including experimental scientific investigation.

Theoretical Notes

Remind researcher of ideas for concept and theory development

Mixed Method Research

Research that integrates qualitative and quantitative data and strategies ( Instrument development, Hypothesis generation and testing,Intervention development)

Familiarization

Researcher becomes familiar with the data (transcripts, recordings, etc) Immersion in the data Notation of key ideas or themes Data may need to be pruned because of volume

Risks/Benefits

Researchers often administer a consent form to alert the participant of these possible experiences.

Reports; confessionist tales

Researchers personal accounts that provide insight into the study

Clinical Significance/Relevance vs. Statistical Significance

Results from research studies might be clinically significant/relevant, but not statistically significant And results might be statistically significant, but not clinically significant/relevant - If statistically significant, results might not be practical e.g., Treatment could be effective, but might involve costly or inaccessible procedure Even if not statistically significant, results might be very important e.g., if sample size were increased, might see statistical significance

agreement reality

Scientists having certain criteria that must be met before they accept the reality of something they have not personally experienced; has requirements

how science guards illogical reasoning

Scientists use systems of logic consciously and explicitly (clearly demonstrate)

Extensive analysis

Searching through your whole dataset to test hypotheses generated by analysis of one or two cases.

What did Berkley believe that the one type of quality is?

Secondary

Social constructionism

See constructionism.

Bracketing

Setting aside your own interpretations to decrease or remove bias

Empiricists believe that knowledge is based on

Senses

Member checking

Sharing research findings with participants

Explain "transferability" in qualitative research (Lincoln and Guba).

Similar to external validity. Can the conclusions found here be transferred to describe similar situations?

Close-Ended Questions

Similar to fixed-response questions, this refers to a survey questionnaire approach in which the answers to a particular question are often pre-set by the researcher.

Explain "dependability" in qualitative research (Lincoln and Guba).

Similar to reliability. Dependability relies on the researcher having described all of the factors in the research that might have influenced the data.

What is the most extreme form of skepticism?

Solipsism

It is useful to reflect on whether they will contribute to the text rather than simply repeating commentary that has already been made. Can you edit a quotation?

Some believe that quotations should be reported exactly as they occurred. Others believe that some editing is desirable to provide a more fluent account for the reader and/or because some readers may give less weight to more hesitant accounts.

inaccurate observation example

Someone asking you to recall what your roommate wore to class this morning and you are not correct; guard against this by being asked to monitor their outfit for a week, how often they dress up, or wearing certain colors

Gatekeeper

Someone who is able to grant or refuse access to the field.

Variable

Something that is being studied - this something changes or varies

Recruit the sample

Sources: Existing lists/groups Referrals (from key informant), or snowball Intercepts Open solicitation/targeted Issues to consider: Information forms Consent forms Reminder phone calls Logistics of contact/recruitment

Matters of Fact

States of affairs, how the world is. According to Hume they are known through experience and induction, especially causal inference.

Methods

Strategies used to collect data

Focus groups

Structured group discussion designed to answer a specific research question Led by a moderator Interaction is the defining characteristic

Structured interviewing

Structured interviewing involves using a topic guide that contains specific, but open ended, questions Best for inexperienced moderators Best when you are combining methodologies and/or paradigms (very specific purpose)

Likert scales are examples of what kind of data?

Subjective / Ordinal data

Stratified random sampling

Subjects are grouped into categories by age for example; each classification must NOT have any overlap. Then pull samples from each of the groups.

Willig (2001)

Suggested there were two types of reflexivity: 1: Personal reflexivity 2. Epistemological reflexivity.

yes

Suitable question for social science research?: Does divorce increase the likelihood of behavioral problems for young children?

no

Suitable question for social science research?: Is democracy the best form of governance?

yes

Suitable question for social science research?: Is violence more likely in societies with greater income inequality?

no

Suitable question for social science research?: Should the United States abolish the death penalty?

What means that the predicate adds something to the idea of the subject?

Synthetic

Metasynthesis

Systematic Review if Qualitative reseach

Clinical Practice Guidelines

Systematically developed statements to assist practitioner and patient decisions about appropriate health care for specific clinical circumstances.

Quantitative

THEORY GOING INTO STUDY already and aim is to find EVIDENCE TO SUPPORT theory Respondent,Concepts, Variables, Data (numeric values),Relationships

Technephronesis

Techne, producing outcomes by mastering the means of production. Phronesis - good judgement applied to human conduct - reasoning across time.

No false lemmas

The "no false lemmas" condition is sometimes added to the tripartite definition of knowledge and it says that for something to count as knowledge it must be the case that you did not infer it from anything false.

Central Tendency (Mode, Median, Mean)

The (mode) refers to the most frequent observation or value; this (mean) refers to the arithmetic average of a set of values; this (median) refers to dividing the array of observations in half, such that half the elements fall above and half below.

What is a problem that results from Locke's Representationalist View of Knowledge?

The Egocentric Predicament

Plato's theory of metaphysics and epistemology is sometimes referred to as:

The Theory of the Forms

A. Knowledge claims must be set within the conditions of the world today and in the multiple perspectives of class, race, gender, and other group affiliations

The basic concept of postmodernism is that:

A. That research should contain an action agenda for reform that may change lives

The basic tenet of the advocacy paradigm is:

Causal Principle

The claim that everything has a cause.

Concept innatism

The claim that some of our concepts are innate, not derived from sense experience, but somehow part of the structure of the mind.

Interviewer effects

The effects that the presence of a particular interviewer may have on the interview.

Analytic induction

The equivalent to the statistical testing of quantitative associations to see if they are greater than might be expected at random (random error). Using AI, the researcher examines a case, and, where appropriate, redefines the phenomenon and reformulates a hypothesis until a universal relationship is shown (Fielding, 1988: 7-8).

As a phenomenalist, David Hume rejects what

The existence of God, the self and inductive reasoning

Triangulation

The expansion of research strategies in a single study to enhance diversity/ enrich understanding

Quality

The extent to which a study minimizes bias

B. Case study, phenomenology, grounded theory, ethnography, narrative

The five qualitative traditions focused on in the Creswell text are:

A. What is the nature of reality?

The ontological assumption questions:

Participant expectations

The participants' ideas of the research and the researcher can affect the trustworthiness of the data.

Historical

The past; What were the ancient Romans' basic beliefs regarding diseases of the breast?

Selective Coding

The process of identifying the central code in data

Ontology

The science of being- what can be said to exist?

Field

The setting or place where ethnographic research takes place.

The research question

The specific question you want to answer with your research

Rationalism

The theory that there can be a priori knowledge of synthetic propositions about the world. This knowledge is innate or gained by reason rather than derived via sense experience.

Independent Variable

The variable that has the presumed effect on the dependent variable - manipulated

Solipsism

The view that only one's self, one's mind, exists. There are no mind-independent objects and there are no other minds either.

Theoretical generalization

Theoretical concepts derived from the study can be used to develop further theory.

What is theoretical generalization? How does it relate to case studies?

Theoretical generalization is when the researchers use the data collected to expand and relate to an existing theory. The information gathered from an induvidual in a case study can be used to expand on a widespread theory.

Researchers use a lens to view their studies, such as cultural, gendered or racial differences.

Theoretical lens

Formal theories

Theories which relate findings from one setting to many situations or settings (see Glaser and Strauss, 1967).

Filter Questions

These are questions that, based on the participants' responses, re-route them to another set of questions; this is an efficient way to skip a number of irrelevant questions.

According to the theory of positivism, why do concepts such as feelings and emotions have no place in the formation of knowledge?

They cannot be directly observed or measured, they are unreliable and are not constant over time

Relevance marker 2

Thick description

Slots

This describes when an interviewer gives the interviewee a chance to say something they might've forgotten, didn't know to mention, and/or time to discuss whatever they may not have shared throughout the interview.

Trustworthiness

This is established when the findings of the research reflect the meanings as they are described by the participants.

Census Sample

This refers to a count or survey of 100% of a population.

Reflexive Science

This refers to a critical self-reflective and aware view of one's own social location, position, context, history, and more as a researcher.

Common problems moderators face

Too few/many participants Participant behavior Experts, dominant talkers, disruptive behavior, ramblers, shy respondents Participant comments Disrespectful Personal disclosure Incorrect/harmful information Group Norm

Justice

Treat subjects fairly

T/F in probability sampling each person has a probability of being chosen as a potential subject?

True

Type 1 Error: The likelihood of concluding there is a relationship or difference between groups when in fact, there is none (the results are really due to chance).

Type 2 error: The likelihood of concluding there is no relationship or difference when, in fact, there is one (failing to find an actual difference).

Convenience sampling

Using people around you; like at work for study

Thematic Analysis (1/2)

What is a theme? Something important about the data in relation to the research question A level of patterned or leveled response or meaning within the data set Requires judgment and not quantity

Define researcher triangulation.

When different researchers are used to make sure that the results remain the same even when the person conducting the experiment has changed.

Trustworthiness

When the findings of the research reflect the intended meanings of the participants.

When are qualitative methods used?

When there is little known or understood about a subject

Operational definitions

Working definitions which allow the measurement of some variable within quantitative research.

descriptive example

Who is participating in hook-up culture? Is it only students at Northwestern University?

Did Plato believe in innate ideas? Where did they come from?

YES; the world of forms

What is "tabula rasa"?

You are born a blank tablet at birth

constant comparison

[grounded theory research] newly gathered data are continually compared with previously collected data and its coding in order to refine the development of theoretical categories. purpose -- test emerging ideas that might take the research in new and fruitful directions.

paramnesia

a disturbance of memory in which reality and fantasy are confused; includes things like deja vu and deja entendu

floccillation

aimless plucking or picking, usually at bedclothes or clothing - commonly seen in dementia/delirium

Assent

an aspect of informed consent r/t protecting the rights of children as research subjects

Concept

an image or a symbolic representation of an abstract idea

jargon aphasia

aphasia in which the words produced a neologistic

Quantitative research environments are ____?

artificial

Participant Action Research (PAR)

based on a recognition that KNOWLEDGE can be political and used for POWER, work with vulnerable communities (MANIPULATION)

paradigm

basic set of beliefs that guide action

typical-case sampling

capture the norm, the typical case, not respresentative for a group, illustrative and not for generalized statements

perception

conscious awareness of elements in the environment by the mental processing of sensory stimului

Constant Comparison

data is CONSTANTLY COMPARED with earlier data to find commonalities and variations, used to develop and refine concepts and categories

Research methodology

derived from the RQ and study design

Disadvantages of focus groups

difficult data analysis (time-consuming); ethics; moderator's bias; false sense of consensus

quantitative tests theory while qualitative

generates theory

what process requires authenticating resources such as archives, films, letters...

historical

personal reflexivity

honest about own biases & adjust for them

dysmetria

impaired ability to gauge distance

emic

insider

quantitative research

is based on numerical data

selective observation

is caused by overgeneralization; noticing only things that confirm our pre-existing beliefs

egomania

morbid self-preoccupation or self-centeredness, narcissism

satyriasis

morbid, insatiable sexual need or desire in a man

Why is cluster sampling used?

more economical and time consuming

another name for nonrandom sampling

non-probability

Bracketing

reflexivity in phenomenology

derealization

sensation of changed reality or that one's surroundings have changed

inductive

specific observations to broader generalizations and theories

- Selective outputs provide accounts of

specific parts of the evidence

Satisific

the common practice of coming up with a decision that is merely adequate rather than optimal (Simon, 2007).

What is the principle when it comes to sample size?

the larger the size the better

Convience sampling involves what type of particiapants?

those who are easily accessible to the researcher and who meet the criteria of the study

representational generalization

true (generalizable) outside sample

What is participant observation?

when the researcher actually participates as well as observes

correlation

when two things are associated with one another;

Despite different warnings like, the readability of a research, verbatim passages do have a crucial role in terms of 'grounding' complex ideas and analyses in participants' accounts. General principles to use quotations:

• Demonstrate the type of language, terms or concepts that people use to discuss a particular subject. • Illustrate the meanings that people attach to social phenomena • Illustrate people's expressions of their views or thoughts about a particular subject • Illustrate different positions in relation to a model, process or typology • Demonstrate features of participants' presentation of phenomena such as strength, ambivalence, hesitancy confusion or even contradictory views • Amplify the way in which complex phenomena are described and understood • Portray the general richness of individual or group accounts

Qualitative Research: Setting for Data Collection

"Informant-driven" rather than "theory-driven" Investigator assumes ignorance of the culture or experience being studied Informant teaches the investigator Data is collected in the "field" - the natural world where people live and experience life Investigator should: be nonintrusive spend a prolonged time in the field Some researchers used multiple methods-observation, interviews most common Usually a large volume of data is collected during qualitative research process- FAT DATA.

Knowledge to Action process:

-Identify a problem that needs addressing -Identify, review, and select the -knowledge or research relevant to the problem (e.g., practice guidelines or research findings) -Adapt the identified knowledge or research to the local context -Assess barriers to using the knowledge -Select, tailor, and implement interventions to promote the use of knowledge (i.e., implement the change) -Monitor knowledge use -Evaluate the outcomes of using the knowledge -Sustain ongoing knowledge use

RE-AIM Questions

-Reach What proportion of the target population participated in this intervention? -Efficacy What is the success rate if implemented as in protocol? -Adoption What proportion of settings, practices and plans will adopt this intervention? -Implementation To what extent in the intervention implemented in the real-world -Maintenance To what extent is the program sustained over time?

What are Cohen's bench marks for effect size?

.20 is considred small .50 is medium .80 is large and the sample size is adequate

most nursing studies cannot expect effect sizes to be in excess of

.50 most .20-.40

What does Cohen says is the minimal acceptable level?

.80 the larger the power needed the larger the sample size

According to Cohen the minimal acceptable level of power is

.80 this means that ther is an 80% probability of obtaining an accurate result and a 20% chance of a type II error

QDA- qualitative Data Analysis

1. Coding - Upack the box, deconstruct, naming to classify the data 2. Categorize: Reconstruct data into categories. Comparison of similarities or differences. 3. Patterns

Strengths of qualitative research

1. Collects "rich", meaningful data that is often detailed and in-depth. 2. Particularly useful for investigating complex and sensitive issues. 3. Can be helpful in establishing underlying causes that may be missed in the quantitative approach. 4. Can be used to generate new theories. 5. Often has increased ecological validity as people are studied in their own environment.

Steps in coding

1. Create a team of coders and review sub-set of transcripts 2. Understand the subjectivities and biases of the team 3. Become familiar with your transcripts 4. Create a first draft of codebook 5. Apply the codes to a second pre-selected group of transcripts 6. Meet as a team to discuss the codes and finalize the codebook 7. Make a coding plan and apply the codes to all transcripts 8. Determine Agreement Rate ***These steps can be concurrent with continued data collection***

Validity

1. Credibility & crisis of representation: accurate interpretation of the people's meanings 2. Criticality: critical appraisal of all aspects of the research 3. Authenticity: different voices are heard 4. Integrity: self-critical researchers in terms of reflexivity

Paradigm

A conceptual framework (see model).

Postmodernism

A contemporary approach which questions or seeks to deconstruct both accepted concepts (e.g. the 'subject' and the 'field') and scientific method. Postmodernism is both an analytical model and a way of describing contemporary society as a pastiche of insecure and changing elements.

Illusion

A distortion of the senses that means what we perceive is different from what exists.

Spurious Relationship

A false relationship between two variables (A, B). A and B may appear to be causally related, but they are actually affected independently by a third variable (C). For example, U.S. cities with the highest number of art museums (A) also have the highest concentrations of smog (B). What might explain this? City size.

Credibility

A feature that describes how correct or valid conclusions are about the functionality of a relationship between two variables, such as a procedure and changes in behavior; addresses the validity of the answer to the question.

Heterogenous Focus Group

A focus group where participants are different.

What is a focus group

A group of approximately 8-10 individuals who discuss a particular topic chosen by the researcher, under the direction of a moderator, who promotes interaction among the members. The moderator assures that the discussion remains on topic and/or that all questions in the guide are addressed.

Triangulation

A kind of cross-checking of information and conclusions formed in research brought about by the use of multiple procedures or sources.

Significance level

A level of sample established prior to the study - a min.

interview guide

A list of topics to be covered in an interview. Similar to a questionnaire, but much less structured, and without multiple-response questions. Used mainly in semi-structured interviews and group discussions.

Post-positivism

A material world exists, not all things can be understood, the senses give us an imperfect understanding

in depth interview

A method of data collection in which a participant is interviewed in detail about a certain research participant. In this format, the interviewer leads the discussion flexibly along some pre-structured topics, but also allows the participant to expand upon topics in-depth and to explore new avenues of discussion.

Participant observation

A method that assumes that, in order to understand the world 'first hand', you must participate yourself rather than just observe at a distance. This method was championed by the early anthropologists but is shared by some ethnographers.

Naturalism

A model of research which seeks to minimize presuppositions in order to witness subjects' worlds in their own terms (Gubrium and Holstein, 1997).

Emotionalism

A model of social research in which the primary issue is to generate data which give an authentic insight into people's experiences. Emotionalists tend to favour open-ended interviews (see Gubrium and Holstein, 1997).

Positivism

A model of the research process which treats 'social facts' as existing independently of the activities of both participants and researchers. For positivists, the aim is to generate data which are valid and reliable, independently of the research setting.

Structuralism

A model used in anthropology which aims to show how single cases relate to general social forms. Structural anthropologists draw upon French social and linguistic theory of the early twentieth century, notably Ferdinand de Saussure and Emile Durkheim. They view behaviour as the expression of a 'society' which works as a 'hidden hand' constraining and forming human action.

Constructionism

A model which encourages researchers to focus upon how phenomena come to be what they are through the close study of interaction in different contexts. It is opposed to naturalism.

Convenience sampling

A non-probability sampling method where a sample is selected from population that is readily available.

Purposive sampling

A non-probability sampling method where subjects are deliberately selected based on predefined criteria or particular characteristics chosen by the researchers that they feel will help them explore the research topic.

Snowball sampling

A non-probability sampling method, often employed in field research, whereby each person interviewed may be asked to suggest additional people for interviewing.

Hallucination

A non-veridical perceptual experience that is not coherently connected with the rest of our perceptual experience.

Qualitative Studies: Case Studies

A particular case study may be the focus of any of the previously mentioned field strategies. In depth description of dimensions and processes of a phenomena, close scrutiny and understanding. The case study is important in qualitative research, especially in areas where exceptions are being studied. Example: A patient may have a rare form of cancer that has a set of symptoms and potential treatments that have never before been researched.

Sample, sampling

A statistical procedure for finding cases to study. Sampling has two functions: it allows you to feel confident about the representativeness of your sample, and such representativeness allows you to make broader inferences.

What is the postmodern transcription technique?

A technique used in interviews to not only record sound, but also record movement, laughs, and body-language. This can be done through notes or by filming.

Researcher bias

A tendency for researchers to engage in behaviors and selectively notice evidence that supports their hypotheses or expectations

Reflexivity

A term deriving from ethnomethodology where it is used to describe the self-organizing character of all interaction so that any action provides for its own context. Mistakenly used to refer to self-questioning by a researcher.

Category Emergence

A term that describes when patterns in qualitative data become evident. For example, when people keep saying the same thing over and over again.

Interview society

A term used by Atkinson and Silverman (1997) to point out the ways in which interviews have become a central medium for understanding who we are.

Rewriting of history

A term used by Garfinkel (1967) to refer to the way in which any account retrospectively finds reasons for any past event.

Idiom

A term used by Gubrium and Holstein (1997) to describe a set of analytical preferences for particular concepts, styles of research and ways of writing (see model).

Grand theory

A term used by Mills (1959) to describe highly abstract speculation which has little or no use in research.

Social structure

A term used in sociology and anthropology to describe the institutional arrangements of a particular society or group (e.g. family and class structures).

Paradigmatic

A term used in structuralism to indicate a polar set of concepts or activities where the presence of one denies the existence of the other (e.g. a red traffic light).

Syntagmatic

A term used within semiotics to denote the order in which related elements occur (e.g. how colours follow one another in traffic lights).

What does Cronbach's alpha measure?

A test of reliability regarding internal consistency

Hypothesis

A testable proposition often based on an educated guess.

What is a raw-theme?

A theme that has naturally arisen from the data. A theme such as, "I enjoy working at home..."

Substantive theory

A theory about a particular situation or group. Can be used to develop formal theory.

Relativism

A value position where we resist taking a position because we believe that, since everything is relative to its particular context, it should not be criticized.

Intervening variable

A variable which is influenced by a prior factor and goes on to influence another. Commonly used in quantitative research to work out which statistical association may be spurious.

overgeneralization example

A visitor coming to MSMC to learn about the school and only speaking to 3 or 4 students and concluded based off the interactions with that friend group of friends that all students are dissatisfied with the school; speaking with every 5 people that walk into the dining hall and give them a satisfaction survey; do this for five days at different times

Critical theory

Aka: critical social theory Concerned with critique of society Looks at power hierarchies in social systems Form of action research Researcher focused on sociopolitical action Critical ethnography Raises consciousness to produce social change

Concept Empiricism

All concepts (or ideas) are derived from sense experience.

Orientational qualitative inquiry

An ideology directs the inquiry and research process is feminism or critical theory

What is an intrinsic case-study?

An intrinsic case study is a case study that are of interest purely for their own sake, there is no need to generalize beyond the situation at hand.

Idea

An object of perception, thought or understanding. Locke uses the term to refer to a complete thought, taking the form of a proposition e.g. "bananas are yellow"; a sensation or sensory experience e.g. a visual sensation of yellow; or a concept e.g. yellow.

What is a controlled observation?

An observation that takes place anywhere (either lab, or in natural conditions) but the situation that takes place is a artificial one.

What is a naturalistic observation?

An observation that takes place in a situation that naturally occurs.

Sampling error / bias

An over or under representation of a sample - this is why randomization is so important.

Continuer

An utterance which signals to a listener that what they have just said has been understood and that they should now continue (see conversation analysis).

Mapping and Interpretation

Analysis of the key characteristics as laid out in the charts. It is at this point that the researcher is cognizant of the objectives of qualitative analysis, which are: "defining concepts, mapping range and nature of phenomena, creating typologies, finding associations, providing explanations, and developing strategies" (Ritchie and Spencer, 1994:186).

What means that the subject contains the idea of the predicate?

Analytic

Narrative Analysis

Analyzes "stories" of participants over time for cultural and social meanings

What is the knowledge that one has prior to sensation?

Apriori

Homogeneity

Are the elements similar? To what degree?

Memos

Are to SELF; reminders, why did I choose these themes?

Who defined knowledge as justified true belief?

Aristotle

Dependability examples;

Audit trail again, multiple interviews, data saturation, coding checks that show agreement, uniformity of responses across subjects

Confirmability examples;

Audit trail, knowing potential bias, accurate record keeping

Perception

Awareness of apparently external objects through use of the senses.

Considerations before, during and after observation

BEFORE: Find out the problem to be investigated. Set up a plan for observation. Decide whether to conduct a participant/non participant observation. Become familiar with the setting and the people to be observed. Decide what kind of notes to take. Be aware of researcher's possible influence. Be aware of ethical rules of conduct. Consider observer triangulation. DURING: Meet with the participants and establish a rapport. AFTER: Conduct post-observational interviews. Debrief the participants. Carry out data analysis, using grounded theory based on analysis.

Considerations before, during and after interview

BEFORE: Relevant sampling methods Training of the interviewer Choice of interviewer How the data will be recorded How the data will be transcribed (verbatim/postmodern) DURING: To establish rapport between interviewer and patient Positioning of recording device The use of an active listening technique AFTER: Debriefing of participant Reading of transcripts by participant Feedback from participant

Transferability

BETTER QUOTES used, internet used to recruit sample

According to Socrates, how do we "tether" our beliefs to reality?

Back them up with reasons

What theory requires that all of an individual's beliefs be compatible with one another?

Coherentism

Purposive sampling

Common across qualitative methods; researcher seeks & invites qualified participants

Observations

Complete participant, observer as participant, participant as observer, complete observer-> conversational

Qualitative Research: Literature Review

Completed (and sometimes not started) after the data have been collected and analyzed Rationale: To avoid leading the participants in the direction of what has already been discovered Purpose of literature review: = To show how current findings fit into what is already known

Qualitative Research: Data Analysis: Process of fitting data together:

Comprehending- understanding what has been said Synthesizing- organizing and summarizing information Theorizing- placing information within context of a theoretical framework (grounded theory) Re-contextualizing- interpreting information within context of environment where event or phenomenon occurred

Code creation

Concept investigation may be inferred a priori - series is typically built inductively through analysis.

Coding Units

Concepts are coded as units of analysis

Confidence Intervals (CI)

Confidence Intervals are used to describe the precision of the estimate: -Narrow confidence intervals, more precise - Wide confidence intervals, less precise NOTE: your result (which is a point estimate) always lies in the middle of the 95% CI

Quality + Quantity + Consistency = ?

Confidence to ACT

Give some ethical considerations of interviews.

Confidentiality.

The term that describes the rigor used by a researcher doing a qualitative study in terms of methodology and audit trail is?

Confirmability

Adjacency pairs

Consecutive actions which are grouped in pairs and constrain what the next speaker may do (e.g. questions and answers).

Grounded Theory

Constant comparison of study findings to literature-the theory is constructed inductively from a base of observations of the world as it is lived by a selected group of people

When a study tool, such as a survey, actually measure the concepts the researcher is interested in, we say the tool has a high degree of?

Content validity

Types of validity 3

Content, criterior-related, construct

Statistical Significance via Confidence Intervals

Continuous Data --> e.g., Mean Differences: HINT: the means are being subtracted from each other TIP: if both the low end and the high end of the 95% CI have minus signs, then it is always LESS THAN and statistically significant or vise versa RULE: if the 95% Confidence Interval (95%CI) includes "0", the result is not significant, i.e. there is no difference between the groups EXAMPLE: Mean difference = 5 and 95% CI (-1.1 to 8) Not Significant Mean difference = 5 and 95% CI (2 to 8) Significant Discrete Data --> Categorical results (e.g., Ratios): HINT: the proportions are being divided TIP: if both the high end of the CI and the low end of the CI start with 'zer0' (i.e., a decimal), then 95% CI DOES NOT cross '1' therefore statistically significant and ALWAYS LESS LIKELY and vice versa RULE: if the 95% CI includes "1", the result is not significant and there is no difference between the groups Example Relative Risk Ratio 2, 95% CI (0.5, 6.4) Not Significant Relative Risk Ratio 2, 95% CI (1.5, 6.4) Significant

General rules for these data

Continuous: - Average scores between two or more groups can be subtracted - Therefore you may see results with 'minus' signs Discrete (Categorical): - Data can be calculated in frequencies (or proportions) - Data from 2 groups can be divided (to get 'Ratios') - You will never see 'minus signs' if the data are presented as ratios

Assumptions of conversation analysis

Conversation is socially structured; Conversation must be understood contextually; Seeks understanding of the structure and meaning of conversation

What is a common sense theory that most of us think of when we claim the truth?

Correspondence Theory

Open Coding

Creating many codes during initial look at data

Qualitative Research: Credibility (internal validity)

Credibility Refers to confidence in the truth of the data and interpretations of that data Description must be plausible and recognized by participants Enhanced by: Prolonged time in the field repeatedly observing and interacting with participants Using different data sources, methods, data type Conducting member checks = Involving other investigators in the study

Explain "credibility" in qualitative research. (Lincoln and Guba)

Credibility is like internal validity. They focus more on whether or not the researcher has reached the right conclusion according to the rich data.

Four Essential Elements of Evaluation

Credibility, Transferability, Dependability, Confirmability

trustworthiness

Credibility, in the rhetoric of qualitative research (Morrow, 2005)

CAT

Critical Apprasial Table

B. Empowering human beings to transcend the constraints placed on them by race, class, and gender

Critical theory is concerned with:

Ethnography

Culture; What are the self-breast exam practices of Amerasian women?

Grounded Theory

Data collection and analysis are conducted together. Discovery of theory from the data. Theoretical sampling to exhaust categories.

GROUNDED THEORY Data Analysis

Data collection and analysis occur simultaneously. Researchers serve as instruments for data interpretation. Emerging patterns identified from transcripts and fieldnotes. Codes of themes. Nvivo™ computer software one example of a program used to manage data. These themes/patterns further explored in interviews. Themes also used as a form of data reduction. Initial analysis called open coding. Then data are compared with other data continuously as collected by process known as constant comparative method. Propositions made about the relationships among and between categories/themes/codes.

Correlational - examines relationships amoung variables

Data collection methods - questionnaire, survey / scales / biophysi

The Vision for Clinical Informatics

Data should be: -Captured as a byproduct of the care process -Entered only once (and verified if needed) Use and re-used for: 1.Data Sharing (view reports and others' notes) Pros: Remote & Asynchronous viewing Multiple concurrent viewers Decrease repeat tests (cost savings) Cons: Potential for privacy breach Requires national standards for health information exchange Info-structure costly to implement Presumes digital literacy 2.Real time decision support (guideline integration, knowledge translation) Pros: Supports guideline adherence Prevents some adverse events (e.g., drug-drug interaction) Can be used for quality data tracking Cons: Complex & time consuming to develop Alert fatigue Technology induced errors if user interface confusing Presumes data collection complete from previous users Requires comprehensive infostructure and standards 3.Administrative reporting (must know what you will get OUT of system) Pros: Automated reports: reduce time to get administrative data Reduce cost of medical records department Near to 'real-time' administrative reporting (currently there is a time lag due to manual data abstraction) Cons: Data collection pushed to front-line person Uncertain how data is used for decision making Information overload --> not using data? Can't get data out unless planned during system design May require additional time/expertise when building system 4.Research 5.Practice-based evidence (knowledge discovery) Pros: for 4 and 5 Big Data (Massive data) Larger data sets Have full population data Data mining techniques can be applied Time to get data faster because no need for manual data extraction Cons: for 4 and 5 Potential for Privacy breach if mining identifiable data Can't get data out if system not designed for it Can take longer if data are 'dirty' Qualitative data might not be used Might miss context of quantitative data

Ethnographic research Focuses on the

PATTERNS OF A CULTURE , understand a culture

Theoretical sampling

PILOT study sample, a starting point for a larger study that may be coming; or expensive, or time sensitive

Qualitative

POTENTIAL THEORY GOING INTO a study, it is developed after the study and inductive reasoning is used Informant, Phenomena, concepts, themes, Data (narratives), Patterns of association

Researcher attempts to learn the meaning that participants hold regarding a problem.

Participants meaning

Nodal Points

People who know a lot about the situation but may not be folks you gather data about (i.e., they are not the subjects of your study); important for understanding how to gain entrée or access for ethnographies.

Quantitative v Qualitative

Per Krieken et al 2006 - qualitative data is richer, has greater depth and is more likely to present a true picture of experiences, attitudes and beliefs

Purposive sampling

Purposive: non representative subset of some larger population, and is constructed to serve a very specific need or purpose. A researcher may have a specific group in mind, such as high level business executives. It may not be possible to specify the population -- they would not all be known, and access will be difficult. The researcher will attempt to zero in on the target group, interviewing whomever is available. Snowball sample is subset of purposive- A snowball sample is achieved by asking a participant to suggest someone else who might be willing or appropriate for the study. Snowball samples are particularly useful in hard-to-track populations, such as truants, drug users, etc.

Which type of knowledge does epistemology concentrate the most with?

Propositional; the other types are experiential, logical, prodecural

Models

Provide an overall framework for how we look at reality (e.g. positivism, naturalism and constructionism). They tell us what reality is like and the basic elements it contains ('ontology') and what are the nature and status of knowledge ('epistemology'). See also idioms.

Tools for Information Management

Provide data and knowledge needed by the clinician, but do not help apply that information to the task e.g., Medline, Drug Reference Database, Infobuttons Infobuttons via WebCIS/Eclipsys

Purposeful sampling

Purposeful Sampling (non probability sampling) Types: Convenience Snowball or chain Venue- based sampling Criterion Street intercept Others (typical case, confirming/disconfirming case, purposeful random sampling; list based usually in conjunction with another study

Dr. Blenner's infertility study where she chose couples who both had infetility problems, then the male facot, then unexplained factor?

Purposeful/theoretical/judgement sampling

What sampling is based on the premise, needed to provide the most useful information about the phenomenon being studied?

Purposeful/theoretical/judgement sampling

What type of nonprobability sampling is most used in qualtitaive research?

Purposeful/theoretical/judgement sampling known by any of the three names

Ethnography

Puts together two different words: 'ethno' means 'folk', while 'graph' derives from 'writing'. Ethnography refers, then, to social scientific writing about particular folks.

Coding

Putting data into theoretically defined categories in order to analyse them.

Semantics - Quantitative = Reliability

Qualitative = Dependability

Semantics - Quantitative = Applicability

Qualitative = Transferability

D. All of the above

Qualitative research:

Data saturation

Qualitative researchers analyse the data until they reach a point where they can find no new information.

Research articles; need 3 things

Quality - is it valid and reliable? Quantity - 3 articles or 30 articles? Are they all stating the same thing? Consistency - in similar circumstances, do different researchers find the same outcomes? Need all 3 in order to act with confidence.

Quantitative, because you are identifying the number of students that agreed or disagreed

Quantitative or Qualitative? Explain: Course Evaluation Part 1: Readings were useful (check box of statement that best applies)

Qualitative because you are using words, it is open-ended

Quantitative or Qualitative? Explain: Course Evaluation Part 2: Describe the best parts of the course

Qualitative study because she is analyzing the words being spoken

Quantitative or Qualitative? Explain: Key themes from interviews article and is analyzing based on responses of participants

Quantitative because you are counting the number of languages

Quantitative or Qualitative? Explain: Please mark off all languages spoken at home: English Spanish Chinese Other

Silverman Criticisms of Quantitative 1

Quantitative research can amount to a quick fix

Levels of Evidence III

Quasiexperimental study

A. A variety of methods and strategies relating to individual identity

Queer theory is characterized by:

Experimental / Clinical trial - examines causes of certain effects

Questinnaire / Scales / Biophysiological

Grounded theory methods

Question What are the social problems and processes associated with...........? - Data Collection method Interviews - Data Analysis method Coding, matrices, central category Format for presenting results Theory or theoretical/conceptual model

Phenomenology Data collection and analysis

Question What is the lived experience of......? - Data Collection method Long, multiple interviews - Data Analysis method Hermeneutic analysis (interpretation of human meaning and experience) Statements, meaning themes Format for presenting results Description of "essence" of experience

Ethnography Data collection and analysis

Question: What are the cultural practices in group...............? - Data Collection method Participant observation, interviews, artifacts Prolonged engagement in field Focus groups - Data Analysis method Describe practices, interpret meaning of practices Format for presenting results Description of cultural behavior of group/individual

Prompts

Questions or statement to generate discussion when participants do not respond to an initial question or have a limited response. ex. Initial question: Tell me your experiences at camp Prompts: When I say your experiences at camp I mean any activities like swimming, team sports or even your interactions with the other campers. What were your favorite activities? What did you and didn't you like?

Measurement error 2

Random and systematic

Random sampling/quota sampling

Random: each individual in the population of interest has an equal likelihood of selection Quota sample: the researcher deliberately sets the proportions of levels or strata within the sample.

In a study using grounded theory methodology, the sample size must be big enough to?

Reach data saturation

Low-inference descriptors

Recording observations 'in terms that are as concrete as possible, including verbatim accounts of what people say, for example, rather than researchers' reconstructions of the general sense of what a person said, which would allow researchers' personal perspectives to influence the reporting' (Seale, 1999: 148) (see reliability).

The Cogito

Refers to Descartes first certain Knowledge "I think".

Dependability (reliability)

Refers to stability of data overtime and over conditions Researcher has documented all phases of the research process Leads reader through the: steps of designing the research question, collection of data, analysis, and interpretation stages This is determined by an audit trail Involves auditing research process, documenting all the raw data generated, and assessing method of data analysis Would findings of an inquiry be similar if it were replicated with the same/similar participants and context?

Methodology

Refers to the choices we make about appropriate models, cases to study, methods of data gathering, forms of data analysis etc., in planning and executing a research study.

Cartesian Circle

Refers to the circular reason Descartes seems to employ regarding clear and distinct ideas and God: God cannot rely on clear and distinct ideas before proving God exists, but he can't prove that God exists without relying on clear and distinct ideas.

Confirmability (objectivity)

Refers to the objectivity of the data- the potential for congruence between two or more researchers about data accuracy, relevance, or meaning Findings must reflect views of informants and conditions of inquiry Audit trail-recording of activities that another individual can follow (e.g. systematic collection of documents-data, coding, etc)

Personal reflexivity

Reflecting on the ways in which factors such as the researcher's values, beliefs, experiences, interests, and political commitment have influenced the research.

Relations of Ideas

Relations of ideas are established by pure thought or reflection ad are "intuitively and demonstratively certain." The negation of a relation of ideas is a contradiction.

Reliabilism

Reliabilism claims that you know that p if you believe that p, p is true and p is justified by a reliable cognitive process.

Validity and Reliability in Qualitative Research: Reliability

Reliability: the extent to which the research process is reasonably stable over time across researchers and methods Possible Threats to Reliability: Are research questions clear and congruent with study design? Is the researcher's role and status within the study explicitly described? Are basic paradigms and analytic constructs clearly specified Were data collected across the full range of appropriate settings, times, respondents as suggested by the research questions? Strategies to enhance reliability: Were data quality checks made? Were coding checks made, and did they show adequate agreement? Are findings reasonably parallel across data sources? Do multiple observers' accounts converge? Were forms of peer review in place?

Phenomenology Sampling

Relies on VERY SMALL SAMPLES (often 10 or fewer) experienced phenomenon of interest & be able to articulate their experience

Conceptual data

Reports on theories or reviews- how to type articles

Self contained use of focus groups

Research Questions: What are general perceptions of bodegas held by residents of the East New York and Bed-Stuy neighborhoods? How can the role of bodegas in providing healthy foods be expanded in these communities Method: Focus groups

Case study

Research based on the study of a limited number of naturally occurring settings.

Generalizability

The extent to which a finding in one setting can be applied more generally.

Credibility

The extent to which any research claim has been shown to be based on evidence.

Reflexivity

The fact that a researcher reflects upon his/her own involvement in the research process.

B. Postpositivism, constructivism, advocacy/participatory, pragmatism

The four paradigms Creswell focuses on are::

In your own words, describe an example that illustrates the Gettier Problem

The guttier Problem says how just by satisfying the Tripartite Theory doesn't necessarily converts things into knowledge. If my teacher had a twin sister, and both happen to be in the same room but the twin sister happens to be the teacher today, not my real teacher, and I don't know, when i'm asked "is your teacher in this room" I'll say yes but i'm accidentally correct since both happen to be by casualty in the same room.

Coherence theory of truth

The idea that truth is not absolute, but consensual.

Evidence Informed Practice

The incorporation of evidence from research, clinical expertise, client preferences and other available resources to make decisions about patients

Informed Consent

The legal principle that requires a researcher to inform subjects about potential benefits and risks

Silverman Criticism of Quantitative 4

The pursuit of 'measurable' phenomena mean that unperceived values and subjectivity creeps into research - cannot enumerate discrimination

Critical Thinking

The rational examination of ideas, inferences, assumptions, principles, arguments, conclusions, issues, beliefs, statements and actions

Clusters of Meaning

The researcher develops these after conducting a horizontalization by grouping together the significant themes.

What is member-checking?

The researcher goes through the final data with the participant to see if the participant agrees that it is a realistic representation of their own reality.

Inferential generalization

The results of the study can be applied to situations outside of the study. Also called transferability or external validity.

Discourse analysis

The study of 'the way versions of the world, of society, events, and inner psychological worlds are produced in discourse' (Potter, 2004: 202).

What is a case-study?

The study of a specific incident that is studied because it is rare or simply because it is relevant for a certain situation.

Ethnomethodology

The study of folk - or members' - methods. It seeks to describe the methods that persons use in doing social life. Ethnomethodology is not a methodology but a theoretical model.

Epistemology

The study of knowledge and related concepts including belief, justification and certainty. It look at the possibility and sources of knowledge.

Semiotics

The study of signs (from speech, to fashion, to Morse code).

Narrative analysis

The study of the organization of stories (e.g. beginning, middle and end; plots and characters) that makes stories meaningful or coherent in a form appropriate to the needs of a particular occasion.

Knowledge Empiricism

The theory that there can be no a priori knowledge of synthetic propositions about the world (outside my mind) i.e. all a priori knowledge is of analytic propositions, whilst all knowledge of synthetic propositions must be checked against sense experience.

What is the one point that separates rationalists from empiricists?

The topic of innate ideas

Phase 2

Theoretical paradigms and perspectives: what beliefs guide my actions as a researcher?

Qualitative Research: Ethical Issues in the Field

Research goals never override the rights, health, or well-being and care of informants Protecting the anonymity of the informants (how done?) Disclosing (or not) the purpose of the research Researcher as instrument - "reflexivity" is the researcher's consciousness of biases, values, and experiences he/she brings to a study

Grounded Theory: Research Protocol

Researcher brings some knowledge of literature to study. Researcher must not express his/her opinions or values to the informant. Exhaustive literature search is purposefully not done in advance of the study starting. Why??? Theories are expected to emerge directly from current research data and not from previous research and are therefore grounded in the data.

Qualitative Research: Data Analysis

Researcher immerses self in data to bring order and meaning to vast narrative Come to truly understand what the data are saying, similar data is clustered together Cyclical process - data collection occurs simultaneously with data analysis Analysis begins when data collection begins Reading, rereading, intuiting, analyzing, synthesizing, and reporting on data Requires extensive amount of time

Qualitative Research: Researcher Role: Explicating Researcher's Beliefs

Researcher is immersed in the field of study so must acknowledge biases Bracketing - setting aside one's biases and personal views on a topic =Investigator keeps a diary of personal thoughts and feelings about the topic Purpose: the researcher is made aware when interpretations of the data reflect personal beliefs rather than those of the participants

Personal Narrative

Researcher is removed, they may be speaking of observations they may have had only

Quantitative research is deductive

Researcher narrows hypothesis to finite set of variables, which is answered through research driven experimental study

Qualitative Research: Data collection: Interviews

Researcher questions a subject verbally: face-to-face, telephone, using open- or close-ended questions. Content of an interview is based on the: literature review, research question, previous experience Interviews are preferably pilot tested before doing the study to test reliability, validity and clarity of items (reword some items)

Impressionist tales

Researcher storytelling

Purposive Sampling

Researcher uses knowledge to select participants considered representative

Researcher bias

Researcher's own beliefs may influence the research process (possibly because the researcher does not pay enough attention to the participants).

Etic Perspective

Researcher's perspective

Randomization (Random Assignment, Random Allocation) - controls for unknown confounders

Theoretically, randomization controls for known and unknown factors - Involves placing subjects into treatment conditions at random - Approximates the ideal—but impossible—counterfactual of having the same people in multiple treatment groups simultaneously - If randomization is effective, baseline groups will not be statistically different

Null hypothesus

Statistical hypothesis

Aggregate Data

Statistics which relate to broad classes, groups, or categories, so that it is not possible to distinguish the properties of individuals within those classes, groups, or categories. Aggregation can be by socioeconomic grouping, for example, the size of the economically active population, or by time interval, for example, the percentage of single mothers by education in a year (see McLanahan)

Transcendental

Step in analyzing data. Descriptive (requires bracketing belief that pre-understanding doesn't necessarily impact the acceptance of new understanding and knowledge beyond that of the researcher);

Hermeneutic

Step in analyzing data. Interpretive (doesn't require bracketing because bracketing or pre-understanding can't be eliminated)

Reflexivity

Step in analyzing data. thinking process related to self-reflection and self-awareness); use of a reflexive diary to capture and review your thoughts, perceptions, and feelings

Explain the four different structures of an interview.

Structured: There are specific questions which will find and answer and nothing else. Semi-Structured: The interviewer had a decided a structure but allows the discussion to deviate a little, on the focused topic. Unstructured: There is no structure, the interviews are like conversations, the interviewer as a specific goal, but reaching it is unimportant. Narrative: Asked "Tell me about your childhood" and the interviewee tells the story without interruption.

General Principles of Statistics

There are two main types of data: - Continuous E.g., Blood Pressure in mmHg, income in dollars NOTE: continuous data can be converted into categorical data by grouping the data, but you can't convert categorical data into continuous data - Discrete (Categorical) E.g., yes/no; chocolate/vanilla/strawberry; income level (low, medium, high)

Confidence marker 4

Thick description - using quotes from participants to give deep sense of contribution

Transferability examples;

Thick description, checking for representativeness of the data, clear explanation of the boundaries and limitations of the study.

Kant believed that causation, space, and time were all categories of our ________.

Thinking

Epistemological reflexivity

Thinking about the ways knowledge has been generated in the study. Could there be a different methodology employed, different research question?

Qualitative Data

This form of data consists of text - for example gathered from interviews with or observations of participants. Textual data is open-ended and flexible and is considered "rich" but also subjective as it is open to interpretation.

Quantitative Data

This form of data is in the form of numbers that is easy to summarize and to statistically analyze. This form is often collected in order to generalize beyond the subject sample when creating nomothetic laws.

Deception-Based Research

This is also sometimes referred to as incomplete disclosure in research, and occurs when participants are deliberately given false information about some aspect of the research; incomplete disclosure occurs when participants are not given information about the real purpose or the nature of the research.

Quasi-Experimental Design

This is like an experimental design but it lacks the element of random selection; all designs like this potentially result in selection effect.

Theoretical Sample

This is the type of sampling that qualitative researchers do. It is different from random sampling but borrows from the principles of survey research.

Mapping

This is what ethnographers do when they provide novelistic descriptions of a setting. This is part of the ethnographer's sampling efforts and is an example of how you can apply the principles of survey research to qualitative research.

Voluntary Participation

This is when a research participant freely consents to participate in a study.

Confirmability

This is where field notes are important to determine if the study is ?

Semi-structured interview

This kind of interview uses both closed and open-ended questions.

Qualitative Research: Unstructured or Intensive Interviewing

This method allows the researcher to ask open-ended questions during an interview. Details are more important here than a specific interview procedure. Respondents use own words as much as possible. Here lies the inductive framework through which theory can be generated.

Interviews

This method refers to questioning someone to discover their opinions, attitudes, and/or experiences on a given topic.

Focus Groups

This refers to a group of people assembled to participate in a guided discussion, interview, etc. about a particular topic.

Method of Difference

This refers to a method of scientific induction devised by John Stuart Mill according to which if an instance in which the phenomenon under investigation occurs and an instance in which it does not occur have each circumstance except one in common, that one occurring only in the former, the circumstance in which the two instances differ is the effect or cause or necessary part of the cause of the phenomenon; the only thing that is different is the cause.

Method of Agreement

This refers to a method of scientific induction devised by John Stuart Mill according to which if two or more instances of a phenomenon under investigation have only a single circumstance in common the circumstance in which all the instances agree is the cause or effect of the phenomenon; everything that is the same is the cause.

Steps in Coding 3. Become familiar with your transcripts

Immerse yourself—read and reread sub-sample of transcripts, review notes Determine themes by searching for the core meanings of the thoughts, feelings and behaviors described in the transcripts "Interpret" your data Relate thematic areas to one another Relate thematic areas back to your original RQ Suggest the implications of the findings Discuss your initial findings and impressions with team

What is the difference between a participant and non-participant observation?

In participant observations, the researcher pretends to be "one of" the participants. In the non-participant observation, they do not.

Response Rate

In survey research, this refers to the number of people who answered the survey divided by the number of people in the sample; it is usually expressed in the form of a percentage. For example, 1,000 surveys sent by mail, 257 were completed and returned, response rate would be 25.7%.

Indexing

Indexing means that one identifies portions or sections of the data that correspond to a particular theme. This process is applied to all the textual data that has been gathered (i.e. transcripts of interviews). Essentially coding!

Researchers build on their research with a bottom up approach

Inductive data analysis

What is qualitative methodology?

Inductive, draws big conclusions from small ideas. Answers in words, tries to depict how certain individuals view the world. Looks for subjectivity.

Smoking Cessation Transcripts example

Initiation: reason started smoking (any reason, just the act of initiating) Parental influence: any influence parent has had on smoking behavior (to smoke or not to smoke) Curiosity: R reports initiating smoking because wanted to see what it was like Glamour: R reports initiating smoking because felt it represented a life they wanted or wanted to appear different than they are

Causal Pathway

Inputs-> Activities-> Outputs-> Effects (Outcomes) -> Impact

Translation- back translation guide- Instrument

Instrument Creation of English instrument - researcher Translate into local language - bilingual translator Back-translated into English -DIFFERENT bilingual translator Side-by side comparison of English to English instruments

Steps in Coding 8. Determine Agreement Rate

Intercoder Agreement (ICA): widely used term for the extent to which independent coders evaluate a block of text and reach the same conclusion (apply the same code)

Researchers interpret what they see, hear and understand

Interpretive Inquiry

C. Interpretive stances of the researcher

Interpretive communities are narrowed from the paradigm and become the:

D. The self-reflective nature of how qualitative research is conducted, read, and advance

Interpretive qualitative research approach focuses on:

GROUNDED THEORY: Data Gathering (natural setting)

Interviews (recorded, transcribed) Skilled observations of individuals in setting/situation (recorded as field notes) Open-ended questions used to identify concepts for further focus. Semi-structured questions with probes. Example: Have you ever been tested for HIV? (closed-ended question) Example: Why did you decide to not/get tested? (open/probing) Probe: Was this a difficult decision for you? Could you tell me about how the things you considered when making this decision.

Content Analysis Coding

Involves assigning artifacts to one or more categories

Content analysis

Involves establishing categories and systematic linkages between them, and then counting the number of instances when those categories are used in a particular item of text.

Analysis of data obtained in observational research

Involves taking an inductive approach by creating a picture as they collect the data and examine it. The analysis is often based on researcher's field notes but are often compared to data from other sources (e.g. interview transcripts, pictures, narratives), as it is common in participant observation to use a variety of sources.

Respondent validation

Involves taking one's findings back to the subjects being studied. Where these people verify one's findings, it is argued, one can be more confident of their validity.

Contextual sensitivity

Involves the recognition that apparently uniform social institutions (e.g. 'tribes', 'families', 'crime') take on different meanings in different contexts.

Theory triangulation

Involves the use of multiple theories or perspectives to aid in interpreting the data.

Researcher triangulation

Involves using more than one observer, interviewer or researcher to confirm the findings by comparing and checking data collection and interpretation.

Explain: "representativeness"?

Is the sample, representative of the population - measured.

Explain the infinite regress argument

It challenges the tripartite theory of knowledge because justifications are can be infinite. Because there's never an end to justifications, it's certain to say that it doesn't become actual knowledge since it failed to comply with the theory.

Tabula Rasa

Latin for "blank slate." Locke claims that at birth, our mind is a tabula rasa, meaning we have no innate knowledge or ideas.

Who is credited with the Correspondence Theory?

Lidwig Wittgenstein

Focus groups

Limitations Limited generalizability of findings Interaction of respondents, opinionated members Moderator bias or inexperience Benefits Data gathered more quickly from a group than individuals Interaction of respondents Richer data in the words of the respondent Synergy, flexibility Literacy not an issue

Focus Groups: Limitations

Limitations of open-ended questions Interaction: downside Not able to generalize Moderator inexperience and/or bias

Limitations and benefits to observation

Limitations- acceptance by group, selective recall Benefits - uncover behaviors not known to participants, overcome discrepancy between what people say and do

Systematic Review

Lit review with rigorous methods to identify, critically appraise and synthesize primary studies

Historical

Literature is data source- the systematic compilation of data and the critical presentation, evaluation, and interpretation of facts re: past people and events

Phenomenology

Lived experience; What is the lived experience of a woman dying from breast cancer?

Who argued that the Principle of Non-Contradiction was NOT innate?

Locke

Who believed that there are TWO of everything?

Locke

What theory says, "All you know is your idea, which represents reality to you. You do not know substance as it is, only your idea of it."?

Locke's Representationalist View of Knowledge

Reflection

Locke: "our experience of our internal operations of our minds," gained through introspection or an awareness of what the mind is doing. More generally, thinking.

Electronic Guidelines/Pathways

Logic of guideline/pathway embedded into clinical information system: -Alerts at appropriate time points based on relevant data -Improve adherence to guidelines E.g., flu vaccine for >65

participant observation

Logs (field diaries). Field notes, Descriptive (observational) notes

Quantitative research typically has _______ ecologically validity.

Low (not very real life)

Quantitative research typically is _______.

Low reflexivity

Signs

Material artifacts or nonmaterial instances (body language, gestures, word usage)

Physical Object

Material objects, including things like tables, chairs, books and your own body.

According to constructionism what is true about meaning?

Meaning is not discovered but constructed

Themes

Meaningful clusters of related or similar data that occur frequently in the text

Think-aloud method

Means of COLLECTING DATA BOUT COGNITIVE about cognitive processes as they unfold (e.g., clinical decision-making)

Steps in Coding 6. Meet as a team to discuss codes and finalize the codebook

Meetings should include: Review of what each individual has coded Determination of whether there are codes that can be eliminated or collapsed Efforts to further develop themes, enhance team communication, and resolve disagreements Time to develop a clear and shared understanding of the emerging findings of the study Ongoing coding reliability checks

Levels of Evidence I

Meta-analysis, systematic review of several randomized control trials

Writing up qualitative research findings Preparing to write

Metal: take the time to think of ideas or half-formulate thoughts. It might even involve taking a few days of before starting to write. Take the time to write a couple of ours at the time not all snatches hours here and there.

Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis

Method of idographic qualitative research that attempts to understand how a given person understands a particular phenomenon in a given context. It is an inductive approach because the theory emerges from the data.

Reflective notes

Methodologic notes, Theoretical notes (or analytical notes), PERSONAL NOTES

Differences between Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches

Methods: Qualitative- Observation/Interview Quantitative- Experiment/Survey Questions: Qualitative- What is X? Quantitative- How many X? Reasoning: Qualitative- Inductive Quantitative- Deductive Sampling: Qualitative- Theoretical " convenience" Quantitative- Statistical " random sampling" Strength: Qualitative- Validity Quantitative- Reliability

Purposive sampling

Minimal bias sample; but can not generalize to the larger population because the researcher has selected - focus is more on the phenomenon itself.

Leave an Audit Trail

Minimize researcher bias by allowing another to retrace analytic steps.

Constant Comparison of coders

Minimize researcher bias by ensuring consistency and completeness.

Trustworthiness (Minimizing Researcher Bias)

Minimize researcher bias by providing enough raw data (e.g., quotes) to support interpretations.

Identify a Thematic Framework

Mix concepts from the literature (theory, etc) and concepts coming from the data Thus, a priori theory guides the thematic framework, but with an open mind Devising and refining a thematic framework is not an automatic or mechanical process, but involves making judgments about meaning, about the relevance and importance of issues, and about implicit connections between ideas. ITERATIVE PROCESS

Multi method use of focus groups

Morgan emphasizes using with other qualitative methodologies like observation and in-depth interviews; mixed qualitative methods Multi-method Study: focus groups plus key informant interviews Key Findings: Prediction of "lightening up" of safe sex and safe needle practices with the availability of an HIV vaccine The need for education around vaccine efficacy and continued behavioral risk reduction

Collection of data in the field at the site where the participants experience the issue or problem of study.

Natural setting

Unperceived Objects

Objects that exist when not perceived by anyone.

Covert observation

Observation in which the observer's presence or purpose is kept secret from those being observed.

Overt observation

Observation in which those being observed and informed are informed of the observers presence and purpose.

What research methods are used in qualitative research?

Observations, case studies, interviews.

Naturalistic observation

Observing and recording behaviour in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation.

Phenomena

Occurrences, circumstances, or facts that are perceptible by the senses

illogical reasoning example

The Gambler's fallacy, which is a mindset that frequent gamblers establish in which they believe that a consistent run of either good or bad luck is expected to foreshadow the opposite, so loosing on one particular slot machine two weekends in a row means that on the third weekend, they will return to that particular machine because "it is due for a win" ; Looking at the statistics of slot machines and realizing they cannot be predicted

Appraising qualitative research: Trustworthiness of Data

Do the results accurately portray participants' experiences? Rigour- quality of study reflected in the believability of study findings. Was the right approach used to answer the research question with the patient population? Was data rich and did it show that a relationship existed between themes ?

Textual data

Documents and/or images which have become recorded without the intervention of a researcher (e.g. through an interview).

Fittingness

Does it resonate with the everyday experience of the phenomenon?

Quality of Qualitative Studies

Does replication make sense for qualitative studies? - Not necessarily, b/c we're looking for the particular, not the general Is there a fundamental social reality against which results can be checked to assess validity? - Not trying to find a "truth", often looking for something that's "interesting"

cross-sectional data example

Dr. Vorsanger administering a survey in class

example of anecdotal evidence

Dr. Vorsanger seeing an article about e-mails interfering with performance of professors, but Dr. Vorsanger compares her own experiences to this and she does not get 200 emails per day

selective observation example

Dr. Vorsanger working in a public service office and a woman came on for paperwork and was on her cell phone. Receptionists then claimed "They all have phones now" and noticing only when people came in with phones, but not without; the secretaries at the office will observe possession of cell phones within their clientele (with or without) for one calendar month

What was John Locke?

Empiricist

Who argued that there are no innate ideas?

Empiricists

Concern for Welfare: How to apply: - What may seem a trivial matter to a researcher may be of greater significance to participants in different circumstances or different cultures. - Unintended consequences of research participation can be anticipated by paying attention to participants' characteristics and circumstances: - Consider potential impacts on participants' physical and mental health, on their social or economic circumstances, and on their privacy - Consult any groups that may be affected by the research to assess the risk of negative impacts such as stigmatization and discrimination - Eliminate and/or minimize risks - Maximize benefits - Provide accurate and accessible information

Ensure that participants are not exposed to unnecessary risks. Aspects of welfare include: - physical, mental and spiritual health - physical, economic and social circumstances - privacy and the control of personal information - the treatment of human biological materials according to the consent of the donor - the possible effect of the research on the welfare of participants' friends, family, or other groups

Inferential generalization

Findings of the study can also be applied to settings outside the setting of the study.

Writing up qualitative research Preparing to write It is at this point that some preparation is needed in terms of both mental and physical organisation.

First, it is highly likely that the researcher will be emerging from a deep involvement in analysis and ideas, hypotheses and features of the research story will be furiously buzzing away. It is advisable to make space in a working programme to give some consolidated time to the process of writing. It is extremely difficult to keep alive the conceptual momentum needed for creative and penetrative writing if the researcher is simultaneously involved in other stages of another study or in totally different activities.

D. Ontology, epistemology, axiology, rhetorical, methodological

Five philosophical assumptions Creswell focuses on are:

Qualitative Research: Summary: Advantages and Limitations

Focus on the whole of the human experience and the meanings ascribed to them by participants They provide the researcher with deep insights that would not be possible using quantitative methods The major strength of qualitative work is the validity of the data it produces Participants true reality is likely to be reflected Major limitation is its perceived lack of objectivity and generalizability Researchers become the research tools and may lack objectivity

The Qualitative Paradigm: Case Study

Focus: To develop an in-depth description and analysis of a case or multiple cases Best used when the researcher wants to provide an in-depth understanding of a particular case so as to shed light on a larger phenomenon Data come from multiple sources: interviews, observations, documents, artifacts Analysis: Themes of the case are described; themes are also explored cross-case

The Qualitative Paradigm: Phenomenology

Focus: the essence or meaning of an experience The best option when the researcher needs to describe the essence of a lived phenomenon Data come primarily through interviews with individuals, although documents and observations may be used as well Analysis: Data are analyzed for significant statements, meaning, descriptions

The Qualitative Paradigm: Narrative Research

Focus: the life of an individual (or a few individuals) The best option when a researcher needs to tell stories of individual experiences Data primarily come from interviews and documents Analysis: Data are analyzed for "stories" and coherent narratives, often using chronology Stories are used to develop themes

Ethnography

Focuses on describing culture or the "cultural scene" (culture can be small group culture too) Ethnographic work is always contextual There are many types of ethnography (classical, systematic, interpretive, critical, focused etc....) Key elements of ethnography: fieldwork (participant observation; immersion in the field), focus on culture (norms, values, beliefs, practices, rules)

Pattern Discovery Process

Frequencies (How many?), Magnitudes (How much?), Structures (To whom?), Processes (Order), Causes (Why), Consequences (Outcome)

Guidelines Generated by:

Generated by: - Professional Groups e.g. CMA, AHA, American Cancer Society Methods vary, may be based on consensus (can be problematic) May have incentives such as protection of providers not patient safety as incentive - Agencies - Typically more rigorous - Health Canada - links to guidelines -CMA -BC CDC

Saturation Point

Getting enough subjects to reach a data ?

Interval

Give values meaning with equal intervals

Ratio

Give values meaning with equal intervals, absolute zero point plotted.

Identify the moderator

Goals Characteristics Assumed roles Biases Common phrases to keep things rolling "Let's see what else people have to say about..." (To get more on current question) "Now let me ask you a related question..." (to move between question types)

The decription of power analysis in a research article should include

name of statistical test lecel of the one-tailed or 2 tailed statistical significance level of the power effect size (should include the rationale for the effect size selected).

Quantitative research tends to have a _________ range of info

narrow and focused

What types of settings are used in qualitative

natural settings

ontology

nature of reality-- researcher reports different perspectives as themes develop in findings

What is another anme for snowball sampling?

network sampling

sensory extinction

neurological sign operationally defined as failure to report one of two simultaneously presented sensory stimuli despite the fact that either stimulus alone is correctly reported

Axial coding

new set of codes to make connections between categories; bring separate categories together under a theory

neologism

new words whose derivation cannot be understood

is statistical power used

no

Taken-for-grantedness

no more surprises

Theoretical saturation

no new concepts emerge (continued observation of what's known; repetitive notes)

Describe theoretical saturation

no new ideas or points of view are emerging and the study is considered complete

aculalia

nonsense speech associated with marked impairment in concentration

the ways of knowing in research focuses on

not so much what we know, but how we know it

Quantitative research is typically subjective or objective?

objective

tangentiality

oblique, digressive or even irrelevant manner of speech in which the central idea is not communicated

Qualitative Methods

observation, interview, methods of data collection, type of interview

Debriefing

observing participants then asking for consent after - if they refuse, their results are not included

Hegemony

occurs when people see hierarchical relationships as normal, natural, and unchangeable and therefore accept, consent, internalize, and are complicit in reducing norms that are not in their own best interests.

How are key informants chosen?

on principles of theoretical saturationrather than statistical power analysis or size.

theory; hypotheses

one ________ may generate multiple ___________ in social science research

emic

one end of a spectrum describing the individual member level perspective

etic

one end of a spectrum describing the insider perspective of a phenomenon.

etic

one end of a spectrum describing the outsider perspective of a phenomenon

Basic Social Process (BSP)

one type of core variable, process of RESOLVING CONFLICT, GOAL OF GROUNDED THEORY

Qualitative research is inductive

opening up the line of inquiry to draw conclusions from lived experiences through interpretation and observation

If qualitative reports refer to the recurrence of particular views or experiences or to clusters of response within the sample, this should be in

order to explain why such patterns occur.

mutism

organic or functional absence of the faculty of speech

labile mood

oscillations in mood between euphoria and depression or anxiety

panphobia

overwhelming fear of everything

The level of significance is known as

p value or alpha

cryptoplegia

paralysis of the muscles in accommodation of the eyes, observed at times as an anticholinergic side effect of medications c.f. mydriasis

example of a spurious relationship

parents put nightlight in the nursery are more likely to have a near-sighted child; why? Parents are near-sighted! (third variable driving the correlation)

dependability

part of the four trustworthiness characteristics; stability of data over time; if the study were repeated would you get the same result? Example would be method and analysis sections.

confirmability

part of the four trustworthiness criteria; establishing the fact that data collected in a study is true to the participants voice and the interpretations of data were not made up; member check is an example

localized amnesia

partial loss of memory; amnesia is restricted to specific or isolated experiences (syn. lacunar amnesia/patch amnesia)

participant as observer

participant role is salient, recording data may distract researcher

Snowball sampling

participants of personal networks, who ask new participants from their own

Grounded Theory Sampling

participants who can BEST CONTRIBUTE to emerging theory (usually theoretical sampling)

kleptomania

pathological compulsion to steal - see DSM

polyphagia

pathological overeating

perseveration

pathological repetition of the same response to different stimuli

What is the numerical effect size for Pearson correlation and t-test

pearson correlation = r t-test = d

peer check

peer review of the research to assess whether the findings are plausible based on the data set.

replication value of social science research

peer-reviewed and studies are replicated; it is a blind review process with expert human researchers and compare previous findings

data sources

people, organizations, texts, settings, objects, events

5 researcher behaviors with quantitative research

perceiving reacting interacting attaching meaning recording

macropsia

perception that objects are bigger than they actually are

micropsia

perception that objects are smaller than expected

illusion

perceptual misinterpretation of a real external stimulus

Positivist paradigm

perhaps the most common paradigm among traditional scientists, it suggests that there is only one true reality "out there" in the world - one that already exists and is waiting to be discovered.

purposeful sampling

permits deep understandings from information rich cases, talk to people that can answer the question

phobia

persistent, pathological, unrealistic, intense fear of an object or situation

qualitative often gives what details about an individual

personable, subjective experience

Three major research traditions

phanomenological, grounded theory, ethnographic

Which type of qualitative research is described as the "lived experience" with its foundation in philosophy?

phenomenological

Two types of qualitative research

phenomenological ethnographic

4 types of qualitative research

phenomenological grounded theory ethnographic historical

Process oriented and broad questions are characteristics of what?

phenomenon if interest

the qualitative design chosen should be true to what?

philosophical underpinnings

What is the foundation of phenomenological method?

philosophy

When a researcher explains why a qualitative method is needed they should always clearly identify what?

philosophy and methodological approach.

coprophagia

poop eating

The capacity to reject the null hypothesis is also known as

populaiton

The ability of the research to detect differences in the relationships that actually exist is called?

power

What is the ability of a study to detect differnces or relationships that exists in the populaiton?

power

What is power analysis used to determine?

power of a statistical test

How do you determine adequate sampling?

power of analysis

Paradigms

preferred ways of understanding reality, building knowledge, and gathering information about the world.

Challenging in reporting qualitative data The key aim in writing up qualitative evidence is to

present findings in an accessible form that will satisfy the research objectives and engage the target audience

reaction formation

psychoanalysis term - development of a socialized attitude or interest that is the direct antithesis of some infantile wish or impulse that is harboured consciously or unconsciously.

sublimation

psychoanalysis term - energy associated with unacceptable impulses or drives is diverted into personally and socially acceptable channels; unlike other defense mechanisms it offers some minimal gratification of the instinctual drive or impulse

secondary process thinking

psychoanalysis term - form of thinking that is logical, organized and reality orientated and influenced by the demands of the environment

primary process thinking

psychoanalysis term - mental activity related directly to the functions of the id and characteristic of unconscious mental processes; marked by primitive, prelogical thinking and by the tendency to seek immediate discharge and gratification of instinctual demands

narcissism

psychoanalysis term - primary narcissism refers to the early infantile phase of object relationship development, when the child has not differentiated the self from the outside world, and all sources of pleasure are unrealistically recognized as coming from within the self, given the child a false sense of omnipotence. secondary narcissism is when the libido, once attached to external love objects is redirected back to the self

incorporation

psychoanalysis term - primitive unconscious defense mechanism in which the psychic representation of another person or aspects of another person are assimilated into oneself through a figurative process of symbolic oral ingestion; special form of introjection and earliest mechanism of identification

undoing

psychoanalysis term - repetitive in nature by which a person symbolically acts out in reverse something unacceptable that has already been done or against which the ego must defend itself; commonly seen in OCD

repression

psychoanalysis term - unacceptable mental contents are banished or kept out of consciousness

displacement

psychoanalysis term - unconscious defense mechanism by which the emotional component of an unacceptable idea or object is transferred to a more acceptable one (common in phobias)

projection

psychoanalysis term - unconscious defense mechanism in which persons attribute to another those generally unconscious ideas, thoughts, feelings and impulsses that are in themselves undesirable or unacceptable.

cathexis

psychoanalytic term - a conscious or unconscious investment of psychic energy in an idea, concept, object or person

What type of sampling is used to identify the key informants?

purposeful (theoretical) sampling

types of research

quantitative and qualitative

What is often confused with random sampling?

random assignment

what are the two types of sampling methods?

random or pobability nonrandom or non-probability

Constructivism

realities are plural, established between humans - Research aims at gaining a deeper understanding of how humans construct their realities - Explain why and how the subjective experiences of people are meaningful - Qualitative methodology: verbal and narrative means to collect data; interdependence between researchers and those they study

Constructive

reality is constructed from individual perception- no absolute truths- truth is relative, subjective, based on perception

positivism

reality is singular and exists independently - Study reality objectively (models from natural sciences applied to social sciences) - Quantitative methodology - cause & effect - Deductive approach: from the general to specific

Postpositivist

reality still exists independently but human beliefs are multiple (subjectivity) - Humans interact in patterned ways (predictable) - Strive for objectivity: mostly QNM but also QLM to uncover complex phenomena

It provides an opportunity for further thought as the data are assembled into a coherent structure to convey the research evidence to the target audience. Data will be

reassessed, further analysed and then assembled into a final account which will display the findings with ordered and reflective commentary.

audit trails

records kept regarding what is done in the investigation

abulia

reduced impulse to act and to think; associated with indifference about consequences of action

constricted affect

reduction in INTENSITY of feeling tone that is less severe than that of blunted affect

restricted affect

reduction in intensity of feeling tone that is less severe than blunted but clearly reduced

Etic Perspective

refers to the OUTSIDERS of the experiences of that culture

Relevance in qualitative research

refers to the extent to which the research is viable

Rhizomatic

refers to the idea that meaning is root-like and therefore interconnected, interdependent, and complex.

Emic Perspective (members)

refers to the way the MEMBERS POV

emergent theory

relations between data and the categories they are coded to

interviewing does not use principles of ____ & _____

reliability and validity

logoclonia

repeated use of the same word (syn. perseveration)

echolalia

repeating words of one person by another

anacasm

repetitious or stereotyped behaviour or thought usually used as a tension-relieving device; synonym for obsession

Ethnography

research marked by long-term immersion into a culture and by the thick description of a variety of cultural aspects including language use, rituals, ceremonies, relationships, and artifacts.

Phase 3

research strategies: what approach do I choose? How does my choice impact my approach?

Phronetic Research

research that is concerned with practical contextual knowledge and is carried out with an aim toward social commentary, action, and transformation.

Narrative inquiry

research that views stories - whether gathered through field notes, interviews, oral tales, blogs, letters, or autobiographies - as fundamental to human experience.

nonparticipant/observe as participant

researcher as outsider

What is the triangulation method

researcher inductively develops a theory after completion of a theory the data is drived into the development of a psychosocial instrument

reflexivity

researcher knowing where you are in relation to your topic, researcher thinks in a certain way and they understand how that is informing their opinion or view

participant observation

researcher role is to activity participate as well as conduct the research study

poverty of speech

restriction in the amount of speech used; also known as laconic speech

noesis

revelation in which immense illumination occurs in associated with a sense that one has been chosen to lead or command

What is essential with historical method

review of all essential documets, critical presentation, evaluation, interpretation, and to authenticate all data

Complete participant

role as a researcher is hidden (may affect what's happening)

Participant as observer

role is acknowledged but also takes part in interaction (participate>observe)

Complete observer

role is hidden and researcher doesn't affect the interaction in any way

Persona

role of the author e.g. detective

cerea flexibilitas

same as waxy flexibility where one can be molded into any position by an examiner

What is the most objective way to identify the smallest sample size needed?

sampling size power analysis

Likert scale

scale commonly involved in research that employs questionnaires; rating responses not by yes.no, but instead by rating numbers held to different standards on a continuum

Etic

seeing through conceptual categories of theory - site as field

maximum variation sampling

seeks as much diversity from the population as possible

Sampling

selective and purposive; serve the research sampling criteria (framework, time, age, gender, status, purpose of study, etc.)

Key findings and commentary on policy and methodological implications may be disseminated through

seminars, workshops, conferences, briefing papers, journal articles and books. Less traditional outputs: theater, poetry, photography, music etc. See box 13.1 for more outputs. Outputs should be judged not only for their substantive contribution and impact, but also for their aesthetic merit and reflexivity.

depersonalization

sensation of unreality concerning oneself, parts of oneself, or one's environment that occurs under extreme stress or fatigue

carebaria

sensation or discomfort in the pressure of the head

paradigm

set of beliefs that guides actions and theory of research

examples of variables

sex, age, marital status, major, etc.

mimicry

simple, imitative motion activity of childhood

It is important to estimate the sample and sampling procedure with the greates accuracy in what

size and sampling procedure

hypersomnia

sleeping more

bradykinesia

slow movements

bradylexia

slowed reading

bradylalia

slowed speech

critical case

small number of important cases, select cases that offer a lot of information, application to other cases

discourse analysis

social construction of conversation, social implications of conversation, large variety of questions, reflexivity, transcriptions

Qualitative research explores

social meaning, the importance of context, understanding of long term processes

Sedimented

solid and difficult to remedy; the term is used by poststructural scholars, who argue that the examination of power relations is necessary in order to understand why some problems and ideas are held with more merit than others.

Site

specific physical place, where the researcher & actors coexist

cluttering

speech disorder - disturbance of fluency involving an abnormally rapid rate and erratic rhythm of speech that impedes intelligibility and the individual him/herself is unaware of communicative impairment

loosening of associations

speech disturbance in which unrelated and unconnected ideas shift from one to another

metonymy

speech disturbance that is seen in schizophrenia where the affected person uses a word or phrase that is related to the proper one but is not the one ordinarily used. e.g. consuming a menu (rather than meal) - subtype of paraphrasia

poverty of content of speech

speech that is adequate in amount but conveys very little information

agrammatism

speech where patient forms words into a sentence without regard for grammar - seen in alzheimer's and picks'

prolonged engagement

spending sufficient time in field to learn and understand the culture

What studies should you beware of?

studies that include statistical analysis while calling themselves qualitative

panel studies

studies when data is collected from the same set of people (sample) at several points in time; powerful because you can track patterns and events

iterative process

study begins with a few participants and finds more until trends in answers emerge and theory can be built

The 4 strengths of qualitative research methods are

study in context / sometimes cant experiment / deals with experiment's limits / helps with triangulation

naturalistic inquiry

study in the real world

epistemology

study of the nature of knowledge; how you know what you know

Critical tradition

study the relations between power, knowledge & discourse produced in the context of history & culture - Give disadvantaged groups a voice - communication as a possibility for change a. Feminism: researcher & participants should be equal b. Postcolonialism c. Critical race theory d. Cultural studies

Structuration theory

study the structures of meaning, power and norms in everyday life; duality of structure

example of a cohort study

studying success after graduation: surveying MSMC class of 2015 6 months post-grad, 2 years post-grad, and 10 years post-grad but is not the same exact people every survey so it can be representative of entire sample

Qualitative research is typically subjective or objective?

subjective

akathisia

subjective feeling of motor restlessness manifested by a compelling need to be in constant movement

In nonprobability sampling what can the researcher only talk about

subjects actually tested

othello syndrome

subtype of delusion of infidelity where one beliefs their spouse is unfaithful and associated with morbid jealousy. can end in violence like othello

intellectual insight

subtype of insight - the knowledge of the reality of a situation without the ability to use that knowledge successfully to effect an adaptive change in behaviour or master the situation

cataplexy

sudden loss of muscle tone - common in narcolepsy

Phase 5

the art, practice, and politics of interpretation and evaluation: how does the philosophical assumption frame the portrayal of my results?

what does random assignment refer to?

the assigning of subjects to either experimental or control groups in an experimental research design AFTER the sampling procedure is completed

Explaining the boundaries of qualitative research It is important to ensure that

the audience understands what qualitative research can and cannot do.

- The rationale and purpose of the research determine

the basis of the reporting strategy - The audiences the nature of the outputs required will inevitably depend on the specific audiences being addressed. - Meeting contractual/other obligations in both commissioned and grant- funded research, the range, type and format of written and other outputs that are to be produced will typically be agreed at the contractual stage with the client or funder. - The resources available there is no doubt that the resources available to a study or a research team will limit the research outputs that are possible.

Representativeness

the extent to which conclusions can be confidently generalised to wider population

validity

the extent to which the instrument captures what it is designed to measure

Participants

the focal people of the study.

Open coding

the initial unrestricted coding of data

Social construction

the interpretive idea that reality and knowledge are constructed and reproduced by people through communication, interaction, and practice.

In purposeful/theoretical/judgement sampling the researcher makes a judgement regarding what?

the key informants (not called subjects in qualitative research)

Codes

the links (categories) between the data

Phenomenon

the locus or topic of study.

Quantitative criticisms generally

the methods employed in biomedical and natural sciences are often inappropriate when studying human experiences, processes and behaviour

methodology

the methods used in the research process-- researcher works with details before generalizations, descibe in detail the context of the study and continually revise questions from experiences in field

According to Descartes, what is the easiest thing to know?

the mind

conation

the part of a person's mental life concerned with cravings, strivings motivations, drives and wishes as expressed through behaviour and motor activity

Culture is the way a group of people live

the patterns of activity and the symbolic structures (for example, the values and norms) that give such activity significance.

Displaying diversity The ability to identify the range and diversity associated with

the phenomena or topic being studied. Inclusively requires reporting and explaining the untypical as much as it does reporting the more recurrent themes.

bias

the philosophical, cultural and individual lenses through which each participant brings into a research study.

saturation

the point at which there is no new cases coming from each new participant and redundant information keeps coming up

saturation

the point of redundancy in data collection, at which the researcher is no longer gaining new information; No new themes are emerging.

Hyperreality

the postmodern idea that many representations or signifiers are constructed and consumed, but lack a specific or materially authentic referent.

Self-reflexivity

the practice of carefully considering the ways in which the researcher's background, points of view, and role impact the researcher's interactions within and interpretations of the research scene.

Bricolage

the practice of making creative and resourceful use of a variety of pieces of data that happen to be available.

- Summary outputs provide

the reader or listener with a condensed overview of the most important issues arising from the research. - Developmental outputs are designed to generate discussion and debate about emergent issues arising from the research - Selective outputs provide accounts of specific parts of the evidence

What is essential to question in critiquing research?

the representative nature of the sampling procedure

immediate memory

the reproduction, recognition or recall of perceived material within seconds after presentation (before transfer into short term memory)

Iterative Approach

the researcher alternates between considering existing theories and paying heed to emergent field site data.

axiology

the role of values in research-- researchers openly discuss values that shape the narrative and include own interpretation in conjunction with the interpretation of participants

example of a likert scale

the rosenberg self-esteem scale from the cyberbullying article that puts answers on a continuum

What is the major disadvantage of nonprobability sampling?

the sample may not be representative of the larger populaiton

positioning statement

the way in which a researcher explains his stance, role, and bias

The researcher needs to convey what in the theoretically coneptualized data?

their own experience

What are the number of key informants dependent on?

theoretical analysis and what is needed in the conceptualization, satuaration and not on specific number

culture-bound theories involves:

theory based in only one culture

method-bound theories involves:

theory based in only one methodology

methodology

theory of how inquiry should proceed

constructionism

theory of qualitative research that believes knowledge and reality are built on human interaction and experiences within a social context

critical inquiry

theory of qualitative research that emphasizes power relationships in society and uncovers issues of hegemony and injustice

Interpretivism

theory of qualitative research that seeks to understand and explain the phenomena in the research study

The reasoning of qualitative research is inductive in the development of what?

theory or conceptualization

questions of research

these questions are measurable; they can help make evidence and supports; they study social patterns, not individual ones

In determining the most appropriate structure for the evidence, writers need to

think creatively about the best way to engage and retain the reader's attention and make the story 'add up'.

concrete thinking

thinking characterised by actual things, events and immediate experiences rather than the abstract - thinking of children

illogical thinking

thinking containing erroneous conclusions or internal contradictions

autistic thinking

thinking in which the thoughts are largely narcissistic and egocentric, with emphasis on subjectively rather than objectivity and without regard for reality. interchangeable term with autism and dereism

- The hypothesis story =

this implies a three-part structure: stating a hypothesis, test it and then discussing the implications. - The analytic story = involves thinking about the key concepts used in the study, how the findings shed light on these concepts and what this means for the original research problem and for the existing literature. - The mystery story = this structure starts by pointing out mysteries and then gradually develops answers.

- The mystery story =

this structure starts by pointing out mysteries and then gradually develops answers.

Structuration theory

this theory directs the researcher's attention to the relationship between individuals and institutions; it focuses on the ways cultures, organizations, and social systems are constituted or created through the micro-practices of individual people.

descriptive

to describe the state of social affairs, tries to provide a detailed, precise picture of a population or phenomenon

Why are sampling procedures important?

to determine whether a researcher can make appropriate generalization's beyond one's sample

the two most common ways we know things

tradition and authority

Operational definition

translates the conceptual definition into behavior or verbalizations that can be measured

types of longitudinal research

trend studies, cohort studies, and panel studies

Confidence marker 1

triangulation and reflexivity - question yourself and inbuilt systems of questioning

inferential generalization

true outside study conditions

theoretical generalization

true to behavior beyond theory

What does probability sampling allow for?

true use of inferential statistics and generalizations beyond the sample

validity

truthfulness of the study; there are different types

intropunitive

turning anger inward toward oneself - seen commonly in depressed patients

What tests need a greater sample size?

two tailed-statistical tests

when relationship is modest then large sample sizes are need to avoid what?

type II errors

data collection and analysis should be consistent with what?

type of qualitative research design

example of reliability

typical bathroom scale: getting on the scale five times within five minutes and getting the same measurement each time

example of validity

un-rigging a bathroom scale that was intentionally set to ten pounds less

confabulation

unconscious filling of gaps in memory by imagining experiences or events that have no basis in fact

Phenomenology

understand the essence of the experience, shared by a few people (interviews mainly)

Ethnomethodology

understand the taken-for-granted aspects of everyday life

-Explaining boundaries of qualitative research It is important that the audience

understands what qualitative research can and cannot do. This will preferably include a discussion of the kinds of inference that can be drawn from qualitative data and its transferability to other settings.

glossolalia

unintelligible jargon that has meaning to the speaker but not the listener - seen in SCZ

conversational interview

unstructured interview with open-ended questions

eidetic image

unusually vivid or exact mental image of objects previously seen or imagined

Triangulation

use of MULTIPLE SOURCES draw conclusions about what constitutes the truth, can contribute to credibility

three ways to increase credibility are:

use reflexivity / make generalizable / triangulate

Constructivist Grounded Theory

used by nurses, positivist tradition

Theoretical sampling

used in grounded theory where the researcher selects experiences that will help the researcher test ideas and gather complete information about developing the concepts. Researchers knowledge of the population and its elements are used to select the sample and sampling is stopped with theory saturation or redundancy occurs.

Describe qualitative research

uses broad research questions, does not have variables or a hypthesis

holophrastic

using a single word to express a combination of ideas

example of criterion validity

using sat scores as a predictor of college success; in four year, comparing the grades in college with sat scores

negativism

verbal or non verbal opposition or resistance to outside suggestions and advice; commonly seen in catatonic schizophrenia

criterion validity

verified against another standard and can be an old or future measure

dependability

verify between participants and within participants, then explain your thinking process (audit trial)

lilliputian hallucination

visual experience of seeing small people and objects; subtype of micropsia

catatonic posturing

voluntary assumption of an inappropriate/bizzare posture maintained for long periods of time

middle insomnia

waking up after falling asleep without difficulty

tradition

we know things by them being passed down generations from parents or grandparents

common sense

we only feel comfortable making a case for what is the known truth (hindsight bias)

theory being useful by helping us make sense of our findings

we want to know what happens and why it happens to lead us to a deeper understanding unless it would not help us understand how things work

adynamia

weakness and fatiguability

paresis

weakness or partial paralysis of organic origin

picture books, social artifact

what is the unit of analysis?: Do children's picture books depict an equal amount of male and female characters?

neighborhood, group

what is the unit of analysis?: do neighborhoods with more young adults have higher crime rates than those with fewer adults?

amount of credits, social artifact

what is the unit of analysis?: what percentage of credits are taught by full-time faculty members?

faculty members, individuals

what is the unit of analysis?: what percentage of msmc faculty members are full time?

large corporations, organizational; large corporations

what is the unit of analysis?: WHat is the IV? Do large corporations hire a larger or smaller portion of minority group employees than smaller corporations?

authority

what we know comes from believing what we are told by trusting others

- Structuring around different time periods =

when a project studies a process or programme over time, or interviews participants on repeated occasions, the data may have an inbuilt progression or chronology that offers a clear narrative route.

• Structuring around different time periods

when a project studies a process or programme over time, or interviews participants on repeated occasions, the data may have an inbuilt progression or chronology that offers a clear narrative route. In determining the most appropriate structure for the evidence, writers need to think creatively about the best way to engage and retain the reader's attention and make the story 'add up'.

When and how is snowball sampling used?

when a researcher is looking for particualr people that is difficult to find such as Progeria The researcher identifies a few parents of children with Progeria and those parents refer the researcher to other parents they know who have children with Progeria.

when is data collection ended

when there is enough informants = when no one is telling the researcher anthing new Theoretical saturation

When is qualitative used?

when there is little understanding of the phenomenon or when you want rich details

What else needs to be determined with sampling

whether the sample size was large enough

Convenience sampling

whoever is available for the research (not good- doing the study in a context)

Experimental Design

This refers to a method used to test a specific hypothesis about a cause and effect relationship. Three steps are commonly taken: (1) measuring the effect variable; (2) exposing the effect variable to the cause variable; and (3) measuring the effect variable again to see if a change has occurred. Any factors that might affect the two variables being measured and that are not part of the causal relationship being tested must be controlled.

Correlation

This refers to a mutual relationship, connection, or association between two or more things.

Scientific Method

This refers to a particular method that includes observing, asking questions, developing a hypothesis, making predictions, conducting experiments or testing, recording and analyzing data, revising theory, and observing again (theory testing model).

Anonymity

This refers to a person or research participant who is not identified by name or other identifiable information.

Sample

This refers to a portion drawn from a population, the study of which may lead to statistical estimates of the attributes of the whole population.

Bias

This refers to a prejudice in favor of or against one thing, person, or group compared with another, usually in a way considered to be unfair, and sometimes unconscious; a partiality that prevents objective consideration of an issue or situation.

Informed Consent

This refers to a process of (1) disclosing to potential research subjects information needed to make an informed decision; (2) facilitating the understanding of what has been disclosed; and (3) promoting the voluntariness of the decision about whether or not to participate in the research.

Intervening Relationship

This refers to a relationship between two variables (A, B) that is dependent on the actions of a third variable (C). For example, working-class student (A) performs poorly on SATs (B). What might the explanation be? Working-class students go to low-quality schools (C). Here, a school-quality variable intervenes in the relationship between student social class and SAT score.

Rapport

This refers to a relationship of mutual understanding or trust and agreement between people; often this takes time to establish between a researcher and participant.

Historical Comparative

This refers to a research method in which historical accounts are observed and weighed in relation to each other.

Surveys

This refers to a research method that is often theory testing and draws on a large sample size (Big N).

Positivist Science

This refers to a scientific approach that emphasizes observable facts or perceptual experience and excludes metaphysical speculation about origins or ultimate causes; rooted in empiricism.

Likert Scale

This refers to a self-anchoring scale which presumes that you anchor yourself in an order. It is ordinal, but can sometimes be interval.

Standardized Questionnaire

This refers to a survey approach in which everyone gets the exact same questionnaire. Q: What is the problem with the standardized questionnaire? Close-ended, fixed responses, etc.

Fixed Response

This refers to a survey questionnaire approach in which the answers to a particular question are pre-set by the researcher. For example, "How likely are you to visit a health care provider?" Likely, somewhat likely, unlikely, etc.

Matrix Questions

This refers to a survey questionnaire approach in which there are a number of options listed to the side of the question for respondents to choose from. For example, "Your current GSI is supportive of your learning." 1 = of course, 2 = absolutely, 3 = without a doubt, 4 = you betcha, 5 = like no other, etc.

Theory

This refers to a system of ideas intended to explain something; an organized system of accepted (or not) knowledge that applies in a variety of circumstances to explain a set of phenomena.

Quota Sample

This refers to a type of non-probability sample in which the researcher selects people according to some fixed proportion, level, or strata.

Convenience Sample

This refers to a type of non-probability sampling which involves the sample being drawn from that part of the population which is close at hand; sometimes called opportunity sampling.

Dependent Variable

This refers to a variable that is "responds" to the independent variable; the presumed effect.

Independent Variable

This refers to a variable that is varied, manipulated, or controlled by the researcher; the presumed cause.

Transcription

This refers to a written or printed representation of something like an interview.

Hook

This refers to an approach interviewers take to draw the interviewee into the study.

Open-Ended Questions

This refers to an approach often during in-depth interviewing when a question is asked that allows for the participant to give an extended answer, opinion, etc. For example, "Describe your experience with substance abuse?"

Schemas

This refers to an internal representation of the world; an organization of concepts and actions that can be revised by new information about the world.

Semi-Structured Interviews

This refers to an interview method that is open and allows for new ideas to be brought up during the interview often as a result of what the interviewee says; though a framework of themes is generally explored.

Reliability/Validity

This refers to both consistency of observation such that the same results are obtained each time the observation is repeated, and whether the researcher is measuring exactly what they are claiming to measure.

Mutually Exclusive/Exhaustive

This refers to categories or values of close-ended, fixed-response questions that are not overlapping and in which every possible value is listed.

Ordinal Data

This refers to data that have a hierarchy, but we cannot measure the distance between or among the listed items. For example, very poor, poor, fair, good, excellent.

Nominal Data

This refers to data that have no logical way of measuring between or among them. For example, comparing ice cream flavors.

Interval Data

This refers to data where the distance between and among data points is meaningful and consistent throughout the scale. For example, the distance between an IQ of 100 and 110 is the same as the distance between 110 and 120.

Operationalization

This refers to defining a variable in such a way so as to tell what goes into that variable and what does not; a very defined variable.

Vulnerable Population

This refers to groups that are at greater than minimal risk and may not be freely available to grant voluntary consent. For example, minors, impaired, gravely ill, developmentally delayed, etc.

Longitudinal Study

This refers to information about an individual or group gathered over a long period of time; uses data gathered at several points in time.

Informants

This refers to key people who know what is going on in the community one is studying, or have first-hand knowledge about the community. For example, community leaders, professionals, or residents

Theory Testing

This refers to one of two models of research in the social sciences and typically draws on a large sample size and is quantitative (surveys).

Theory Generating

This refers to one of two models of research in the social sciences and typically draws on a small sample size and is qualitative (interviews).

Confidentiality

This refers to personal information intended to be kept secret; indicating that what one says is private or secret; entrusted with private or restricted information.

Selection Effects

This refers to pre-existing differences that lead certain people to be in certain groups.

Leading Questions

This refers to questions phrased in such a manner so as to suggest the desired answer; it can serve as a form of persuasion. For example, "What do you think of the horrible effects of pollution?"

Replicability

This refers to repeating a particular scientific experiment or trial to obtain a consistent result.

Causation

This refers to the action of causing something to happen.

Sampling Frame

This refers to the complete "list" of the population you are surveying in a study.

Values

This refers to the elements of a variable. For example, if the variable is family status, this would be: single, foster, married still living together, etc.

Population

This refers to the entire collection of items under consideration from which samples can be drawn.

Unit of Analysis

This refers to the major entity or element that is being analyzed in a study. For example, groups of people, institutions, etc.

Generalizeability

This refers to the possibility of a randomly selected sample having external validity or being more widely or generally applicable; making general statements by inferring from specific cases.

Random/Probability Sample

This refers to the possibility that each element in the population has a statistically equal chance of being in a sample.

Entrée

This term describes a process of winning trust and getting official permission to gather data from a particular social setting.

Front/Back Stage

This term describes what individuals do when they think others are or are not watching.

Variables

This term refers to a concept(s) that can take on more than one value. For example, the variable ethnicity may take on the values of African-American, Latino, etc.

Snowball Sample

This term refers to a non-probability sampling technique where existing study subjects recruit future subjects from among their acquaintances.

Representative

This term refers to the outcome of a random sampling technique.

Conceptualization

This term refers to the process of defining, describing, and/or mapping out an idea or topic of interest; an important first step in formulating a research topic.

Case-Oriented Analysis

Thorough, ideographic examination of a single case

Quantitative research typically has a __________ structure.

Tightly controlled

Feasibility

Time, money, expertise, access to subjects/participants, is it ethical?

What is the purpose of a totem in the movie Inception?

To allow a person to be sure that they are in reality and not a dream

Infallibilism

To be knowledge, a belief must be certain. If we can doubt a belief, then it is not certain, and so it is not knowledge.

Phenomenology

To describe experience as it is lived; the essence of an experience The focus is on writing in such a way that the essence of an experience is revealed A process of reading, reflecting and writing The writing is often evocative, poetic and is used to evoke understanding

Qualitative Data Analysis- main steps

Transcribe audio-recordings And/or write a narrative about video recordings Read transcriptions to identify: What is this? What is going on? What does it stand for? What else is like this? What is this distinct from? Develop a general coding scheme Based on reading the transcripts

Translation- back translation guide: transcripts

Transcripts Original transcripts in local language Translate transcripts into English Back-translate English transcripts into local language Have transcripts spot checked in original language for discrepancies Shortcut: bilingual translator reads from English version into spoken local language, which is compared by another person against original (local) transcript

Confidence marker 2

Transparency and clarity - explicitness about research methods

What is triangulation?

Triangulation is the process in which you try to boost the trustworthiness of data conclusions. This may be done by "cross-checking" in a variety of different ways.

T/F qualitative data collection and analysis takes place concurrently

True

T/F the researcher will take anyone who fits the inclusion-exclusion criteria in convenience sampling?

True

Qualitative Research Evaluation Criteria

Trustworthiness, credibilty, Transferability, Dependability

What are the three conditions of the Tripartite Theory of knowledge?

Truth, Justification, Belief; NOT soundness

Framework Analysis

Type of thematic analysis that brings in outside theory as an organizing principle (before or after the data is collected, certainly before analysis) Method frequently used in applied policy research Used to describe and interpret happenings in particular settings

Participatory Action Research

Working with people to improve the present All forms of knowledge are of value and can be applied to practical problems. Researcher identifies areas in which improvements in practice are needed, solutions are identified, actions taken to implement change in partnership with STAKEHOLDERS. "Look, think, act" Evaluation is done to ensure that changes have the desired effect. Application to health and wellness programs, program evaluation community programming. Researcher acts as a consultant, investigators immerse themselves in the field for deep understanding and to build trust and credibility; Sample is diverse perspectives backgrounds experiences. Example in class today from Deb's work

Frame

Using the metaphor of a picture frame, Goffman (1974) applies this term to reference how people treat what is currently relevant and irrelevant. Such treatment defines the frame through which a setting is constituted.

Review of quantitative analysis.

Usually has a concise focus, specific hypothesis (research question), interested in causality, deductive reasoning and tests the theoretical framework, utilizes a lot of control and manipulation, uses reliable and valid instruments, statistical analysis.

High attrition rates in a study represent a concern for the studies?

Validity

Compounding variables

Variables that are not accounted for in a study that confounds the data that is collected - it may or may not have an effect on the study; however, the variable is generally excluded if known.

Dependent Variable

Varies when the independent variable changes - not manipulated

Verstehen

a German verb (meaning "to understand"), used in English as a noun describing participants' first-person perspective on their personal experience as well as on their society, culture, and history.

KTA - Five main question

What should be disseminated? To whom should it be disseminated? By whom should it be disseminated? How should it be disseminated? With what effect should it be disseminated?

cohort study because it is focusing on a particular group in culture who experienced the same events

Which type of longitudinal?: One member of the research team is interested in the experiences in the class of 2001 who graduated after the 9/11 attacks. Each year from the sample collected from the project she selects a sub-sample consisting of graduates in 2001, and re-contacts them to collect more information

Gestalt

a German word meaning literally "form" or "shape" and is used in many European languages to refer to an integrated system or culture where the whole is more than a sum of its parts.

panel study because she is going back to the same people

Which type of longitudinal?: To study the experience of participating in the VISTA program affects participants' ideas about community service, new enrollees are interviewed at the start of the 2 year program, and re-interviewed every 6 months until the program ends

Who is credited with the Pragmatic Theory?

William James

Field Notes

With good ?, and methodology, this increses the validity of the study.

Infinite

Without any bounds or limits. E.g. the natural numbers from an infinite series, the numbers continue in both directions (positive and negative) without any end point.

Snowball sampling

Word of mouth

Recipient design

Work that is designed for a particular audience (the term derives from conversation analysis where it is used to describe how all actions are implicitly designed in this way).

Scene

a catch-all term that refers to the field, sites, settings, and groups of participants.

hypothesis

a clear statement to be tested about the relationship between variables (a prediction)

spurious relationship

a coincidental statistical correlation between two variables, shown to be caused by some third variable

What is essential with simple random sampling even with the chance for each individual to be selected and placed in the study?

a complete list of the population

index

a composite measure that combines many separate measures of a single variable

scales

a composite measure with items that have a logical structure: measures the intensity of a variable along a continuum

Look-glass self

a concept borrowed from symbolic interactionism, which suggests that identity is largely created through the reactions of others. (i.e., we see what others tell us they see).

Thick Description

a concept coined by Clifford Geertz (1973), which captures the fact that researchers immerse themselves in, and report on, particulars before moving toward grander statements and theories.

Scene

a construct made by participants for their social actions (theoretical)

coding

a data reduction process for a researcher to break down data into discrete themes or patterns - cycles of analysis become increasingly refined (Saldana, 2013)

Axiology

a discipline dealing with the values associated with an area of research and theorizing (e.g., the values of social justice are emphasized by the critical paradigm).

delusion

a false belief based on incorrect inference about external reality, that is firmly held despite objective and obvious contradictory proof or evidence

jamais vu

a false feeling of unfamiliarity with a real situation that one has previously experienced (opposite to deja vu)

fausse reconnaissance

a false recognition - a feature of paramnesia

Maximum variation sampling

a few criteria in which as much variation as possible

audible thoughts/Gedankenlautweden

a form of auditory hallucinations in which everything the patient thinks or speaks is repeated by the voices, also known as thought echo

magical thinking

a form of dereistic thought thinking similar to that of preoperational phase in children (See piaget) in which thoughts, words or actions assume power

Participatory Action Research (PAR)

a form of research based upon the notion that researchers should work together with research participants to help them address, understand, or improve local issues or dilemmas.

Site

a geographical or architectural area within a field (e.g., a fraternity house).

mood congruent delusion/hallucination

a hallucination or delusion with content that is mood appropriate

Duality of structure

a key part of structuration theory, this concept refers to the idea that structure is created from the top-down and from the bottom-up; structures are only made "valid" when individuals follow them and make decisions that are based upon them.

aphasia

a language disturbance (comprehension or expression)

Convenience sample:

a matter of taking what you can get. It is an accidental sample. Although selection may be unguided, it probably is not random, using the correct definition of everyone in the population having an equal chance of being selected. Volunteers would constitute a convenience sample.

in performing a power analysis you also need effect size which is?

a measuer of the strength of the relationship between two variables

phenomenology

a methodology that looks at the study of a phenomenon; researcher bias is removed to conduct the study

Commentary

a more elaborate reflection of a certain event/issue

chorea

a movement disorder characterised by involuntary quick, jerky and purposeless movements

Postmodern/Poststructural paradigm

a paradigm that approaches knowledge and power as dispersed, unstable, and plural, highlighting occasions of domination and self-subordination, but also avenues for resistance and change.

compulsion

a pathological need to act on an impulsive that if resisted produces anxiety

obsession

a persistent and recurrent idea, thought or impulse that cannot be eliminated from consciousness by logic or reasoning

belle indifference

a person showing disinterest in his or her physical complaint

false memory

a person's recollection and belief by the patient of an event that did not actually occur

Etic

a perspective in which behavior is described according to externally derived, non-cultural-specific criteria.

Emic

a perspective in which behavior is described from the actor's point of view and is context-specific.

twirling

a sign in autistic children who continually rotate in the direction in which their head is turned

Incommensurability

a situation where choosing one paradigm or way of seeing the world precludes another paradigm or way of seeing the world. (e.g., the positivist notion of a single true reality is incommensurable with the postmodern view that reality is multiple).

paranoia

a syndrome marked by gradual development of a highly elaborate and complex delusional system, generally involving persecutory or grandiose delusions, with few others signs of personality disorganization or thought disorder

Grounded Theory

a systematic inductive analysis of data (i.e., an analysis from the ground up, or a "bottom-up" analysis) developed by Glaser and Strauss (1967) and extended by Strauss and Corbin (1990) and Charmaz (2006).

audit trail

a systematically maintained documentation system; an organized collection of materials that includes the data generated in a study

Ethnography of Communication (EOC)

a theoretical framework developed by Dell Hymes, which is concerned with linguistic rules and how communication reveals norms of identity, relationships, or culture.

Sensemaking

a theory developed by Karl Weick and typified by the three-part process of enactment, selection, and retention; it emphasizes meaning making, ambiguity, and identity.

Epistemology

a traditional branch of philosophy that is concerned with the nature of knowledge.

Ontology

a traditional branch of philosophy, which is concerned with the nature of reality.

anecdotal evidence

a true story about a single person or event, often based on personal experience, something or someone we already know

Interpretive paradigm

a way of seeing both reality and knowledge as constructed and reproduced through communication, interaction, and practice.

Critical paradigm

a way of viewing the world based on the idea that thought is fundamentally mediated by power relations and that data cannot be separated from ideology.

zoophobia

abnormal fear of animals

xenophobia

abnormal fear of strangers

paraphrasia

abnormal speech in which one word is substituted by another

nymphomania

abnormal, excessive, insatiable desire in a woman for sexual intercourse (c.f. satyriasis)

autoethnography

about an individual person in context, personal narrative, may not be totally tied to culture

blocking

abrupt interruption in train of thinking before a thought or idea is finished; after a brief pause the person indicates no recall of what was being said or was going to be said

flat affect

absence or near absence of any signs of affective expression

conceptual definition

abstract;theoretical. Describing what your idea means, a dictionary-type definition

credibility (internal validity)

accuracy with which a description of particular events represents the data, findings relate truth, findings make sense, connect findings to professional discourse, "did we get the story right"

automatism

activity carried out without conscious knowledge

delirium

acute mental disorder, reversible, characterised by confusion and some impairment in consciousness - see notes/DSM

panic

acute, intense attack of anxiety associated with personality disorganized; impending feelings of doom

analytic coding

addresses the meanings and meaning making evident to the researcher in his or her textual data

illogical reasoning

aka faulty logic; when we believe there is an "exception that proves the rule"; In relation to group stereotypes

systematic value of social science research

aka rigorous methods; developing a plan before what we see/experience

trend studies

aka time series studies; shows how opinions of issues have changed in a whole population over time

thick descriptions

all the details (of setting, observations, participant responses)

Field

all the types of spaces where one could observe a phenomenon of interest; it consists of many potential sites, settings, and participants.

Audit trail:

allows the reader to see into the research process and follow its main stages. It may also be helpful to include some discussion of the epistemological orientation of the research team alongside description of methods.

confirmability

allows trust that the findings that are grounded in the actual data, scrutinze the analytic processes employed by the study, objectivity that is apparent in the interpretation of the data

dreamy state

altered state of consciousness likened to a dream situation that develops suddenly and usually lasts a few minutes. common in temporal lobe lesions

Power refers to obtaining what?

an accurate result from the statistical test.

What should be generated from a grounded theory?

an actual substantive theory

critical ethnographer

an advocate for empowerment, critical and transformitive, serves marginalized groups

ecological fallacy

an error in the unit of measurement that assumes what you learn about a larger-scale unit of analysis says something about the individuals of that unit

idea of reference

an idea of reference is a misinterpretation of incidents and events in the outside world as having direct personal reference to oneself; occasionally observed in normal persons but frequently seen in paranoid patients. If present with sufficient frequency of if organized and systematized they constitute delusions of reference

mannerism

an ingrained, habitual involuntary movement

-Telling the story The challenge is to tell the story in

an intelligible and coherent way that also does justice to the layered complexity of the participants descriptions.

Research question

an interrogative sentence or declarative statement about the relationship between two variables

realist ethnographer

an objective reporter of the facts (post-positivism), objective account, 3rd person,

Data Display

an organized, compressed assembly of information that permits conclusion drawing and action

Qualitative methods

an umbrella phrase that refers to the collection, analysis, and interpretation of interview, participant observation, and document data in order to understand and describe meanings, relationships, and patterns.

organization unit of analysis

analyses corporations, social organizations, colleges

group unit of analysis

analyses gang members, families, married couples, friendship groups

individual unit of analysis

analyses students, voters, parents, children, Catholics, etc.

social interaction unit of analysis

analyses telephone calls, dances, online chat rooms, fights

social artifacts unit of analysis

analyses things produced by people such as textbooks, speeches, books, clothing, or etc.

Document analysis

analyze the inscribed text of an artefact - Analyze their physical and semiotic qualities - Study the context of the objects- historical, cultural, interpersonal (memory & culture) - Qualities of sound, touch, smell, sight, taste - Other characteristics that convey meaning for the participants in the scene - Source of evidence and interaction (communication on paper) - Valid method; low costs- easily accessible (digitalization) - Review documents in a framework- coding

the two types of research

anecdotal evidence and social science data

questions of values

answers questions of what should be; answers the questions of what we value as important and depends on the individual

What is the foundation of ethnographic method?

anthropology

variables

any concept that can take on two or more characterisitcs

clouding of conscioussness

any disturbance of consciousness in which the person is not fully awake, alert and orientated

apperception

awareness of the meaning and significant of a particular sensory stimulus as modified by one's own experiences knowledge, thoughts and emotions

value of quantitative research

can reach larger populations and is easier to compare several responses because they are uniform responses for every individual

preoccupation of thought

centering of thought content on a particular idea, associated with a strong affective tone

cenesthesia

changes in the normal quality of feeling tone in a part of the body

example of face validity

changing a measurement of how happy one is from how many friends they have to a survey of their emotions

post-decisional justification

changing actions in one's mind so they feel better about them, and may change the details of the truth

syntactical aphasia

characterised by difficulty in understanding spoken speech, associated with gross disorder of thought and expression

It is advisable to make space in a working programme to give some

consolidated time to the process of writing. It is extremely difficult to keep alive the conceptual momentum needed for creative and penetrative writing if the researcher is simultaneously involved in other stages of another study or in totally different activities.

rumination

constant preoccupation with thinking about a single idea or theme

introspection

contemplating one's own mental processes to achieve insight

Purpose of qualitative

context, process, meaning

Action

contextual talk, texts, and interactions (e.g., documents, emails, verbal routines, text messages, and comments.

stereotypy

continuous mechanical repetition of speech or physical activities

- Meeting contractual/other obligations in both commissioned and grant- funded research, the range, type and format of written and other outputs that are to be produced will typically be agreed at the

contractual stage with the client or funder. - The resources available there is no doubt that the resources available to a study or a research team will limit the research outputs that are possible.

Name the three types of nonprobability sampling?

convenience sampling quota sampling purposeful/theoretical/judgment sampling

participatory action research

cooperative inquiry, change the balance of power in research by including those being studied in the data collection

logorrhoea

copious, pressured, coherent speech; uncontrolled, excessive talking; (also called tachylogia, verbomania and volubility)

Relevance marker 1

corpus construction

pica

craving and eating of non food substances such as paint and clay

longitudinal data

data is collected at more than one time period; powerful because we do not have to worry about post-deicisional justification and one's recollection being foggy

The use of illustrative material Illustrative material:

depending on the type of data collected, this can include verbatim quotations, summaries or pen portraits of particular cases, extracts from documents, sections of researchers' observational notes, photos, drawings and other images.

Ethnography of communication

describe how communication constitutes a certain culture

hermeneutical phenomenology

describe lived experience interpreting "texts" of life, researcher interprets meaning

Interpretive

describes AND interprets experience

phenomenology

describes common meaning of lived experience, "universal essence", focus is singular, interviews, bracketing (narrow-- broad)

Phenomenological Study

describes the common meaning of experiences of a phenomenon (or topic or concept) for several individuals . . . the researcher reduces the experiences to a central meaning or the "essence" of the experience (Moustakas, 1994; Creswell, 2013, p. 285) • Goal of phenomenology is to have a Deeper understanding of a context, process, program, relationship, etc., shared by a group of people (the lived experience)

context

describes the settings, conditions, background, and/or history given in a particular research study

ethnography

describes values, behaviors, beliefs, language of a culture-sharing group, participant observation, research immerses self in day-to-day

Ethnography

describing/interpreting a culture-shared group (interviews & observation)

Participant observation

describing/interpreting the observable relationship between social practices and systems of meaning - First-hand experience and exploration of a cultural setting - Thick descriptions (validity!)

Emergent Design

design changes as researchers research and make decisions about WHAT THEY'VE LEARNED

purposeful sampling

designed to get the richest data possible by carefully selecting participants

decompensation

deterioration of psychic functioning caused by a breakdown of defense mechanisms

Grounded theory

develop a theory from the field by studying an action involving many people (interviews with 20-60 people in order to come up with a good theory)

conversion phenomena

development of symbolic physical symptoms and distortions involving the voluntary muscles or special sense organs that cannot be explained by a physical disorder

initial insomnia

difficulty falling asleep

expressive dysphasia

difficulty in expressing verbal language

dyscalculia

difficulty in performing calculations

dyskinesia

difficulty in performing movements (e.g. EPSE)

dyslalia

difficulty in speaking due to faulty articulation

dysarthria

difficulty in the articulation of words

dysgraphia

difficulty in writing

dysphonia

difficulty or pain with speaking

mydriasis

dilation of pupils

What is it called with the researcher can not control the many variables in research? (ie pts with a number of pre-existing pathology that are undergoing a number of therapies?

dirty research

Grounded theory research Focuses on the

discovery of a basic PROBLEM that a DEFINED GROUP START WORKING ON THE GROUND AND BUILD THEORY

pseudologia phantastica

disorder characterised by uncontrollable lying in which patients elaborate extensive fantasies that they freely communicate and act on

asyndesis

disorder of language in which the patient combines unconnected ideas and images

catalepsy

disorder where a person maintains the body posture into which they are placed - seen in catatonia, c.f. waxy flexibility

akataphasia

disordered speech form where thoughts cannot be expressed directly but are expressed indirectly such as by making a similar sound (displacement paralogia) or by being derailed into another thought (derailment paralogia)

acataphasia

disordered speech in which statements are incorrectly formulated. patients may express themselves with words that sound like the ones intended but not appropriate to the thoughts, or they may use totally inappropriate expressions

fugue

dissociative disorder/dissociative amnesia. period of almost complete amnesia, during which a persona actually flees from an immediate life situation and begins a different life pattern; apart from amnesia all other mental faculties are intact

dysmegalopsia

distortion in which size and objects are misperceived - alice in wonderland syndrome

circumstantiality

disturbance in the associative thought and speech processes in which a patient digresses into unnecessary details and inappropriate thoughts before communicating the central idea

expressive aphasia

disturbance of speech in which understanding remains bu ability to speak is grossly impaired

amnestic aphasia/anomi\c aphasia

disturbed capacity to name objects even thought they are known to the patient

twilight state

disturbed consciousness with hallucinations

demand characteristics

do participants feel they HAVE TO give a certain answer

artifact

document, object or archival data of import to a participant - allows for triangulation

Rene Descartes developed a method of which of the following to defeat skepticism?

doubt

Narrative interview

dual nature - focus on storytelling and content - Personal & collective narrative (reality

apathy

dulled emotional toned associated with detachment or indifference

transcedental/psychological phenomenology

epoche/bracketing of researcher's perspectives, percieved as if for the first time, textural (what), structural (how), goal (essence)

Which type of qualitative research is describes cultural groups and beliefs and is based on cultural anthropology?

ethnographic

example of theory being useful by directing our research questions

finding our keys in the dark: helps us find a logical approach, such as re-tracing our steps and developing a strategy

deviant sampling

finds outliers, the unusual is the focus of the study

catatonic rigidity

fixed or sustained motoric position that is resistant to change

emergent design

flexibility in research designs; changes as you go through data collection

intrinsic case

focus on case itself for unusual situation

collective or multiple case

focus on one issue or concern, select multiple cases

single instrumental case

focus on one issue or concern, select one bounded case

Feminist Research

focuses on GENDER DOMINATION AND DESCRIMINATION within particular societies

Narrative Analysis

focuses on STORY of the object of inquiry

Critical Ethnography

focuses on raising consciousness in the hope of EFFECTING SOCIAL CHANGE

pragmatism

focuses on the outcome of the research, want to solve the problem, use methods to best answer the problem

conversation analysis

focuses specifically on talk, aim to understand the order of conversation, does not go in with a prior question

Interview schedule

formal, structured set of questions (same order for all); for many interviewers

Coding

forming links between data, categories

example of a panel study

fragile families project: following 5,000 children born in 1998-2000 to see how children fare with single mothers and follow those same 5,000 children throughout the lifespan

stuttering

frequent repetition or prolongation of a sound or syllable

- Developmental outputs are designed to

generate discussion and debate about emergent issues arising from the research - Selective outputs provide accounts of specific parts of the evidence

grounded theory

generate theoretical explanation, new theory, grounded in data that is collected, process or action, inductively derived, systematic data collection and analysis

Advantages of focus groups

get data quickly with less cost; interact directly with respondents; large & rich data

purposive sampling & symbolic representation

get the specific group members so you can generalize

Jamison's four observation-specific ethics issues

justification of not getting informed consent / participants can remove data after research / those in power can't abuse it / - 'deviants' break laws

Formula for probability with systematic sampling

k = N/n N=the accessible populaiton n= the sample size

What are the people interviewed called

key informants

acathexis/decathexis

lack of feeling associated with an ordinarily emotionally charged subject; in psychoanalyses it denotes the patient's detaching or transferring of emotion from thoughts and ideas

anhedonia

lack of interest in and withdrawal from all regular and pleasurable activities

akinetic mutism

lack of movement AND speech in a patient who is otherwise alert

Why is nonprobaility used?

less expensive and complicated

value of qualitative research

gives opportunity to say anything that is important. More detailed, specific, and also gives a chance to explain their answer (offers depth and explanation)

derailment

gradual or sudden deviation in train of thought without blocking

bruxism

grinding or gnashing of teeth typically occurring at night

What is the most frequently used method in nursing?

grounded theory

What is the systematic procedure known as constant comparison method that facilitates the development of a substantiative theory.

grounded theory

focus groups

groups with common experiences interviewed together

hypnagogic hallucination

hallucination experience when one is falling asleep

hypnopompic hallucination

hallucination experience when one is waking up from sleep

olfactory hallucinations

hallucination involving smell

somatic hallucination

hallucination involving the perception of a physical experience within the body

tactile hallucination

hallucination primarily involving touch

The two limitations of qualitative research methods are

hard to replicate, hard to generalize (low population validity)

What involves systematic compilation of data describing some past event?

historical research

Descriptive Studies

holistically describe phenomena, researchers analysis of narrative to understand themes and patterns

in nursing and clinical studies, researchers need to make their sample as ______ as possible

homogenous

epistemological reflexivity

honest about own assumptions about subject & adjust for them

Epistemology

how is it that people come to have knowledge about the external world

What does effect size tell you?

how much difference there is between the groups

epistemology

how researchers know what they know-- researchers collaborate and spend time in field with participants, to become insider and rely on quotes from participants as evidence

Symbolic interactionism

how the self and the social environment shape each other through communication; the role of symbolic expression

theoretical sampling

how to do grounded theory- select experiences that will test ideas and gather complete info about developing concepts

scope

how wide is what we are looking at, scale of data, range of settings, sources of data

data collection should focus on __________

human experience & describe data collection methods

deductive

hypothesis to logical conclusion, from general to specific

According to David Hume's theory of phenomenalism, all human knowledge is based upon relations among

ideas

theory

ideas about the way the world works and usually explains the relationship between concepts

case study

identifies specific case, specifies intent, in-depth understanding of case, multiple or single case, in depth description of the case (themes, situations), assertions/lessons learned by studying case

Dimensionalization

identify properties of categories through constant comparison

Example of cluster sampling

if researcher wants to sampling to select RNs in the US step 1: choose states at random step 2: then randomly choose a cluster or 3 hospitals from each district

- Structuring around a typology =

if the research has identified and developed a typology that cuts across the report findings, then this may be a useful tool around which to structure the findings - Structuring around different populations = if the research has included interviews with different population groups, the reporter will need to decide whether to deal with the themes emerging from each group separately or whether to integrate them within an overall thematic framework. - Structuring around different time periods = when a project studies a process or programme over time, or interviews participants on repeated occasions, the data may have an inbuilt progression or chronology that offers a clear narrative route.

agnosia

inability to understand the import or significance of sensory stimuli; cannot be explained by a defect in sensory pathways or cerebral lesions

la belle indifference

inappropriate attitude of calm or lack of concern about one's disability - seen in conversation disorders

Criterion sampling

inclusion/exclusion based on the purpose of the study

word salad

incoherent essentially incomprehensible mixture of words or phrases

hyperphagia

increase in eating

pressured speech

increase in the amount of spontaneous speech

Because there is not random selection used with nonprobability sampling each subject does not have what?

independent chance of being included in the study

types of variables

independent, dependent, and intervening

the different directions of theory

inductive and deductive theory

deductive because you are starting with a theory then collecting the data

inductive or deductive?: According to labeling theory, punishment labels an offender as deviant in the eyes of others and leads more people to act in ways that conform to the label. Based on this theory, I hypothesize that high school students who are suspended for fighting will be more likely to re-offend than those who commit the same offense but are given only a warning, then I design an experiment to test my hypothesis

inductive because observations of group are done first then a theory was built around those observations

inductive or deductive?: While conducting participant observation in high school, a researcher notices two groups who behave in similar ways and are treated differently. Observes for a longer period of time to determine why this is the case

What approach generates theory reather than testing it in qualitative research?

inductive vs. deductive

Crisis of representation

influence of gender, class, age, on how as a researcher you represent your participants

Informant interview

inform about the studied scene (key processes & features); speak about others

Ethnographic interview

informal & situational - takes place in the field

Interview guide

informal, flexible non-directive questions per topic area

Lewis's four ethical concerns

informed consent / anonymity / confidentiality / harm

Ethical issues

informed consent, participants' rights, confidentiality & anonymity, data stored in secured place, vulnerable groups/sensitive topics

Descriptive Phenomenology

insists on the careful PORTRAYAL OF ORDINARY EXPERIENCE of everyday living, seeing, hearing, feeling, believing, etc.

Sensitizing concepts

interpretive devices that serve as jumping-off points or lenses for qualitative study.

In depth individual interviews

interview talks with one individual at a time, can be either structured or unstructured guide- limitations: more time confusing, interviewer effects, role confusion, limited sample size,limited generalizability benefits: can be done in variable settings, confidentiality and privacy, sensitive topics, richer data in words of respondent,

participants in quota sampling are divided how?

into strata based on specific characteristics the quota is computed according to the proportion and subjects are solicited through nonrandom sampling

causal hypothesis

involves 2 variables, independent and dependent

- The analytic story =

involves thinking about the key concepts used in the study, how the findings shed light on these concepts and what this means for the original research problem and for the existing literature.

anecdotal evidence

is weak evidence because we do not know how typical this story is

How social research is distinctive

it combines theory and empirical data

Why is nonprobability used in nursing and medical research?

it is not feasible, economical, timely, or ethical to collect a random sample

Post-positivism

like positivism, this paradigm assumes a single true reality, but it suggests that humans' understanding of reality is inherently partial and that it is impossible to fully capture reality.

- The resources available there is no doubt that the resources available to a study or a research team will

limit the research outputs that are possible.

intervening variable

links the independent and dependent variables (part of a causal chain)

Dependability

listed THEME AND STATEMENTS ,keeping records of coding and findings

If probability in systematic sampling the individuals in the sampling frame need to be....

listed randomly

What may present some study background but does not have the literature background as in quantitative?

literature review

Research design

logical structure of elements of the study; evidence needed to answer convincingly

postpositivism

logical structured approaches; based on cause and effect thinking, rigorous, inquiry (logical, related steps), influenced by previous hypothesis, examine multiple perspectives, multiple perspectives create reality

focused-ethnography

looks at sub-culture, less time, understand component

critical discourse analysis

looks at the discourse in conjunction with other social processes, aims to find hidden agendas and right the "wrongs" of society

Qualitative research typically has a __________ structure.

loose

sensory aphasia

loss of ability to comprehend meaning of words, also receptive/fluent/wernicke's aphasia

acalculia

loss of ability to do calculations; not caused by anxiety or learning disorder

nominal aphasia

loss of ability to name objects

anterograde amnesia

loss of memory for events SUBSEQUENT to the index incident/onset of amnesia

retrograde amnesia

loss of memory for events preceeding the onset of dementia

acenesthesia

loss of sensation of physical presence

aphonia

loss of voice

postmoderism perspectives

marginalized populations, characteristics of participants and recognize those as important, want to change people's thinking, not as action oriented

Fill In the Blanks Sampling Theory is a ______ method of ______ _____ for determining the most efficient way of selecting a sample.

mathematical decision making

What is power analysis?

mathmematical way of computing the minimum size of the needed sample.

Krieken et. al 2006 on positivism

matter can be explained as a reaction to external stimuli because it has no consciousness. Because people actively construct their own reality it is inadequate at dissecting their behaviour

social constructivism

meaning is experience; inductive (build conclusion based on sample), open ended questions, follow-up questions and interaction

verbigeration

meaningless and stereotyped repetition or words or phrases

bogardus scale

measures how closely people are willing to associate with others (measures social interactions)

example of content validity

measuring academic ability and looking at all subjects instead of just grades in math and science

retrospective falsification

memory becomes unintentionally distorted by being filtered through a person's present emotional cognitive and experiential state

folie a deux

mental illness shared by two persons, usually with common delusional system (3 - folie a trois)

monomania

mental state characterized by preoccupation with one subject

The researcher could inductively deleope a theory and model and follow it with what in the development of an instrument?

methodological triangulation

grounded theory

methodology seeking to create a theory based on findings

Phase 4

methods of collection and analysis: how does my choice of appraoch guide the methods I use in my study?

transparent value of social science research

methods should be clear, people can see how you arrived at your conclusions (can test the logic in the experiment)

Socio-cultural tradition

micro & macro practices of communication - Society as a complex network of forces - Structural determinism vs. individual agency - Relations between social levels (individual - group - society)

most nursing studies are considered to have ____ effect sizes

modest

lethologica

momentary forgetting of a name or proper name

triangulation

more than one source of data, multiple methods, multiple orders, multiple theories, and viewpoints-- use different components to create a complete picture

deductive theory

moves from the general to the specific; 1. look at general theory 2. collect data to support theory

inductive theory

moves from the particular to the general; Looks at observations and uses them to form generalizations 1. looking at data 2. trying to build a theory from data examination

space triangulation involves:

multiple cultures

method triangulation involves:

multiple methods

observer triangulation involves:

multiple observers

theory triangulation involves:

multiple theories support research

logical support requirement for agreement reality

must make sense

empirical support requirement for agreement reality

must not contradict actual observation

Case Study Method

• First, description • Then, inductive inference

astasia abasia

inability to stand or walk in a normal manner

Non-directional

States the relationship exists, not direction

Data Reduction

The process of selecting, focusing, simplifying, abstracting, and transforming the data

Coding

The progressive marking, sorting, resorting, defining, redefining the collected data

Critical Theory

concerned with a CRITIQUE of society and the envisioning of NEW POSSIBILITIES

waxy flexibility

condition in which a person maintains the body position into which they are placed

deja pense

condition in which a thought never entertained before is incorrectly regarded as a repetition of a previous thought

command automatism

condition in which suggestions are followed automatically

synesthesia

condition in which the stimulation of one sensory modality is perceived as sensation in another modality e.g. a sound produces a sensation of colour

Member validation

find out if our interpretation of the key issues makes sense to the participants

convenience sample

find readily accessible research participants, non-random selection

Typical case sampling

find representable cases for the study topic

A-typical case sampling

find the opposite of a representable case for the study

dysamnesia

impaired memory

dysgeusia

impaired taste

simultanagnosia

impairment in the perception or integration of visual stimuli appearing simultaneously

importance of theories in social science research

important because they help us explain recurring patterns (not one-time events) about aggregates (not individuals) meaning they are not predictive of one's individual actions, but generalities and odds

example of deductive theory

improving consistency on exam scores: 1. believing you do better when you study in groups 2. studying in groups and employing other studying methods and comparing

example of inductive theory

improving consistency on exam scores: 1. looking at all the exams to try and find a pattern 2. determine the factors that effect consistency

vegetative signs

in depression - sleep disturbance, decreased appetite, constipation, weight loss and loss of libido

One context in which number can be helpful is

in describing the basic characteristics of the achieved sample. In terms of interpreting the findings and considering how applicable they are likely to be, either to the population from which they were drawn or to other populations.

Simulacrum

in postmodern theory, this term refers to a representation that is a copy of something that never actually existed (e.g., Disneyland's "Main Street").

scotoma

in psychiatry a figurative blind spot in a person's psychological awareness

Sampling Considerations

in qualitative, random sampling not usually used

theoretical sampling

in relation to how you sample for what your theory is expressing (emergent design)

Alexithymia

inability or difficulty in describing or being aware of one's emotions or moods

apraxia

inability to co-ordinate movements/perform voluntary purposeful movements

receptive aphasia

inability to comprehend what is being said and meaning of words - wernicke's/fluent aphasia

constructional apraxia

inability to copy a drawing such as a cube, clock or petagon

distractability

inability to focus one's attention

astereognosis

inability to identify familiar objects by touch

amimia

inability to make gestures or comprehend gestures of others

anomia

inability to name things

adiadochokinesia

inability to perform rapid alternating movements - neuro deficits, particularly cerebellar lesions

case study

"analysis consists of making a detailed description of the case and it's setting" (Creswell, 2013).

transferability (external validity)

"how can one determine the extent to which the findings of a particular inquiry have applicability in other contexts or with other subjects?"

What do we mean by an "a priori" framework?

"in advance" - researchers start with some framework - then they go back and check to see if the data still fits the framework.

Qualitative Research: Triangulation

"the expansion of research methods in a single study or multiple studies to enhance diversity, enrich understanding, and accomplish specific goals" Purpose is to increase the credibility and validity of the results. By combining multiple observers, theories, methods, and empirical materials, researchers hope to overcome the weakness or intrinsic biases and the problems that come from single method, single-observer and single-theory studies.

Definition of Qualitative Research

'the investigation of phenomena, typically in an in-depth and holistic fashion, through the collection of rich narrative materials using a flexible research design'

Coding

(1) the sorting of raw data, such as responses to open-ended questions or field observations, into categories (2) for computer analysis, coding consists of assigning numbers or symbols to variable categories

Bracketing

(As part of step 1) the deliberate putting aside of one's own belief about the phenomenon under investigation or what one already knows about the subject prior to and throughout the phenomenological investigation (Carpenter, 2007). Requires a willingness to respond in the affirmative to 2 important questions: 1.) Are we humble enough to learn about the experiences of others? 2.) Can we equip ourselves to adopt an attitude of conscious ignorance about the issue under investigation?

Theoretical samplinng

(e.g., if theory raises question of whether certain type of person would help elucidate the theory, and researcher seeks such participants)

agraphia

(loss of ability) inability to write

Types of Sampling

- Convenience sample Widespread invitation - first come basis Strength: easier to recruit Weakness: Hard to ensure will get relevant information - Snowball sampling Early participants recommend others Strength: relatively easy to recruit, trust based on referral Weakness: could be small group of friends with one perspective - Theoretical sampling Used in grounded theory Sample is identified as the study proceeds to 'develop theory as it emerges' Strength: sample will inform theory Weakness: requires complete immersion in data to identify next target sample - Purposive sampling 1. Maximum variation sampling Informants have diverse ethnicity, gender, viewpoints. Strength: common themes can emerge regardless of variation Weakness: may need larger sample size 2. Homogeneous sampling All members similar Strength: smaller sample size, more focused Weakness: not sure if themes are only limited to this group

Internal validity: Do the study findings make sense? Are they credible to informants and research audience? External validity: Are study findings transferable to other contexts? How far can they be "generalized"? Triangulation: 2 or more methods of dcollection (combining for ex IDI, FG), data sources (i/vs with different groups), investigators, Reflexivity: personal, prof, intellec, biases at outset....Dr. Catallozzi's example of bringing in outside person to interview analysis team about biases; her work with Dr. Bell on partner violence Clear exposition of : "clear account of the process of dc and analysis...provide clear account of how early, simpler systems of classification evolved into more sophisticated coding structures...d.efined concepts and explanations. Read should be able to judge whether interpretation offered is adequately supported by the data. P+M also---attention to Negative Cases....disucss elements of data that seem to contradict emerging themes.

-

Framework "tool"

- Case & theme based approach - Hierarchy of themes and sub-themes - Reduces data through summarization & synthesis - Retains link to original data

Interpretive standards

- Contribution to our understanding of sth - More personal connection with the research - Reflexivity & impact on the readers

Methodological perspective

- Data collection and analysis technique need to be described - Reflexivity (subjectivity & assumption) - Social significance

Transcripts for Computer Assisted Qualitative Data Analysis (CAQDAS)

- Depends on the software. - Identify speakers - Marking units of text

Types of Probes

- Detail Can you give me a specific example of what you just described - Elaboration Tell me more about that - Clarification I was a bit confused...can you clarify - Supportive Thank you.. - Summary Transition So far, we talked about...any other thoughts?

Components of a Practice Guideline

- Evidence Component Typical effect of this intervention on the typical patient Must be valid and up-to-date - Detailed Instructional component Here is exactly what to do with this patient Must have relevance to patient population

Postmodern framework

- Fairness: balance stakeholders views - Sharing knowledge & fostering social action - Relations with respondents, set of stances, promote justice

Data Collection: Unstructured interviews Semi-structured interviews Focus group interviews Joint/dyadic interviews Life histories Oral histories Critical incidents Diaries & Journals Think aloud Photo elicitation Data from the Web - Participant observation Physical setting Participants Activities & interactions Frequency & duration Precipitating factors Organization Intangible factors - Recording observations Notes/tools

- Fieldwork Gaining trust/gaining entrée Pacing Reflexivity Emotional involvement Non verbal is important too -Recording, transcribing & storing data audio/video recordings Transcription: Professional transcription or transcription by researcher/research team Transcript verification Review for non-verbal cues

IV and DV

- In an experiment, the independent variable is the variable that is varied or manipulated by the researcher, and the dependent variable is the response that is measured. - "There will be a statistically significant difference in graduation rates of at-risk high-school seniors who participate in an intensive study program as opposed to at-risk high-school seniors who do not participate in the intensive study program." IV: Participation in intensive study program. DV: Graduation rates.

advantages quantitative

- Isolating variables to examine their relationships - Collected in the same way: comparison between participants - Controlled environment - Replication & validation

Respect for Persons how to apply: - Autonomy - Ability to give or refuse their consent to participate. - Practical application: Consider participant autonomy in research design Consider factors that can diminish participant autonomy Consider how to respect the dignity of those lacking autonomy

- It is unacceptable to treat individuals solely as means (mere objects or things) to an end (a research goal). - The welfare and integrity of the participant must take priority over all else in human research. - Respect for Persons includes: individuals or groups directly involved in research as participants individuals or groups involved in research through the use of their data or biological materials

Know when someone would use a t-test or chi-square

- Know that t-test is used when you have continuous Dependent Variable and categorical Independent variable with only 2 categories - Know that Chi-square is used when you have a categorical DV and categorical IV

disadvantages qualitative

- Not used for testing predictions - Time and resources needed - Not generalizable findings

Justice How to apply: In research design and REB review, it is important to address the following issues: - Who are the participants? Why this group and not others? - Are any participant groups over- or under-represented because of their vulnerable circumstances? - Are there measures in place to treat people in vulnerable circumstances justly in the context of the research? - Is there an imbalance of power between participants and researchers?

- Obligation to treat all people fairly and equitably. - Fairness is treating all people with equal respect and concern for their welfare - it does not necessarily mean treating everyone the same. - Equity involves the distribution of the benefits and burdens of research participation. No segment of the population should be unfairly burdened with the harms of research. Nor should any individuals or groups be neglected or discriminated against in the opportunity to benefit from knowledge generated by research.

Rigour vs Validity Vs Trustworthy

- Prolonged engagement Multiple interviews Interviews long enough - Persistent observation ethnography - what is 'enough' time? - Reflexivity strategies Self-interrogation & reflection Journaling/diary Notes during coding Interview self or 'bracketing' interview to expose personal perspectives - Data triangulation Uses multiple data sources Time triangulation - multiple times Space triangulation - multiple sites Person triangulation - multiple types - Methods triangulation Eg interviews, observations & documents - Audit trail Raw data Theoretical notes Process notes Instrument development (pilot versions) Drafts of final report - Member checking *quiz* Show participants data & get feedback Face to face or via writing take findings and bring back to participants. Ask "is this true for you?" - Triangulation Investigator triangulation - More than 2 people make coding decisions Theory triangulation - Use competing theories to analyze data Analysis triangulation - Two or more analysis methods used on same data - Confirming/disconfirming evidence Others review data Negative case - Peer review & debriefing Sessions with peers to assess for bias - Inquiry Audits Do data support findings

Methods of Control (Internal Validity)

- Randomization Groups have equal chance of receiving intervention - Crossover Participants serve as own controls - Gets intervention, then doesn't get intervention - Homogeneity Groups as similar as possible (control for confounding without randomization? - Matching Eg. Case-control: try to ensure groups are similar - Statistical Control Advanced planning for 'controlling' potential confounders

Non-systematic Reviews

-Discusses available research in broad terms -No clear indication of: evaluation of research methods study quality assessment

Reporting voice and language Flick (2009) refers to van Maanen's classification of three basic forms of presenting research findings in ethnographic studies:

- Realist tales the author is absent from the text, observations are reported as facts etc. (experience-distance) - Confessional tales authors expressing the role they played in what was observed. Mixture of descriptions of the phenomena being studied and the researcher's experiences of studying them. - Impressionist tales written in the form of a dramatic recall, often via narratives. The tone and style of language that will be appropriate will vary according to the objectives and the target audience.

Statistical significance via p-values

- Research is trying to prove that the difference in groups (or the strength of relationship) did not happen by chance, but is instead the result of the intervention being studied. - alpha =0.05 indicates: Standard that is used unless otherwise indicated there is 5 in 100 (1 in 20) chance you are wrong and the difference actually occurred by chance. The probability of committing a Type I error is 5%. - alpha =0.01 indicates: there is 1 in 100 chance you are wrong and the difference actually occurred by chance. The probability of committing a Type I error is 1%. - alpha =0.001 indicates: there is 1 in 1000 chance that you are wrong and the difference actually occurred by chance. The probability of committing a Type I error is 0.1%.

Threats to External validity

- Selection biases and effects Generalizability Need representative sample population - Reactive effects e.g., Hawthorne effect (is a type of reactivity in which individuals modify or improve an aspect of their behavior in response to their awareness of being observed.) - Measurement effects pre-test may influence post-test responses

Levels of transcription

- Semi-transcription: just the important stuff - Full transcription: all the words (often "cleaned up") - Colloquial transcription: all the words, using spellings that approximate colloquial pronunciation --> Pauses, interjections, prosody (rhythm, stress, intonation)

advantages qualitative

- Strong understanding of meanings people use and attach to behavior - Examining interaction in the real environment (real experiment) - Interactants at center of inquiry - Discover new phenomena

Other options of structuring a report:

- Structuring around a typology = if the research has identified and developed a typology that cuts across the report findings, then this may be a useful tool around which to structure the findings - Structuring around different populations = if the research has included interviews with different population groups, the reporter will need to decide whether to deal with the themes emerging from each group separately or whether to integrate them within an overall thematic framework. - Structuring around different time periods = when a project studies a process or programme over time, or interviews participants on repeated occasions, the data may have an inbuilt progression or chronology that offers a clear narrative route.

Ethnography

- Studies of people in natural settings or "fields" - Study social meanings and ordinary activities. - Extending understandings of how humans live. - The interconnection of the empirical, the analytical, and the theoretical.

Discourse Analysis

- Study of well-established meanings or ideas that shape language use. - Relationship between language and power. - How do meanings change?

Qualitative research outputs There is no standard format for reporting qualitative research. Researchers may choose, or be required, to present emergent or headline findings through an oral presentation or interim report. Comprehensive outputs provide a detailed and extensive portrayal of the methodology, findings and implications from the research and are most commonly presented as written accounts.

- Summary outputs provide the reader or listener with a condensed overview of the most important issues arising from the research. - Developmental outputs are designed to generate discussion and debate about emergent issues arising from the research - Selective outputs provide accounts of specific parts of the evidence

Threats to Internal Validity

- Temporal ambiguity Independent variable may not clearly precede DV. - History other activities taking place that might confound findings (cant tell the intervention made a difference. Eg. Natural disaster) - Maturation biological processes that would impact outcomes - Testing repeat tests might influence survey responses. ( - Instrumentation changes in measurement techniques between study subjects - Mortality/Attrition loss of study subjects (death or drop out) May increase sample size to anticipate drop outs - Selection bias e.g., only highly motivated subjects enrolled. Preaching to the converting

Deciding on a narrative and structure Much thinking had to take place before writing begins in earnest so that the writer has a clear idea of how the journey through the research evidence is to be made. Silverman (2010) suggests three models to work from in planning an overall structure for presenting research findings, each of which provide a different frame on which to hang the key themes and concepts emerging from a study:

- The hypothesis story = this implies a three-part structure: stating a hypothesis, test it and then discussing the implications. - The analytic story = involves thinking about the key concepts used in the study, how the findings shed light on these concepts and what this means for the original research problem and for the existing literature. - The mystery story = this structure starts by pointing out mysteries and then gradually develops answers.

Significant considerations:

- The rationale and purpose of the research determine the basis of the reporting strategy - The audiences the nature of the outputs required will inevitably depend on the specific audiences being addressed. - Meeting contractual/other obligations in both commissioned and grant- funded research, the range, type and format of written and other outputs that are to be produced will typically be agreed at the contractual stage with the client or funder. - The resources available there is no doubt that the resources available to a study or a research team will limit the research outputs that are possible.

Factors that will determine the forms of research outputs:

- The rationale and purpose of the research: will determine the basis of the reporting strategy. - The audience: the nature of the outputs required will inevitably depend on the specific audience being addressed. -Silverman identifies four key audiences for qualitative research: o Academics: theoretical factual or methodological insights o Policy-makers: practical information relevant to current policy issues o Practitioners: framework for understanding their clients better and practical suggestions for better procedures or practice o General public: new facts, guidelines for how to get better services, and assurances that others share their experiences or problems. o Additional audience: study participants - Meeting contractual/ other obligations: the range, type and format of written and other outputs that are to be produces will be agreed at the contractual stage with the client funder. - The resources available

disadvantages quantitative

- Too focused: may miss key points of influence - No understanding of people's interpretations - Weak for discovering new phenomena

In general, however, we suggest that there are ways in which most numeric or quasi-numeric statements about the data can be avoided so that the presentation of findings remains more in line with the purposes of qualitative research. Specific strategies include:

- Turning a sentence around and to talk about issues rather than cases. - Presenting views, characteristics or experiences in sets, such that an array of response can be seen. - Presenting the array of responses in some more classified form, clustering the responses into a number of groups (rather than cases). - Focusing on differences between groups of cases, where these occur. These are a few ways that the use of numbers or statements of prevalence can be avoided in qualitative reporting.

Critique of Guidelines - 4 B's

-Burden of illness Expected Event Rate (EER) -Beliefs of individual patients -Bargain cost-effective? -Barriers geographic or other

Practice Guidelines as Evidence-based Information

-Definition Systematically developed statements to assist practitioner and patient decisions about appropriate healthcare for specific clinical circumstances (Institute of Medicine, 1990) -Science based -Explicit, yet flexible -Developed by practitioners -Subject to revision

Guideline Development Process

-Extensive interdisciplinary clinical review of needs, practices, emerging technology -Comprehensive literature review -Ranking of evidence quality -Peer review of guideline drafts -Pilot review with intended users

How to measure each factor:

-Reach The absolute number, proportion, and representativeness of individuals who participate in a given initiative, intervention or program. -Representativeness refers to whether participants have characteristics that reflect the target population's characteristics. For example, if your intent is to increase physical activity in sedentary people between the ages of 35 and 70, you wouldn't test your program on triathletes. -Effectiveness/Efficacy The impact of an intervention on important outcomes. This includes potential negative effects, quality of life, and economic outcomes. -Adoption The absolute number, proportion, and representativeness of settings and staff who are willing to initiate a program or approve a policy. -Implementation At the setting level, implementation refers to how closely staff members follow the program that the developers provide. This includes consistency of delivery as intended and the time and cost of the program. -Maintenance At the setting level, the extent to which a program or policy becomes part of the routine organizational practices and policies. At the individual level, maintenance refers to the long-term effects of a program on outcomes after 6 or more months after the most recent intervention contact.

Challenges in reporting qualitative data The key aim in writing up qualitative evidence is to present findings in an accessible form that will satisfy the research objectives and engage the target audiences. The analytic output from qualitative research involves evidence of a very different kind from statistical tables and charts. This poses certain challenges when writing up qualitative evidence:

-Telling the story -Displaying the evidential base -Displaying diversity -Length in written accounts -Explaining boundaries of qualitative research

The analytic output from qualitative research involves evidence of a very different kind from statistical tables and charts. This poses certain challenges when writing up qualitative evidence: -Telling the story -Displaying the evidential base -Displaying diversity -Length in written accounts -Explaining boundaries of qualitative research

-Telling the story The challenge is to tell the story in an intelligible and coherent way that also does justice to the layered complexity of the participants descriptions. -Displaying the evidential base Integrity in reporting requires a demonstration that the interpretations and conclusions presented are generated from, and grounded in, the data. By the time the data appear in a written account they will have been analyzed and investigated so there needs to be a clarity and balance between displaying the subtlety and detail of the original material and the classification, explanation and interpretation that has taken place. -Displaying diversity Inclusivity requires reporting and explaining the untypical as much as it does reporting the more recurrent themes. Not only the dominant message/result but also the exceptions. -Length in written accounts It is inevitably a choice to be made about leaving some of the findings out, otherwise readers will be swamped by the evidence and drown in the detail. Difficult to do because accounts rich in the kind of detail often considered necessary to assess the quality of qualitative interpretations within the constraints of journal articles and report for funders. -Explaining boundaries of qualitative research It is important that the audience understands what qualitative research can and cannot do. This will preferably include a discussion of the kinds of inference that can be drawn from qualitative data and its transferability to other settings.

grounded code

...

guilt

...

hallucination

...

techniques for identifying codes

...

What four things do you not do with qualitative research

-do not combine various qualitation methods -do not combine the philosophical underpinnings of one type with another -combine qualitative and quantitative research designs within a study -do not use any numerical counting to qualitative: such as word stress was used how many times during the interview

Name the 4 major types of probability sampling

-simple random sampling -stratified random sampling -cluster sampling -systematic sampling

Give two examples of going native

-when a researcher loses their objectivity ie Blenner's study of stress on an African expedition -an anthropologist who starts dressing and behaving like on eo fthe natives

Data reduction

...

Negative Cases

...

Reflexivity

...

Replication in Qualitative Research

...

Triangulation

...

Validity and Realism

...

When a sample is randomly chosen it is more what of the populationcaurate representation

...

coding themes

...

5 types of audiences

1. Area specialists 2. General disciplinary readers 3. Human science readers 4. Action-oriented readers 5. General readers

Limitations of qualitative research

1. Can be very time-consuming to collect. 2. Can generate large amounts of data that is difficult to analyze. 3. Potential susceptibility of the results to get misused or misinterpreted 4. Results not necessarily representative of the whole population 5.Researcher's role is extremely critical, can lead to ambiguous or at times misleading results.

anosognosia

inability to recognize a physical defect in oneself (e.g. denying that limb is paralyzed)

What are the 2 types of substance?

1. Material 2. Mental

Validity and Reliability in Qualitative Research Creswell's Validation Strategies

1. Prolonged engagement in the field 2. Using multiple and different sources, methods, investigators, and theories to provide corroborating evidence (P+M "triangulation") 3. Peer review or debriefing, which provide an external check of the research process 4. Clarifying researcher bias from the outset of the study (P+M "reflexivity) 5. Member checking, in which researchers solicit participants' views of the credibility of the findings (P+M "respondent validation") 6. Rich, thick description, which allows readers to make decisions regarding transferability (P+M "clear exposition of methods of dc and analysis") 7. External audits, in which an external consultant examines both process and product Try to engage at least two during any given study

Membership categorization device

A collection of categories (e.g. baby, mommy, father = family; male, female = gender) and some rules about how to apply these categories.

Deciding on a narrative and structure Three models to work from in planning an overall structure for presenting research findings, each of which provide a different frame on which to hang the key elements and concepts emerging from a study:

1. The hypothesis story: implies a three part structure: stating a hypothesis, test it, and then discussing the implications. Less suited to qualitative studies where hypotheses are more often developed inductively, during the course of analysis, rather than shaping all analyses. 2. The analytic story: involves thinking about the key concepts used in the study, how the findings shed light on these concepts, and what this means for the original research problem and for the existing literature. 3. The mystery story: starts by pointing out mysteries and then gradually develops answers.

Preference organization

A concept derived from conversation analysis which suggests that recipients of actions recognize a preference for what they should do next.

Hyphenated phenomena

A concept which refers to the way in which apparently stable social phenomena (a 'tribe' or a 'family') take on different meanings in different contexts. Thus a-family-as-seen-by-the-oldest-child takes on a different meaning than a-family-as-seen-by-the-youngest (see constructionism).

Phenomenological

Aimed at obtaining a description of an experience as its lived, to understand the meaning

1. The hypothesis story

: implies a three part structure: stating a hypothesis, test it, and then discussing the implications. Less suited to qualitative studies where hypotheses are more often developed inductively, during the course of analysis, rather than shaping all analyses. 2. The analytic story: involves thinking about the key concepts used in the study, how the findings shed light on these concepts, and what this means for the original research problem and for the existing literature. 3. The mystery story: starts by pointing out mysteries and then gradually develops answers.

2. The analytic story

: involves thinking about the key concepts used in the study, how the findings shed light on these concepts, and what this means for the original research problem and for the existing literature. 3. The mystery story: starts by pointing out mysteries and then gradually develops answers.

hebephrenia

= disorganized schizophrenia - characterised by wild or silly behaviour, or mannerisms, inappropriate affect and delusions and hallucinations that are transient and unsystematized

haptic hallucination

= tactile hallucination = hallucination of touch

Conversation analysis

A qualitative approach based on an attempt to describe people's methods for producing orderly talk-in-interaction. It derives from the work of Harvey Sacks (1992).

Non-participant observation

A researcher observes a group or activity he or she is studying, without participating in the group or activity.

Subculture

A set of beliefs, values and behaviours shared by a particular group.

Theory

A set of interrelated concepts, definitions and propositions that convey a systematic view of phenomena

Simple Idea

A single, uniform conception, with nothing distinguishable within it.

Gettier Case

A situation in which we have justification, truth and belief but not knowledge, because the belief is only accidentally true, given the evidence that justifies it.

Advantages of close ended questions

Advantages of Closed By "forcing" R to answer in a particular manner, have standard comparable data across groups Attention to YOUR research question The data can be quantified (easily summarized)

Advantages of Open ended questions

Advantages of Open Permits R to answer in own words, on own terms (you can understand topic as seen by R) Reduces (but does not eliminate) researcher bias Allows discussion of context, meaning, things not easily put into preset categories

Qualitative Research: Interview: + and -

Advantages: Researcher able to observe for clues in non-verbal behavior as they answer questions Better response rate than questionnaires, as subject does not have to write down answers Access to vulnerable populations (children or people who are unable to complete questionnaires) Allow for a richer and more complex data to be collected especially in the case of unstructured or semi-structured interviews Researcher controls the order of questions for all participants (makes sure all questions asked). May add new question to future interviews as new information disclosed Disadvantages: Social desirability: people are known to answer questions in a way that makes a favorable impression The researcher assumes the subject is telling the 'truth'. Not always the case Interviewer must be trained to prevent interviewer bias (adding in own views) Potential reaction to interviewer-will this affect my care? Did I pass?

In depth interviewing

Advantages: More respondents/ interaction Disadvantages: Less control and/or depth

Surveys

Advantages: more depth Disadvantages: Fewer respondents; not generalizable

Participant observation

Advantages:More control of topics/breadth of topics Disadvantages: Not in naturalistic setting

B. A basic set of beliefs about the world that guide actions

After researchers make a stance on their assumptions, they further shape their research by bringing to their inquiry certain paradigms. Paradigms can best be described as:

Silverman Criticism of Quantitative 3

After the fact speculation about the meaning of correlation can result in the common-sense reasoning that science is trying to avoid

Steps in Coding 7. Make a coding plan and apply the codes

After there is sufficient agreement and the codebook is finalized, a plan is made to apply the codes and the research team engages in: More Open Coding: the process of initially assigning codes to subsequent transcripts

Argument From Perceptual Variation

Against DR: Different people perceive the same physical object differently. Therefore, what each person perceives is how the object appears to them. This appearance is mind-dependent sense data. Physical objects are therefore not perceived directly.

Argument from Illusions

Against DR: Objects can be "subjectively indistinguishable" from veridical perception, e.g. (a crooked stick in water) so we see sense data, and not physical objects, immediately.

Argument from Hallucinations

Against DR: The possibility of experiences that are subjectively indistinguishable from a veridical perception means we don't immediately perceive physical objects, but sense-data.

Steps in Coding 8. Determine Agreement Rate

Agreement Rate (AR): (AR): # of agreements/ total # agreements and disagreements Aim to achieve a 70% inter-coder reliability Aim to achieve a 90% intra-coder reliability

Foundational Similarities between quantitative and qualitative research

All qualitative data can be measured and coded using quantitative methods. Quantitative research can be generated from qualitative inquiries. Example: Patient reported outcomes (PRO) Tools that are used to gain insight from the patient's perspective into the perceived effects that the impact of the disease and treatments have on aspects of their health, their lifestyle and subsequently their quality of life.

Copy Principle (Hume)

All simple ideas are copies of impressions.

Berkeley's Idealism

All that exists are minds and ideas. What we think of as physical objects are, in fact, bundles of ideas. The immediate objects of perception are idea, mind-dependent objects. Esse est Percipi - to be is to be perceived.

What is a strength about a case study?

Allows you to study a specific/rare situation. Case studies are useful because the data recieved is very rich. Rich data means that the data is extensive and thorough.

CPHS

Also known as the Committee for the Protection of Human Subjects which serves the Institutional Review Board (IRB) and aims to ensure the protection of the rights and welfare of all human participants in research conducted by university faculty, staff, and students.

Hermeneutics

An approach concerned with interpretation (originally derived from the study of biblical texts).

Empiricism

An approach which believes that evidence about the world does not depend upon models or concepts (see positivism).

Cosmological Argument

An argument for God's existence that claims that unless God exists, the question "why does anything exist?" is unanswerable. Arguments from causation claim that everything must have a cause, and causal chains cannot be infinite, there must be a first cause. Arguments from contingency claim that every contingent thing must have an explanation for its existence, and this ultimately can only be provided by something that exists necessarily.

coding frame

An exhaustive list of all possible values that codes may take in content analysis. A list of the codes in use in a qualitative data analysis project usually containing their definitions and a set of rules or guidelines for coding. Also called a code book.

Empirical

Based on evidence through observation or experiment.

Steps in Coding 4. Create a codebook

Based on team agreements about emerging ideas and important concepts within the data, assign one team member to create the codebook Components of the codebook Code name: A label or code name that makes for easy reference Definition: Brief and full definitions of code A description of when to use a code A description of when NOT to use a code An example quotation Code names Own invention: code name logically related to data it represents, and sufficiently graphic to remind analyst of its referent. A priori: code names taken from analyst's disciplinary and professional experience. "In vivo": code names based on catchy words and phrases used by informants.

Narrative interview

Based on the assumption that humans are storytellers. The respondent is asked to tell their story of something they have experienced to show individual interpretations.

Inductive

Based on the study of particular cases rather than just derived from a theory.

qualitative research

Based on written words, symbols, observations, non-numerical data

P-value interpretation rules

Baseline p-values: -Should be GREATER THAN alpha cut-off -Shows that groups were equal at baseline Results p-values: -Can conclude statistically significant differences or relationships if p-value is LESS THAN alpha cut-off -P-values can't show precision Need confidence intervals

Informed consent

Between researcher and participant. Do not exploit people to further own cause; sharing results; quitting study at any time.

Qualitative Research: Triangulation: types

Data triangulation: using a variety of data sources in a study-different settings, different collection times, methods Investigator triangulation: investigators or evaluators are from different backgrounds Theory triangulation: different theoretical approaches to the interpretation of the data Methodological triangulation: different methods used to study the data Interdisciplinary triangulation: other disciplines increase the understanding of the phenomena

Researcher-provoked data

Data which are actively created and, therefore, would not exist apart from the researcher's intervention (e.g. interviews, focus groups).

Naturally occurring data

Data which derive from situations which exist independently of the researcher's intervention.

Who believed that the Self is a fiction?

David Hume

Who is referred to as the "serious empiricist"?

David Hume

Who thought that Berkley did not go far enough?

David Hume

Who was a Radical Skeptic and a Phenomenalist?

David Hume

Who was the most thoroughgoing of the British Empiricists?

David Hume

Operational Notes

Deal with methodological issues - ideas and reminders about coding process itself

Analyze and Interpret the data

Debriefing/Note based Tape/Abbreviated Transcript Tape/Transcript-based

What is quantitative methodology?

Deductive, draws small conclusions from big ideas. Answers in numbers, tries to establish a cause and effect relationship by manipulating variables.

Ethnographic Data Analysis Methods

Definition: - Analysis of individuals' behaviour (data collected through participant observation) and thoughts (data collected through key informant interviews) to identify patterns and ultimately describe cultural symbols Procedures/methods - During participant observation - make field notes including early identification of patterns - Draw flow charts or others pictures to show relationships between people and/or the things they say and/or the things they use (artefacts) - Identify and categorize descriptors - Discover repetitive patterns in the context of the culture - Abstract the patterns into themes

Grounded Theory Data Analysis Methods

Definition: - Constant comparative analysis of mostly narrative data to identify categories and relationships between categories (to identify a theory) Procedures/methods: - breaking down sentences, observations or incidents described by participants - Assign codes to data (words or sentences) - Specify the relationships between the codes by constantly comparing to other participants codes and to the participants own codes - Identify emergent theory/conceptual description

Beneficence

Do no harm - maximize possible benefits

Consistency

Degree to which studies have similar and different designs yet the same research question and findings

"I am a thing that thinks."

Descartes

Who believed that you exist innately by intuition, but not sensation?

Descartes

What do feminist epistemologists critique?

Descartes' mind body distinction and positivism

Descriptive

Describes HUMAN EXPERIENCES → descriptive themes (Husserl)

Phenomenological Data Analysis Methods

Description: - interpretation of the narrative stories to identify themes and present a holistic description Procedures/methods: - Read transcripts - Identify 'meaning units' from data (could be a full sentence or only a word) - Organize 'meaning units' into themes - Integrate results into a thorough description of the phenomenon

Two Types of Phenomenological research

Descriptive and Interpretive

Levels of Evidence V

Descriptive or Qualitative Studies

Representational generalization

Findings from qualitative research studies can be applied to similar populations outside the population of the study as the populations, not the settings, need to be similar.

Explain the three types of questions used in interviews.

Descriptive questions: Questions which are like "tours" they require the interviewee to describe something themselves. Questions like this include, "describe your day at school." Structural questions: Questions that are searching for a specific answer, they are structured. It might be the interviewees have to arrange words into an order or they are asked yes or no questions, etc. Contrast questions: Questions where interviewees are asked to compare different things in order for the interviewer to gain some perspective on their opinions.

Ethnographic

Designed to produce cultural theory- scientifically describes cultural groups to understand their view of the world

In-Depth Interviews

Detailed interviews; often recorded

Generate and pre-test the interview guide

Determine the structure of the focus group (Morgan reading) moderator involvement Specificity or standardization of Qs in topic guide Draft transition and key questions Pre-test the guide

Methods of Evaluating Qualitative Research: Trustworthiness

Developing standards of quality Lincoln and Guba's classic work shed light on how to assess truth in a qualitative report Offered four alternate tests of quality that reflect the assumptions of the qualitative paradigm: Credibility Dependability Transferability Confirmability

Ethnographic Research

Disciplinary root- cultural anthropology & sociology Seeks to understand human behavior by studying it from the perspective of individuals within that culture. (learning cultural patterns) Includes knowledge, beliefs and activities of group under study combining the EMIC perspective (insiders view) with the ETIC Perspective (researcher's view) Researcher enters the world and attempts to make sense of it. Ex: "How Northern Saskatchewan Families with Preschoolers Define and Practice Health" would tell us about cultural norms and knowledge and other contextual behaviors that would influence the health experience of a particular population in this specific setting-

Grounded theory

Discovering how people describe their own reality and how their beliefs are related to their actions in a social scene. Code certain reactions into different categories (ex. coping with a seriously ill child). The core of grounded theory analysis is based on three related processes: description, coding and connecting themes to produce an account.

Reliability Methods

Display reliability estimate as correlation coefficient / tests for 3 attributes

prosopagnosia

inability to recognize familir faces

ETHNOGRAPHIC RESEARCH Structure of Study

Ethnographers make their own beliefs explicit and bracket (set aside) their personal biases as they seek to understand the worldview of others and to avoid leading the participant to issues that may be only important to the researcher. Ex. Suppose that a nurse conducting research does not personally believe in homeopathic medicines curing disease- believes in traditional health care. Own beliefs will have to be carefully bracketed and recorded along with observations and reports from researcher's sample. Sample Selection- cultural group that is living the phenomenon under study. Data is collected from both key informants and general informants. Key informants- individuals that possess special knowledge, status, or communication skills and are willing to teach ethnographer about the phenomenon. Purposive Sampling- participants specifically selected because they are knowledgeable on the subject under study. Identified by the Researcher in advance from thoughtful inquiry. Snowball Sampling- asking key informants to identify other key informants they know as friends, relatives, others who have information to share

Cross-case analysis

Examination of similarities across cases (inductive approach to variable-oriented analysis)

Sense Experience

Experiences given to us by our senses.

Qualitative Research Studies

Explore reported findings including perceptions, feelings, preferences, trends, and other phenomena that cannot be adequately measured by NUMBERS Provide data to research questions that cannot possibly be measured by RCTs. This includes identifying themes, unexpected impacts, patient satisfaction, improvement in staff morale, etc. Has been (Somewhat!) negatively viewed for many years as "non-valid research" but is rapidly evolving to be its own science with credibility and significant value for decision-making Critical appraisal processes apply here as well.

Interpretive Phenomenology

INTERPRET AND UNDERSTAND HUMAN EXPERIENCE Heidegger influenced

Grounded Theory

Explores social or psychological processes Based on symbolic interactionist approach (people behave based on ways they interpret symbols and experiences) Builds a theory about a process Uses inductive and deductive approaches Constant comparative analysis Theoretical sampling

Framework analysis- 5 step process

Familiarization Identifying a thematic framework Indexing (coding) Charting (data display) Mapping & interpretation (map back onto your thematic framework to ensure the most thorough analysis)

D. Women's diverse situations and the institutions that frame those situations

Feminist research is concerned with:

Purposive sampling usually used

Finding people with "typical" experience or with different or extreme examples

Participatory Action Research

Finding solutions to problems in partnership with participants, implement, evaluate

Representational generalization

Findings from qualitative research studies can be applied to populations outside the population of the study.

Key Features of Framework Analysis

Grounded or generative Dynamic: it is open to change, addition and amendment throughout the analytical process Systematic Comprehensive: allowing a full rather than partial or selective review of the material collected Easy retrieval: allowing access to, and retrieval of, the original textual material It is accessible to others: the analytical process and interpretations derived from it can be viewed and judged by people other than the primary analyst

Snowball sampling

Have participant help RECRUIT OTHERS

Explain this quote by David Hume: "I am myself a bundle of perceptions." How does the quote illustrate Hume's ideas about personal identity?

He defines the identity of a person as nothing more than the totality of perceptions, this bundle making up the "identity" of the person. However, these perceptions are always changing since there's no moment during conscious life where our perceptions remain constant. Since identity of a personality is the constituents of its perceptual bundle, and those constituents are always changing, personal identity does not exist.

Power analysis

Helps with validity. How many people do we need in the study before we begin?

Non-propositional knowledge

INformal, implicit and derived primarily through practice

Write one example of a procedural knowledge claim

I know how to make a cake

Write one example of a propositional knowledge claim

I know what a bachelor is, it's an unmarried man.

How is "cogito ergo sum" best translated?

I think, therefore I am

Main data source of phenomelogical

IN DEPTH CONVERSATIONS with a small number of participants who have experienced the phenomenon, not opinions, but accurate descriptions of experiences

Case Study

IN DEPTH investigation of one single entity or a small group

What is the view that says, "only minds and their ideas exist."?

Idealism

What view says, "if a substance can be perceived, that's all there really is."?

Idealism

Integrating Memos

Ideas about how to organize axial codes into a coherent account of the data

Analysis

Identify KEYWORDS AND PHRASES that stick out (anger- "just about murdered that woman")

Code Notes

Identify code labels and meanings to researcher

example of the ecological fallacy error in the unit of measurement

If we knew that neighborhoods with more young adults have higher crime rates, and we assume that younger people commit more crimes

Name two journals that frequently publish qualitative research?

Image Advances in Nursing Science

Who said that "reading Mr. Hume awakened me from my dogmatic slumber."

Immanuel Kant

Who tried to refute Hume's position on causation?

Immanuel Kant

Finding qualitative data helps the researcher?

Labels/ simplifies the data - clustering/ helps to be able to analyze the data later

visual agnosia

inability to recognize objects or persons

Who championed the idea of no innate ideas?

John Locke

Who is the father of modern empiricism?

John Locke

Who wrote "The Essay Concerning Human Understanding"?

John Locke

Edmund Gettier's Problem of Accidental Correctness attempts to question which element of the tripartite theory of knowledge?

Joint sufficiency

Data Based Literature

Journal studies - empirical science

Tripartite Theory of Knowledge

Justified, True, Belief is necessary and sufficient for propositional knowledge. S knows that P if and only if S believes that P, P is true and S's belief that P is justified.

Axial Coding

Key codes and concepts of interest are identified and regrouped of data into main coding scheme

Constant Comparative Method

Key feature of GTM; 1- Comparing incidents across cases, 2- Developing/Adopting concepts, 3- Comparing concepts across cases, 4- Integrating concepts from different avenues of inductive inquiry, 5- Delimiting the theory (creating/adopting theoretical approach and ruling out less important concepts), 6- Writing theory - explaining approach to others

Acquaintance Knowledge

Knowing "of" someone or some place. For example, "I know the manager of the restaurant" or " I know Oxford well."

Propositional Knowledge

Knowing "that" some claim - a proposition - is true or false, e.g. "I know that Paris is the Capital of France".

What is the meaning of the Greek word "episteme?

Knowledge

According to the theory of rationalism/foundationalism what is true?

Knowledge is possible only if based on self-evident and absolutely certain principles, knowledge is a priori and sense experience cannot provide the certainty needed to guarantee what we know is true; FALSE: We should trust sense experience as a source of knowledge

A posteriori

Knowledge of propositions that can only be known to be true or false through sense experience.

A priori

Knowledge of propositions that do not require sense experience to be known to be true or false.

Innate

Knowledge or ideas that are in some way present "from birth".

A priori

Knowledge that is inferred through language rather than experience

Phenomenological research focuses on the

LIVED EXPERIENCES of humans through many different traditions-description and interpretation of people's lived experience

why correlation does not equal causation

One does not equal the other because there could be something else causing the correlation driving them such as a third variable (spurious relationship)

Necessary Condition

One proposition is a necessary condition of another when the second cannot be true while the first is false. For example, being a man is a necessary condition of being a bachelor, as if you are not a man you cannot be a bachelor.

Sufficient Condition

One proposition is a sufficient condition of another when one cannot be true while the other is false. For example, being a dog is sufficient for being an animal, because something can't be a dog without also being an animal.

Categories of questions

Opening- Participants get acquainted and feel connected Introductory- Begins discussion of topic Transition- Bring general topic to individual level of experience Key- Obtains insight on areas of central concern in the study Ending- Helps researchers determine where to place emphasis and brings closure to the discussion

Identification of the target group

Operationalize concepts from RQ Who should participate Where can they be found? What type of purposive sampling will you use? Size of groups Number of groups segmentation saturation

Step 2.) Identification of Target Group

Operationalize concepts from RQ (answers "who") Who should participate (target group issue) Where can they be found (what type of purposive sampling will you use to recruit) Size of groups (how many to recruitment) Number of groups Segmentation (target and recruitment issue) Saturation (recruitment)

Thematic analysis (2/2)

Organizing, understanding and presenting codes and findings by themes found within the data A theme can be a combination of codes emerging from the data that gets put under one category, or themes can be derived directly from key questions and you take the major coded messages and arrange them by those themes

What is the difference between covert and overt observations?

Overt observations, participants are aware that they are being observed. Covert observations are undercover.

Thematic Analysis: Step by step

Phase 1: familiarize yourself with the data Phase 2: generate initial codes Phase 3: search for themes Phase 4: review themes Phase 5: define and name themes Phase 6: produce the report

C. The meaning of experiences of a phenomenon for several individuals.

Phenomenological research describes:

Phenomenology: Human experience

Phenomenology is a school of thought that emphasizes a focus on people's subjective experiences and interpretations of the world. Focus: reveal the meaning of the lived experience from the perspective of participants-those living the experience Written or oral data Importance: Study a new topic or adding fresh perspective to new topic Examples: experience of men facing prostate surgery, experience of spouses of home dialysis patients in Saskatchewan

Direct Realism

Physical objects exist independently of our minds and of our perceptions of them and the immediate objects of perception are mind-independent objects and their properties.

Concept Mapping

Placing concepts into graphical format to help with organization

Data collection; the start

Planning and pioting; ID unexpect issues, confirm study feasibility, allow for revisions, determine and address all key study elements, and the type of data needed.

PICOT

Population, intervention, control, outcome, time

Relationship of sample to population (small to large)

Population, target population, accessible population, sample

Vulnerable population

Populations that do not have control over their SES; or health in the community - Willowbrook study

Belief in which theory causes a person to deny the existence of God?

Positivism

Which theory states that the only "true" or valid form of knowledge is that which is "scientific?"

Positivism

Would research about abortion conducted by a mother of three be valid according to a positivist? Why or why not

Positivism states that the only knowledge is "scientific" and you have to keep emotions, beliefs etc. out of your thoughts. A mother of three already believes that abortion is wrong because she already has had 3 children. Her thoughts are to have child's instead aborting them so a positivist would say that this is invalid because the mother will fail to keep her emotions and beliefs outside of her mind when she's researching about abortion.

D. All of the above

Postpositivism tends to be:

What is the capacity to reject the null hypothesis?

Power

What theory says that a proposition is true if it works, and if it is useful?

Pragmatic Theory

In the film Inception, Mal's plea with Cobb to "choose" his reality is most closely related to which theory?

Pragmatism

What theory considers practical consequences in decisions regarding the truth of knowledge claims

Pragmatism

B. Will employ BOTH quantitative and qualitative sources of data collection

Pragmatism:

Steps to Determining Clinical Relevance vs Statistical Significance

Process of inquiry - Who is affected by the outcome of the research? - What is the impact of the change/outcome? - Do the benefits of the measured outcome warrant a change in practice? - What are the implications if practice remains the same?

Inter-rater reliability

Process of multiple researchers coding same raw data and comparing notes for concensus

Qualitative Data Coding

Process of transforming raw data into a standardized form using a conceptual framework - can be classified or categorized into either quant. or qual. categories

Grounded theory

Process; What is the process of recovery following breast cancer?

Silverman Criticism of Quantitative 5

Producing hypothesis prior to research means that you cannot generate new ideas from the data

Systematic random sampling

Progression of random sampling - such as picking every 4th person; getting samples by intervals that were set up

Primary Quality

Properties that are "utterly inseparable" from the object, whatever changes it goes through, even if it is divided into smaller and smaller pieces. The object has these properties "in and of itself". Locke lists extension, size, shape, solidity and number as primary qualities.

Secondary Qualities

Properties that physical objects have that are "nothing but powers to produce sensations in us." Locke lists colour, sound, taste and so on, later adding smells and temperature.

Critical incident interviews

SPECIFIC INCIDENTS that had a discernible IMPACT on some OUTCOME

Qualitative Research: Trustworthiness of Data

Sample (size, setting, recruitment strategy and informed consent obtained). General numbers (may be more or less in each) 1. Grounded (20-30 subjects) 2. Ethnography (up to 50 subjects) 3. Phenomenological (10 or fewer subjects) Data collection: interviews, participant observation, length of interviews. Data analysis: how analysed? Coding procedure, categories and themes clearly described.

Sample size

Sample size guided by data saturation Must have enough data to illuminate patterns, categories & dimensions of phenomena Depends on scope of project & type of research. At least the following amounts: Ethnography: N=50 Phenomenology: N=10 Grounded theory: N=30

Theoretical sampling

Sampling method recommended for field researchers by Glaser and Strauss. Sample is drawn in a sequential fashion, with settings or individuals selected for study as earlier observations or interviews indicate that these settings or individuals are influential.

Segmentation in focus group study design

Segmentation is a strategy that involves purposely dividing groups based on a characteristic Recommended when people are likely to have different experiences based on the segmentation variable people are likely to be more comfortable in a segmented group the purpose of the research is to compare groups

What is statistical generalization? How does it relate to case studies?

Statistical generalizations is when the research is just used to expand on other similar cases. Data gathered from a case study may be used to help analyze other similar cases.

Explain "confirmability" in qualitative research (Lincoln and Guba).

Similar to objectivity. Just, in qualitative it is believed that subjectivity is important and instead it is valued that the research is described detailed enough that it can be repeated.

Levels of Evidence VI

Single Descriptive or Qualitative Study

Conduct the group

Site Length Travel Equipment Respondent reminder Respondent remuneration Snacks

Which sampling techniques are used in interviews and why?

Snowballing: Chosen participants are told to invite people they know. Good for qualitative because if you choose one person relevant to the study, the people in their social circles will most likely share these traits. Purposive sampling: Specific people are chosen because they know a lot about the subject and can offer information. These are used because interviews require rich data, data that can only be obtained if the interviewee has a lot to say on the subject. Also, the interviews use specialist topics, which require a "relevant" person.

B. Seek understanding of the world in which they live and work

Social constructivists:

Gatekeeper

Someone that you may have to go thru in order to gain access to a culture that you want to study; based in trust.

Charting

Specific pieces of data that were indexed in the previous stage are now arranged in charts of the themes. This means that the data is lifted from its original textual context and placed in charts that consist of the headings and subheadings that were drawn during the thematic framework, or from a priori research inquiries or in the manner that is perceived to be the best way to report the research. Sometimes called a data display

Methods

Specific research techniques. These include quantitative techniques, like statistical correlations, as well as techniques like observation, interviewing and audio-recording.

3 attributes in the reliability method

Stability, equivalence, internal consistency

Secondary Source

Summary of material, critique, analysis of theory

Principles of Causation (Hill)

Temporal Relationship: Exposure always precedes the outcome Strength: The stronger the association, the more likely it is that the relation of "A" to "B" is causal Consistency: The association is consistent when results are replicated in studies in different settings using different methods Biological Gradient (Dose-Response Relationship): An increasing amount of exposure increases the risk Plausibility: The association agrees with currently accepted understanding of pathological processes Coherence: The association should be compatible with existing theory and knowledge. Experiment: The condition can be altered (prevented or ameliorated) by an appropriate experimental regimen. Consideration of Alternate Explanations: In judging whether a reported association is causal, it is necessary to determine the extent to which researchers have taken other possible explanations into account and have effectively ruled out such alternate explanations. Specificity: This is established when a single putative cause produces a specific effect

What established John Locke as an Empiricist and kicked off the empiricist movement?

The Essay Concerning Human Understanding

Knowledge Innatism

The claim that there is at least some innate knowledge, not derived from experience but somehow part of the structure of the mind.

Method triangulation

The comparison of data which comes from different methods (e.g. both qualitative and quantitative methods).

Horizontalization

The data analysis step in a phenomenological study where you highlight significant statements, sentences, or quotes that provide an understanding of how the participants experience d the phenomenon.

Foundational Differences between quantitative and qualitative research

The major difference between qualitative and quantitative research stems from the researcher's underlying strategies and engagement. Quantitative research is viewed as confirmatory and deductive in nature (confirming a theory or hypothesis with the data i.e. general to specific) Qualitative research is considered to be exploratory and inductive- ( generalize, conceptual framework theory- from specific data)

C. What is the process of research?:

The methodological assumption questions:

Methodology

The overarching and theoretical framework that guides the research process

Secondary Analysis

The practice of analyzing data that have already been gathered by someone else, often for a distinctly different purpose. As a research method, it saves both time and money and avoids unnecessary duplication of research effort.

What is inductive content analysis? (thematic content analysis)

The process of identifying themes form the qualitative data of an interview. The data will be categorized into subordinate and superordinate (over-arching) themes so that researchers can reach conclusions about their data.

Thematic Analysis

The process of recognizing and recovering the emergent themes

Ethnographic Research

Understanding culture; rounded and not segmented understanding. Method includes the Gatekeeper, emic perspective, and etic persspective

Content Analysis Units

Units may be analyzed as full letters, paragraphs within letters or even individual sentences. The scope is determined by researcher.

Unstructured interviewing

Unstructured interviewing involves using a topic guide that is simply a list of topics you want to cover Best for exploratory research with an experienced moderator Used with observation methods

Grounded Theory Method

Use of cross-case analysis to inductively create/adopt concepts and build theory

Variable-Oriented Analysis

Use of independent variable to predict an outcome of a dependent variable

Method triangulation

Use of multiple methods of data collection to study the same phenomenon.

Network Sampling / Snowball

Use social networks to connect with similar people

Direct observation

Using different interviews; structured and semi-structured interviews - also, video recordings

Define methodological triangulation.

Using different methods to understand a topic. This might include different types of research methods, or using a combination of quantitative and qualitative methods.

Define theoretical triangulation.

Using different theoretical approaches to understand a situation. E.g applying evolutionary psych and cognitive psych to one specific situation.

Induction

Using quantitative or qualitative data to build theory

Deduction

Using quantitative or qualitative data to test theory

motor aphasia

inability to produce words in a fluent manner, also known as broca's aphasia or non fluent aphasia. understanding remains intact

Steps in Coding 2. Understand the subjectivities & biases of the team

Ways to surface team biases: Bring in an outside facilitator to interview team members and create a subjectivity report Have each team member write a subjectivity memo and discuss as a group Create a plan to address the team's subjectivies throughout the analysis process

Hume's Fork

We can have knowledge of just two sorts of claim: the relations between ideas and matters of fact.

Data Outcropping

We go and look for something because theory tells us that the "thing" we are looking for is likely to be there. In other words, choosing a place you're likely to find a lot of people that can speak to your research question(s)/interest.

Indirect Realism

We perceive physical objects, which exist independently of our mind, indirectly via sense data which are caused by and represent physical objects.

Transferability, durability, credibility

What are the 3 most importatnt factors to consider when reviewing a quantitative study?

Proposition

What is claimed by a declarative statement such as "mice are mammals." Propositions can go after "that" in "I believe that" or "I know that".

exploratory example

What is hook-up culture? What are some key themes?

Justification

What is offered as grounds for believing an assertion.

Epistemology

What is truth? How do we know what we know?

example of an intervening variable

What is variable 'z' an example of? IV: college graduation status z: occupation type DV: income

spatial agnosia

inability to recognize spatial relations

Immediate objects of Perception

What we are directly aware of in perception. which may be physical objects or sensations of these.

Impression

What we are immediately and directly aware of, which can either be impressions of "sensation" or impressions of "reflection." Impressions of sensation derive from our senses, impressions of reflection derive from our experience of our mind, including emotions.

What do we mean when we talk about "inter-rater reliability?"

When two or more people look at the results, tools, survey - and agree that they will accurately measure the results.

trend study because it is tracking the same population

Which type of longitudinal?: Every year, a team of researchers surveys a sample of the American population about their participation in and attitudes about public service and a new sample is chosen each year

how science guards inaccurate observation

You can make a conscious activity so you pay more attention; use simple and complex measurement devices to help guard against this; They add a degree of precision past the capacity of the unassisted human senses

Inductive reasoning

a "bottom-up" type of reasoning that begins with specific observations and particular circumstances and then moves on to broader generalizations and theories.

Deductive reasoning

a "top-down" type of reasoning that begins with broad generalizations and theories and then move to the observation of particular circumstances in order to confirm or falsify the theory.

post positivism

a philosophical paradigm that accepts the belief that there is a universal reality, but asserts that humans are limited to perceiving that reality through an individual contextual lens. - bracketing monitors subjectivity

Lived Experience

a phrase used in phenomenological studies that emphasizes the importance and value of individual experiences of people as conscious human beings (Moustakas, 1994)

Patiche

a postmodern term that refers to the endless imitation, appropriation, and recycling of older cultural forms (e.g., much of what is fashionable today layers trends from the past).

Triangulate

a practice in which researchers use multiple types and sources of data, variant methods of collection as well as various theoretical frames and multiple researchers.

cryptographia/cryptolalia

a private written language/spoken language

triangulation

a procedure used to verify validity of the data by testing one source of data against another (Fetterman, in Creswell, 2012).

falsifiable criteria for a good hypothesis

a requirement that claims that evidence would show statement to be true or false

specific criteria for a good hypothesis

a requirement that states a particular prediction, not a question but a statement

Nuremberg Code

a research ethics code that arose in repsonse to the Nazis' inhumane experimentation; the code includes clauses on voluntary and informed consent, freedom from coersion, comprehension of the potential risks and benefits of the research, and a scientifically valid research design.

thick description

a rich recording of environment, circumstances, meanings, intentions, strategies, and motivations that characterize a particular observation. - Contributes to trustworthiness (Morrow, 2005)

What is the exhaustive ist of all the Cali RNs an example of

a sampling frame - all possible individuals withing the target population

Paradigm

a set of beliefs and practices, shared by communities of researchers- guides the knowledge development process

Ideology

a set of doctrines, myths, or beliefs, which guide or have power over individuals, groups, or societies.

melancholia

a severe depressive state characterised by anhedonia, or lack of mood reactivity. also 3 of depression that is subjectively different from grief or loss, severe anorexia, psychomotor changes, early morning wakening, excessive guilt and mood that WORSE in the morning

Avoiding numerical statements about qualitative findings Common difficulty with qualitative accounts is that they contain statements about how many people have said something. View of the book:

any numerical or statistical inference based on qualitative research is likely to be at best misleading and at worst erroneous because qualitative samples are not designed for such purposes. If qualitative reports refer to the recurrence of particular views or experiences or to clusters of response within the sample, this should be in order to explain why such patterns occur.

when the sample is a more acurate represenation of the population the sample statistics witll what?

approximate the population more precisely

Developmental outputs:

are designed to generate discussion and debate about emergent issues arising from the research. They are often produced during the analysis stage of a study as issues and concepts begin to emerge from the data. Presenting interim findings can allow funders, commissioners or colleagues the opportunity to suggest further analysis of areas of interest. Selective outputs: provide accounts of specific parts of the evidence. They may be targeted at the interest of particular audiences, such as professionals or service users, or at conferences or journals with particular substantive remits.

What questions should be asked with the findings of qualitative research?

are the researcher's conceptualizations true to data? Are the findings presented within a context?

thematic analysis

as coding and memoing takes place, themes begin to emerge from the data; a transcript of an interview is marked in relation to emerging themes.

When are decisions regarding key informants decided

as study progresses

snowball samples

ask one person, then have them suggest another, repeat step 1

ego-syntonic

aspects of personality that are viewed as acceptable and consistent with that person's total personality

overgeneralization

assuming that a small number of observations is evidence of a larger pattern; we over-extend on the basis of limited observations

if probabilty in systematic sampling the first individual is chosen how?

at random from the sampling frame

neurological amnesia

auditory amnesia - loss of ability to comprehend sound or speech tactile amnesia - loss of ability to comprehend or judge shapes of objects by touch verbal amnesia - loss of ability to remember words visual amnesia - loss of ability to recall or recognize familiar objects or painted words

dereism

autistic thinking

example of the bogardus scale

based on a woman as a police officer: ranging from 1. they have a right to be in the career to 5. women and men's abilities are equal in being a cop

substantiative theory is aka

basic social process

In general, however, we suggest that there are ways in which most numeric or quasi-numeric statements about the data can

be avoided so that the presentation of findings remains more in line with the purposes of qualitative research.

With the greater the number of variables the sample size needs to ......

be increased

Length in written accounts There is inevitably a choice to be made about leaving some findings out, otherwise readers will simply

be swamped by the evidence and drown in the detail.

Why Babbie says authority and tradition are double-edged swords

because they can prevent us from looking at things in a new way because we rely on experts but should look to fresh research also

acting out

behavioural response to an unconscious drive or impulsive that brings about temporary partial relief of inner tension; relief is attained by reacting to a present situation as if it were the situation that originally gave rise to the drive or impulse

theoretical sensitivity

being aware of what is important in developing a theory and what is not, choosing what is important

critical theory

break free of social constraints, ethnography, social action, break social constraints that might be present for members of a social class

analysis

breaking down a data set and then reassembling it into meaning that informs your research question

Asides

brief, reflective bits to clarify a field note

what types of questions are asked with interviewing

broad and open ended

Qualitative research does not have hypothesis but rather what?

broad research questions

causalgia

burning pain that may or organic or psychic in origin

overvalued idea

by definition a false or unreasonable belief or idea that is sustained beyond the bounds of reason, held with less intensity than a delusion

grandiosity

by definition are exaggerated feelings of one's importance, power, knowledge or identity

irritability/irritable mood

by definition is abnormal or excessive excitability, with easily triggered anger, annoyance or impatience

judgement

by definition is the mental act of comparing or evaluating choices within the framework of a given set of values for the purpose of electing a course of acting

free floating anxiety

by definition is the severe, pervasive, generalized anxiety that is not attached to any particular idea, object or event.

anorexia

by definition this is a loss or decrease of appetite

somatopagnosia

inability to recognise a part of one's body as one's one (also autotopagnosia)

Narrator

characters in the text

member validation

check with sampled to see if right

What for of sampling takes place in stages?

cluster sampling

In vivo coding

coding in the terms used by social actors to characterize their own scene

ambivalence

coexistence of two opposing impulses at the same time

Categories

collections of general phenomena (concepts, constructs, etc.)

global aphasia

combination of grossly non fluent aphasia and severe fluent aphasia

face validity

common agreement that a measure makes sense

What is non-participant observation

commonly used in psychology studies were the researcher observes only

Social constructionism

communication as the symbolic resource that constructs reality

incoherence

communication that is disconnected, disorganized or incomprehensible

Relevance marker 4

communication validation - presenting your data back to participants

Constant comparative method

compare units of data

Subsequent interviews

comparing data set to data set --> comparing data set to theory

Triangulation

comparison between 2 or more forms of data for the research interest - Multiple sources - Multiple methods (between/across methods) - Multiple researchers (within the method) - Increases reliability, validity & captures a more complete portrayal of the units under study

dipsomania

compulsion to drink alcoholic beverages

How else in simplke random sampling can a list of random numbers be generated?

computer

the two types of social science definitions

conceptual and organizational

The process of simple random sampling ensures what?

each participant has an equal and independent chance of being selected

terminal insomnia

early morning awakening or waking up > 2 hours before planning to

ineffability

ecstatic state in which persons insist that their experience is inexpressible and indescribable and that it is impossible to convey what it is like to one who never experienced it

Other factors that influence the adequacy of the sample size in the power analysis include

effect size

If there is considerable differnce between the groups who does this affect affect size?

effect size is large, hence detecting is easy and requires only a small sample and vice versa

ego-alien

ego-dystonic - aspects of a person's personality that is viewed as repugnant, unacceptable or inconsistent with the rest of the personality

Respondent interview

elicit open-ended responses about themselves - Meanings of common concepts - Interpretations & opinions

inappropriate affect

emotional tone out of harmony with the idea, thought, or speech accompanying it.

interview

encourage others to freely share their interests & experiences - subjective realities - Characteristics: wide scope of topics, loose, open-ended, interactive

Structure

enduring schools of knowledge, societal norms, and myths that shape and delimit action.

example of an index

enlisting six types of political action people can take and combining them all to determine their degree of political activism

-Displaying diversity Inclusivity requires reporting and explaining the untypical as much as it does reporting the more recurrent themes. Not only the dominant message/result but also the

exceptions. -Length in written accounts It is inevitably a choice to be made about leaving some of the findings out, otherwise readers will be swamped by the evidence and drown in the detail. Difficult to do because accounts rich in the kind of detail often considered necessary to assess the quality of qualitative interpretations within the constraints of journal articles and report for funders. -Explaining boundaries of qualitative research It is important that the audience understands what qualitative research can and cannot do. This will preferably include a discussion of the kinds of inference that can be drawn from qualitative data and its transferability to other settings.

The final stage of the process is reporting and preventing the findings. The aim is to

explore, unravel and explain the complexity of the findings in an engaging and insightful way while at the same time producing an accessible and coherent narrative. It provides an opportunity for further thought as the data are assembled into a coherent structure to convey the research evidence to the target audience. Data will be reassessed, further analysed and then assembled into a final account which will display the findings with ordered and reflective commentary.

Chapter 13- writing up qualitative research Final stage of the qualitative research process, reporting and presenting findings. Goal:

explore, unravel and explain the complexity of findings in an engaging and insightful way while at the same time producing an accessible and coherent narrative.

expansive mood

expression of feelings without restraint, frequently with an overestimation of their significant or importance

catastrophic reaction

extreme emotional state characterised by restlessness, irritability, crying, anxiety and uncooperativeness

hyperalgesia

extreme sensitivity to pain

hyperacusis

extreme sensitivity to sounds

hyperaesthesia

extreme sensitivity to touch/tactile stimulation

Effect size is the degree to which the null hypothesis is ______

false

alogia

inability to speak

• Structuring around different populations:

if the research has included interviews with different population groups, the reporter will need to decide whether to deal with the themes emerging from each group separately of whether to integrate them within an overall thematic framework. • Structuring around different time periods when a project studies a process or programme over time, or interviews participants on repeated occasions, the data may have an inbuilt progression or chronology that offers a clear narrative route. In determining the most appropriate structure for the evidence, writers need to think creatively about the best way to engage and retain the reader's attention and make the story 'add up'.

- Structuring around different populations =

if the research has included interviews with different population groups, the reporter will need to decide whether to deal with the themes emerging from each group separately or whether to integrate them within an overall thematic framework. - Structuring around different time periods = when a project studies a process or programme over time, or interviews participants on repeated occasions, the data may have an inbuilt progression or chronology that offers a clear narrative route.

• Structuring around a typology:

if the researcher has identified and developed a typology that cuts across the report findings, then this may be a useful tool which to structure the findings. • Structuring around different populations: if the research has included interviews with different population groups, the reporter will need to decide whether to deal with the themes emerging from each group separately of whether to integrate them within an overall thematic framework. • Structuring around different time periods when a project studies a process or programme over time, or interviews participants on repeated occasions, the data may have an inbuilt progression or chronology that offers a clear narrative route. In determining the most appropriate structure for the evidence, writers need to think creatively about the best way to engage and retain the reader's attention and make the story 'add up'.

when can one use a one-tailed?

if there is good evidence of support in the theoretical framework

deja vu

illusion of visual recognition in which a new situation is regarded as a previous experience or repetition

deja entendu

illusion that what one was hearing has heard previous - type of paramnesia

Challenges in reporting qualitative data The key aim in writing up qualitative evidence is to

present findings in an accessible form that will satisfy the research objectives and engage the target audiences. The analytic output from qualitative research involves evidence of a very different kind from statistical tables and charts. This poses certain challenges when writing up qualitative evidence: -Telling the story -Displaying the evidential base -Displaying diversity -Length in written accounts -Explaining boundaries of qualitative research

independent variable

presumed to influence change in another (pushes the other variable)

Observer as participant

primary observer but might interact, however no central role (observe>participate)

Levels of data

priori framework, descriptive, synthesis formed, increased complexity and case variance, and the gold standard; a product that comprehensively explains a complex human phenomenon.

another name for random sampling

probability

what are the 2 basic approaches to sampling?

probability and non-probability

the p value referes to ....

probability of rejecting the null hypothesis

Besides open ended questions what else does the interview guide have?

probes

method

procedure to collect data

abreaction

process by which repressed material (particularly painful experience or conflict) is brought back to consciousness; in this process, the person not only recalls but also relives the repressed material with an affective response

recall

process of bringing stored memories to consciousness

Reflexivity

process of reflecting on one's self and attending to PERSONAL VALUES that could affect data collection and interpretation, primarily used by qualitative researchers e.g. maintain journal through research

Author

produces the text

what is the method of increasing the representativeness of the variables in the actual study sample?

proportional stratifeid sampling

Comprehensive outputs:

provide a detailed and extensive portrayal of the methodology, findings and implication from the research and are most commonly presented as written accounts. Summary outputs: provide the reader or listener with a condensed overview of the most important issues arising from the research. In written form these are often presented as 'Executive Summaries', 'Research Briefs' or 'key findings', stand-alone documents which allow people access to the main findings of a research study without needing to read the full report. Developmental outputs: are designed to generate discussion and debate about emergent issues arising from the research. They are often produced during the analysis stage of a study as issues and concepts begin to emerge from the data. Presenting interim findings can allow funders, commissioners or colleagues the opportunity to suggest further analysis of areas of interest. Selective outputs: provide accounts of specific parts of the evidence. They may be targeted at the interest of particular audiences, such as professionals or service users, or at conferences or journals with particular substantive remits.

dissociation

psychoanalysis term - defense mechanism involving the segregation of any group of mental or behavioural processes from the rest of the person's psychic activity

Selective outputs:

provide accounts of specific parts of the evidence. They may be targeted at the interest of particular audiences, such as professionals or service users, or at conferences or journals with particular substantive remits.

Summary outputs:

provide the reader or listener with a condensed overview of the most important issues arising from the research. In written form these are often presented as 'Executive Summaries', 'Research Briefs' or 'key findings', stand-alone documents which allow people access to the main findings of a research study without needing to read the full report. Developmental outputs: are designed to generate discussion and debate about emergent issues arising from the research. They are often produced during the analysis stage of a study as issues and concepts begin to emerge from the data. Presenting interim findings can allow funders, commissioners or colleagues the opportunity to suggest further analysis of areas of interest. Selective outputs: provide accounts of specific parts of the evidence. They may be targeted at the interest of particular audiences, such as professionals or service users, or at conferences or journals with particular substantive remits.

explanatory

provides reasons for phenomena, tries to explain why something is happening or implies a causal relationship

guilt

psychoanalysis term - a feeling of culpability that stems from a conflict between the ego and the superego.

substitution

psychoanalysis term - a person replaces an unacceptable wish, drive, emotion or goal with one that is more acceptable

symbolization

psychoanalysis term - an idea or object comes to stand for another because of some common aspect or quality in both; based on similarity and association; the symbols formed protect the person from the anxiety that may be attached to the original idea or subject

suppression

psychoanalysis term - conscious act of controlling and inhibiting an unacceptable impulse, emotion or idea

devaluation

psychoanalysis term - defense mechanism in which a person attributes excessively negative qualities to self or others

regression

psychoanalysis term - defense mechanism in which a person undergoes a partial or total return to earlier patterns of adaptation

rationalization

psychoanalysis term - defense mechanism in which irrational or unacceptable behaviour, motives or feelings are logically justified or made consciously tolerable by plausible means

denial

psychoanalysis term - defense mechanism in which the existence of unpleasant realities is disavowed

hallucinosis

state in which a person experiences hallucinations without any impairment of consciousness

introversion

state in which a person's energies are directed inward to ward the self, with little or no interest in the external world

stupor

state of decreased reactivity to stimuli and less than full awareness of one's surroundings

true insight

state of insight where the understanding of objective reality coupled with the motivational and emotional impetus to master the situation or change behaviour

reliability

states a study is dependable and consistent (can count on repeatedly over time to get the same results)

Silverman Criticism of Quantitative 2

statistical correlations may be based upon variables that are arbitrarily predefined by the researcher

What step of simple random sampling is the researcher identifying the target populaiton such as all the RNs in Cali

step 1

Describe the steps fo proportional stratified sampling with gender

step 1: the target population consists of 3000 men and 7000 women step 2: the sample size is calcualated proportionally 30% men and 70% women step 3: therefore in a sample of 100 subjects would consist of 30 men and 70 women

What step of simple random sampling is the researcher getting an exhaustive list of all the cali RNs from the BON?

step 2

what step of simple random sampling is after the sample frame has been created that each individual is given a number?

step 3

What step of simple random sampling is a random process of choosing subjects through a table of random numbers?

step 4

posturing

strange, fixed and bizarre bodily positions held by a patient for an extended time

Methodology

strategies for gathering, collecting, and analyzing data.

What type fo sampling method is used when you want to ensure the representative nature of certain groups in the population?

stratified random sampling

automatic obedience

strict obedience of command without critical judgement.

-Length in written accounts It is inevitably a choice to be made about leaving some of the findings out, otherwise readers will be

swamped by the evidence and drown in the detail. Difficult to do because accounts rich in the kind of detail often considered necessary to assess the quality of qualitative interpretations within the constraints of journal articles and report for funders. -Explaining boundaries of qualitative research It is important that the audience understands what qualitative research can and cannot do. This will preferably include a discussion of the kinds of inference that can be drawn from qualitative data and its transferability to other settings.

What is the foundation of grounded theory?

symbolic interactionism

what does grounded theory use as its philosophical model guiding the researcher?

symbolic interactionism

Grounded theory must use what two things

symbolic interactionism and comparision method

Codes

tags or labels assigned to the themes

Telling the story The challenge is to

tell the story in an intelligible and coherent way that also does justice to the layered complexity of the participants' descriptions.

theory being useful by directing our research questions

tells us where to look and guides our research, helps us make sense of what we find

Descriptive Qualitative Study

tend to be eclectic in design and method and are used on the GENERAL PREMISES of constructivist inquiry, NO SPECIFIC DISCIPLINE OR ROOTS

The typical alpha refers to .05 which means

that% probability of there is a 5% probability of obtaining an inaccurate result or a 95% probability of obtaining an accurate result

The research question determines

the TYPE OF STUDY (what is birth trauma-qualitative, how can we prevent birth trauma-quantitative)

Hierarchy of themes

the arrangement of codes so that some codes (sometimes called sub-codes or children) at a particular level are associated with one code (sometimes called a parent) at the immediately higher level.

Explaining methods It is important for outputs to outline the rationale for using a qualitative approach and to communicate clearly the uses to which such research can and cannot be put. Explain why particular qualitative approaches and methods were chosen to meet the aims of the research and provide practical detail about how the research was conducted. This can be done in

the body of the report or in a technical appendix. Audit trail: allows the reader to see into the research process and follow its main stages. It may also be helpful to include some discussion of the epistemological orientation of the research team alongside description of methods.

Displaying the evidential base Integrity in reporting requires a demonstration that the interpretations and conclusions presented are generated from, and grounded in

the data.

-Displaying the evidential base Integrity in reporting requires a demonstration that the interpretations and conclusions presented are generated from, and grounded in,

the data. By the time the data appear in a written account they will have been analyzed and investigated so there needs to be a clarity and balance between displaying the subtlety and detail of the original material and the classification, explanation and interpretation that has taken place. -Displaying diversity Inclusivity requires reporting and explaining the untypical as much as it does reporting the more recurrent themes. Not only the dominant message/result but also the exceptions. -Length in written accounts It is inevitably a choice to be made about leaving some of the findings out, otherwise readers will be swamped by the evidence and drown in the detail. Difficult to do because accounts rich in the kind of detail often considered necessary to assess the quality of qualitative interpretations within the constraints of journal articles and report for funders. -Explaining boundaries of qualitative research It is important that the audience understands what qualitative research can and cannot do. This will preferably include a discussion of the kinds of inference that can be drawn from qualitative data and its transferability to other settings.

impaired judgement

the diminished ability to understand a situation correctly and to act appropriately

impaired insight

the diminished ability to understand the objective reality of a situation

the interview guide does not use pschometric principles of relaibility and validity but can be modified in what direction?

the direction of the evolving conceptualizations as the study proceeds.

Hermeneutics

the discipline of interpreting texts by empathically imagining the experience, motivations, and context of the speaker/author, and then by engaging in a circular analysis that alternates between the data texts and the situated scene.

- The audiences the nature of the outputs required will inevitably depend on

the specific audiences being addressed. - Meeting contractual/other obligations in both commissioned and grant- funded research, the range, type and format of written and other outputs that are to be produced will typically be agreed at the contractual stage with the client or funder. - The resources available there is no doubt that the resources available to a study or a research team will limit the research outputs that are possible.

Setting

the specific parameters of the space of study within a field and a site (e.g., the basement).

Define effect size

the standardized numerical index of the magnitude or size of a research finding, including the magnitude of a correlation between the variables or the magnitude of difference between the groups.

Ethnonursing Research

the study and analysis of the local and indigenous people's viewpoints, beliefs, and practices about the nursing care behavior and process of designated cultures

qualitative research

the study of a certain phenomena of interest using a variety of means associated with qualitative inquiry, including case study research, interviewing, narrative inquiry, participant observation, discourse analysis, and phenomenological research. Any research project that uses one of the aforementioned methods.

affect

the subjective and immediate experience of emotion attached to ideas or mental representation of objects. the outward manifestation of mood

Autoethnography

the systematic study, analysis, and narrative description of one's own experiences, interactions, culture, and identity.

Ethnographic methods

the use of participant observation and field interviews, but not necessarily accompanied by immersion in the field or by a holistic cultural analysis.

member check

the validation of data gathered from interview by calibrating findings with participants in the project

quantitative counts numbers while qualitative collects

words

Qualitative research outputs Different kind of research outputs:

written report, thesis or monograph, present emergent or headline findings through an oral presentation or interim report. Key findings and commentary on policy and methodological implications may be disseminated through seminars, workshops, conferences, briefing papers, journal articles and books. Less traditional outputs: theater, poetry, photography, music etc. See box 13.1 for more outputs. Outputs should be judged not only for their substantive contribution and impact, but also for their aesthetic merit and reflexivity.

document

written texts prepared for personal reasons

Can the interview be modified as the study proceeds?

yes

Heightened confidence

you can adequately begin to answer questions (credibility of claims/concepts)

Qualitative Research

• A process of understanding based on a distinct methodological tradition of inquiry that explores a social or human problem. • Associated with efforts by researchers to better understand what is being explored by building a complex and holistic picture that analyzes words, reports detailed views of informants, and conducts the study in a natural setting (Creswell, 2007). • 2 Significant Points o The researcher is the primary instrument for data collection and analysis in qualitative research. o All findings are mediated through this human instrument.

Analytic codes (metacodes)

• Analytic codes (metacodes)

Use of quotations = cited passages. Quotations are essential in bringing alive the content and exposition of people's accounts, their role in providing testimony is more limited. Seven potential purposes for including verbatim quotes:

• As the matter of enquiry • As evidence • As explanation • As illustrations of themes emerging from analysis • To deepen understanding • To give participants a voice • To enhance readability

Analytic Induction (AI)

• Building causal explanations • Progressive redefinition of the phenomenon - Collect data, refine, redirect à redirect hypothesis, collect data

Reporting voice and language Try to ensure while the viewpoints of interviewees take centre-stage, the distinction between researcher and participant interpretation is clear. Three basic forms of presenting research findings in ethnographic studies:

• Realist tales , where the author is 'absent' from the text; observations are reported as facts; interpretations are not formulated as subjective formulations; the viewpoints of interviewees are emphasized; and subject's statements are transferred to a general level using 'experience-distance' concepts. • Confessional tales , characterized by a highly personalized authorship with the authors expressing the role they played in what was observed, their interpretations and the formulations used, often resulting in a mixture of description of the phenomena being studied and the researcher's experiences of studying them. • Impressionist tales, which are written in the form of a dramatic recall often via narratives.

Other options for structuring a report based on substantive, cross-sectional thematic analysis of the kind described in this book include:

• Structuring around a typology: if the researcher has identified and developed a typology that cuts across the report findings, then this may be a useful tool which to structure the findings. • Structuring around different populations: if the research has included interviews with different population groups, the reporter will need to decide whether to deal with the themes emerging from each group separately of whether to integrate them within an overall thematic framework. • Structuring around different time periods when a project studies a process or programme over time, or interviews participants on repeated occasions, the data may have an inbuilt progression or chronology that offers a clear narrative route. In determining the most appropriate structure for the evidence, writers need to think creatively about the best way to engage and retain the reader's attention and make the story 'add up'.

Strategies to avoid numeric or quasi-numeric statements

• Turning a sentence around and to talk about issues rather than cases. • Presenting views, characteristics or experiences in sets, such that an array of responses can be seen. • Presenting the array of responses in some more classified form - clustering responses into a number of groups • Focusing on differences between groups of cases, where these occur.

Interpretive Research

• an approach to qualitative research that recognizes and draws upon the self-reflective nature of this type of inquiry and thereby emphasizes the role of the researcher as an interpreter of the data and as an individual who represents information; • this approach recognizes and acknowledges the value of language and discourse and issues of power, authority and domination (Creswell, 2007).


Kaugnay na mga set ng pag-aaral

Histology Exam 2 Review Questions

View Set

Medical Surgical Nursing Chapter 62 Musculoskeletal Assessment

View Set

Chapter 18 The French Revolution

View Set