Questions

Explain: individual prophets.

"Ordinary" individual prophets communicated messages from God to the people. Their behavior was more normal than the ecstatics. Some of them worked directly in the court of the king (e.g. Nathan at David's court), while others were itinerant

Explain: "sons of prophets"

"Sons of prophets" were groups of disciples who surrounded individual prophets. Elisha's followers are the most famous example of this phenomenon. They were normally humble, poor and unappreciated people, who were often considered crazy.

Explain: the types of genres taken from other environments.

1. Funerary lament (e.g. David for Saul and Jonathan — 2 Sam 1:19-27) a. Like in many cultures, in Israel you would sing a formal lament for a dead person. The Hebrew term for this is qînāh (not to be confused with the simple mourning cry 'ôy / hôy). In Hebrew, these laments almost always had a particular rhythm (3 accents + 2 accents). b. Some prophetic texts adapt this literary genre in anticipation of the fall of Israel (e.g. Amos 5:1-3) or the fall of a foreign nation (such as Tyre, in Ez. 26:17ff) 2. Pre-Trial and Trial controversies a. In ancient Israel there were two ways of resolving a legal dispute: a direct discussion between the two parties ("pre-trial") or a formal session in front of a judge or panel of judges who arbitrate the dispute ("trial"). The Hebrew term for lawsuit/quarrel is rîb. b. Various prophetic texts reflect the vocabulary and procedures of such controversies, applied to a crisis in the relationship between YHWH and His people (e.g. Isaiah 1:2-3; Jer. 2:4-13). The scene usually involves the appearance of witnesses that listen to the accusations of YHWH against the unfaithful people and His verdict against them. Other genres include paraboles (2 Sam 12:1-7), comparisons (Jer 17:11), hymns (Amos 5:8f), secular songs (Isaiah 5:1-7), and prayers (Jer. 32:16-25).

Three types of materials in Jeremiah.

1. Material A: Poetry with some narrative in the 1st-person-singular (1; 13:1-11; 36), like an autobiography. This may be mostly written by Jeremiah himself. 2. Material B: Stories about Jeremiah in the 3rd-person (19:1 - 20:6; 26; 28-29; 36; 37-45). Some scholars attribute this to Baruch. 3. Material C: Prophetic speeches (7:1 - 8:3; 11:1-14; 22:1-5; 25:1-14) different in style from A and B, except for a few narrative passages. Here we see echoes of the Deuteronomistic style, like in Kings (lots of repetition, etc). Scholars conclude that this material comes from an editor of that school.

Explain: the types of narrative genres.

1. Visions — 3 types... a. Dramatic Scene: Prophet witnesses events and, at the climax, hears divine words. (Isaiah 6:1-13) b. Object: Prophet sees an object and speaks with God, who explains its significance. (Jeremiah 1:11ff) c. Mysterious, Angelic-Explanation-Required: Prophet sees a strange vision that requires an angel of God to come and explain it. (Zech. 2:1ff; Dan. 7:1ff) 2. Symbolic action by the prophet: These are only found in Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, Hosea, Zachariah, and 1&2 Kings. The common structure of this narrative is: a) Divine initiative, b) how the prophet performs the action and c) the explanation of the meaning of the action. (Ez. 37:1ff "dry bones") 3. Biographical narratives: There are only two: Is 36-39 and Jr 36-45. The focus is on the message, not on the prophet himself.

What are the two more important questions in the genesis of the book of Hosea?

1. Why so many (15) references to Judah when Hosea lived and worked in the Northern Kingdom? 2. Why does the book suddenly end on a hopeful note when the rest of the book is overwhelmingly negative? Some scholars think these problems suggest a long redaction history, and that the references to Judah as well as the hopeful ending were the result of later redaction.

Three types of passages/reading in the Confessions.

3 proposals (types of reading) have been made to resolve the issue of accounting both for the personal nature of the Confessions of Jeremiah, and of their Parallels to the Psalms and Job: 1. Autobiographical Reading (Baumgartner 1912). The traditional view: He defends an autobiographical reading of the text and argues that the confessions express true prophecy. They should be considered autobiographical because, as a member of a priestly family, Jeremiah would have known the Psalms well, and so he naturally uses them to express his thoughts. Also, Baumgartner notes that there are plenty of elements that are original and do not have a parallel theme in the psalms. (e.g. Jer 11:21 and 17:15). a. less popular theory today among historical-critical Biblicists. 2. Community Liturgical Reading (Reventlow 1963). Jeremiah's confessions are liturgical texts that were rooted in the psalms. The "I" of Jeremiah refers to the community. This rules out an autobiographical reading in favor of a communitarian understanding. a. not popular: over-reaction to the traditional view 3. Differentiated Reading: History of Redaction (Bezzel 2007). Bezzel seeks to understand the proper reading of the confessions by looking at it through various stages of redaction. The nucleus of the work of the prophet was built upon over time. First, there was autobiographical information, perhaps including a couple citations to the psalms. Second, various redactors added to and modified the text over time. Finally, the personal "I" gradually evolved into a communitarian "I." The community believed that Jeremiah was speaking of the suffering of the people of Israel (or at least, that his situation applied to theirs). a. most widely held view.

Explain: the types of oracle genres

3 types... 1. Judgment oracles. Typical of the earlier prophets / pre-exilic period. Many begin with the word "woe" (Amos 5:15ff). They contain two parts: (1) an indication of the sins of the people and (2) an announcement of a disaster. The transition between the two parts is marked by the word "therefore...", and the second part always uses the future tense (Amos 3:9-11). 2. Exhortations and warnings: Exhortations (positive) and warnings (negative) both seek to change the behavior of the recipients, and are always in the imperative. (Amos 4:4-5). 3. Oracle of salvation: Typical of post-exilic period. These oracles are always positive and use the future tense to describe blessings/improvements that will come sometime in the future. They often include words of hope, consolation, restoration, and harmony. (Amos 9:11-15)

Explain: Debora.

According to the Book of Judges, Deborah was the fourth Judge of pre-monarchic Israel. She was also a prophet, and is the only female judge. She would sit under a palm tree to receive those who ask for her help. One of the most important pieces of advice she gave was to her general, Barak. Deborah stated that Barak ought to go to war against King Labin and his general Sisera. The famous line Barak told Deborah was: "if you come with me I'll go, if you don't go, I won't go." Deborah responds that the glory of victory will not be Barak's, but the Lord will protect Barak. She predicts that the Lord will deliver the enemy General Sisera into the hands of a woman named Yael (or Jael), after he abandons his army which is losing, and that Yael will hide him in her tent and then kill him by hammering a tent stake into his head. Her story is told twice, in chapters 4 and 5 of Book of Judges. Judges chapter 5:2-31 gives the same story in poetic form. This passage, often called The Song of Deborah, may date to as early as the 12th century BC and is perhaps the earliest sample of Hebrew poetry. In Hebrew, her name, דְּבוֹרָה , translates as bee.

The religious/cultic situation in the temple for Hosea?

According to the text of Hosea, there was Religious Corruption of Israel (Hos 4:4-19): − Condemnation of the Priests: 4:4-6 o Priests had forgotten/ignored the Word of the Lord. They hadn't dedicated themselves to ministry, and had rejected the knowledge of God - "My people are destroyed for lack of knowledge; because you have rejected knowledge, I reject you from being a priest to me. And since you have forgotten the law of your God, I also will forget your children."(4:6) − Condemnation of the People: 4:7-10 o All of the people are now criticized, for they all sinned. o Strong vocabulary, like "prostitute," is used. It is typical of Hosea to illustrate his point (esp. re: corruption) using a matrimonial metaphor. − Condemnation of Cult of Idolatry: 4:11-15 o People must choose between either YHWH or Baal. They cannot go on living this life of religious syncretism. In reality, their belief system was not syncretistic but polytheistic. Both YHWH and Baal were put side by side in Israel. − Condemnation of Israel: 4:16-19 − Some think Hosea was using hyperbole to describe the sin of the people. But some corruption regarding cults, and the problems in the priesthood, are certainly true. Observations on the text. Syncretism between the Lord and Baal (Canaanite deity). The Israelites may have engaged in "Baal-ized" worship of God — i.e., worship of the true God using the rites and rituals of Baal. Many people were "practical polytheists," seeing no contradiction between worshiping God and Baal together. External testimonies concur with the Biblical account: − Inscriptions from the time of Hosea (8th-6th c.) (see Dispensa) confirm Hosea's claims. One 8th c. inscription from Kuntillet Ajrud (Sinai peninsula) reads: "I will bless you by YHWH of Samaria and by his asherah." Many scholars think Asherah refers to a goddess (perhaps a female partner for YHWH or Baal). Others think it refers to a sacred object. In either case, syncretized worship occurred. − Also, Cultic objects from this era confirm sycretism: there were Steles (pillars of stone) representing divinities were worshiped by Israelites. (Hos 3:4?; 10:1) as well as gold and silver idol calves. (Hos 8:5-6; 10:5-6; 13:2)

Who are the pre-classical prophets and who are the classical prophets?

All of the prophets before Amos (around 760 BC) are considered "pre-classic" and all from Amos and afterwards are considered "classic." This is not based on the canonical books, but rather on the chronological order of the prophets themselves.

Comment on the title, Amos 1:1.

Amos 1:1 "The words of Amos, who was among the shepherds of Tekoa, which he saw concerning Israel in the days of Uzziah king of Judah and in the days of Jeroboam the son of Joash, king of Israel, two years before the earthquake." Amos 1:1 is the title of the book of Amos. It provides chronological information and situates the book. It is a heavily studied verse. "The words of Amos". Most prophetic books say "the Word of the Lord". Amos and Jeremiah are the only prophets who use a different formula. Occupation of Amos - "among the shepherds" − His occupation is not entirely clear. Translations give a lot of variations. ("Shepherd," "sheep-breeder," "herdsman"). Amos was most likely a sheepherder who may have owned his own sheep. Noket is the Hebrew word used, though it doesn't typically mean shepherd, but rather someone who has a small farm. (Ro'eh is the normal word for shepherd.) o cf. 2 Kings 3:4 This is the only other mention of noket in the Bible. Here the sheepherder was wealthy. But Amos is constantly admonishing the rich. If he was rich himself, then there is added importance to his words because he has experience with wealth. Place of origin − Tekoa is a small village 16 km south of Jerusalem (mentioned in Jer. 6:1 & 2 Sam 14). Although Amos is from the South, the Lord calls him to prophesy in the North. "Seeing visions": − This sentence is syntactically ambiguous. Two possible translations: o 1. "Amos, who had visions regarding Israel" o 2. "Words of Amos, that he saw regarding Israel." − The pronoun could be 'who' (for Amos) or 'which' (for the words of Amos). Hebrew only has one relative pronoun, "asher," so we can't know for sure which is meant. But in either case, Amos clearly isn't speaking for himself, but for the Lord. "Regarding Israel" could refer to the Northern kingdom or to the people of God in general. Time of Ministry of Amos − "In the days of King Uzziah of Judah and in the days of King Jeroboam son of Joash of Israel." The ministry of Amos took place about 10 years before the prophet Hosea. Length of Ministry ('two years before the earthquake') − Zechariah and Josephus Flavius both mention an earthquake. Therefore, his ministry was brief, perhaps only a year. He was driven out of the North.

Comment on Amos 1:3-2:16

Amos 1:3-2:16: Oracles Against the Nations A. Some other examples of these sorts of oracles are found in Is 13-23, Jer 46-51, and Ez 25-32. B. Final form of the text (synchronic aspect) 1. Structural aspects a. We have eight oracles, but two against foreign nations; the last two are against Israel (not included in this list). i. Against Aram (City of Damascus) (1:3-5) ii. Against Philistia (Gaza) (1:6-8) iii. Against Tyre (1:9-10) iv. Against Edom (1:11-12) v. Against Ammon (the Ammonites) (1:13-15) vi. Against Moab (2:1-3) b. All begin the same way: "Thus says the Lord: for three transgressions of such and such a place, and for four, I will not revoke the punishment." c. The general structure, and most scholars agree, is that each oracle gets successively more and more severe, until they reach a climax, so that there is a linear structure; others, however, suggest a concentric structure: six oracles against foreign nations, one against Judah (which is the center of the concentric structure), and finally, one against Israel. (It's sort of difficult, though, to say that the invective against Judah is really the climax, because that would make for a pretty unbalanced structure.) d. Let's take a look at the first oracle, the one against Damascus [Disp. p. 8]. e. It begins with the formula of a messenger, used to invoke the authority of the speaker for the Lord. This wasn't invented by the prophet but comes from other aspect of Jewish life. i. Thus says the Lord, f. Afterwards follows the denunciations of various misdeeds. i. For three transgressions of Damascus, ii. and for four, I will not revoke the punishment; iii. because they have threshed Gilead iv. with threshing sledges of iron. g. What does it mean when it says "and for four, I will not revoke the punishment"? The reason is the quality of their crimes: "they have threshed Gilead"...i.e. killed the people of Gilead. h. Next comes the announcement of punishment: i. So I will send a fire on the house of Hazael, ii. and it shall devour the strongholds of Ben-hadad. iii. I will break the gate bars of Damascus, iv. and cut off the inhabitants from the Valley of Aven, v. and the one who holds the scepter from Beth-eden; vi. and the people of Aram shall go into exile to Kir, i. The punishment is deportation. Then the oracle ends with this formula: i. says the Lord. 2. The other eight oracles follow this fundamental structure, but with variations. There isn't a single oracle that's the same as another, really; they all follow this form, but each is unique. 3. Each oracle expands upon the punishment of the Lord; it begins pretty briefly with Damascus, but gets more and more severe and drawn out as the sequence of oracles progresses. 4. There are three oracles in which the formula "says the Lord" is missing at the end: Tyre, Edom, and Judah. This difference make the scholars suspect that they may have been added later. 5. There are also other recurring phrases in the oracles: a. Thus says the Lord, the formula of the messenger; b. I will not revoke the punishment, which means that the Lord has made up his mind; he will not change his mind; 6. When it comes to the content, we have a few questions to ask: a. What people? The people chosen are the traditional enemies of Israel; that is, their neighbors. [Consult the map in the Dispense, p. 9.] Aram and Tyre in Phoenicia are to the north; Philistia is to the west; Ammon to the east; and Moab and Edom to the south. Israel is surrounded by its enemies. Note that these populations are really more symbolic than anything. Many of them were not enemies of Israel at the time—these feuds were somewhat anachronistic. Assyria, Babylonia, Egypt are noticeably absent. The real threat at this time was Assyria. The imagery is what's important; that Israel was surrounded. b. What crimes did they commit? Some true atrocities, committed in times of war: "delivered entire communities over to Edom" (v. 9); "ripped open pregnant women in Gilead" (v. 13). The response of the Lord is therefore a response of justice. c. Against whom? Some of the crimes were committed by foreigners against non-Israelites; but many were in fact against Israel. For example, Gilead is in northern Israel. This is a sign of the universalism of the God of Israel; he judges all the nations for all their atrocities, even those not committed against Israel. He wants justice for all the nations; even those who worship other gods. d. What is the reaction of God? Various punishments, violent and typical of war, and all presented in the 1st person singular: "I will send a fire on the wall of Tyre" (v. 10); "I will send a fire on Teman, and it shall devour the strongholds of Bozrah" (v. 12). There are many examples, which some call the "dark pages of the Bible," where violence is met with violence. We don't believe in such suggestions, though, where there's a fearful God of the OT and a loving one in the NT. 7. The thematic significance of these oracles: The overall theme seems to be justice towards those who have committed crimes in war. But the last one, the climactic oracle, is different. It is the oracle against Israel: a. [...] because they sell the righteous for silver, b. and the needy for a pair of sandals— c. they who trample the head of the poor into the dust of the earth, d. and push the afflicted out of the way; e. father and son go in to the same girl, f. so that my holy name is profaned; g. they lay themselves down beside every altar h. on garments taken in pledge; i. and in the house of their God they drink j. wine bought with fines they imposed (2:6-8) 8. These aren't war crimes; they are social crimes and breaches of morality. The sins of Israel are of a different category but considered worse. The Lord foretells Israel's defeat. 9. Now let's take a look at the origin of the texts of the three oracles added to the original five; who organized the oracles this way? C. Origin of the Text (diachronic investigation) 1. More than one author 2. Later oracles: against Tyre, against Edom, against Judah 3. Arguments a. Take, for example, the oracle against Tyre. There we read that "they delivered entire communities over to Edom" (1:9). But we just read in the oracle against Gaza: "because they carried into exile entire communities, to hand them over to Edom" (1:6). So this seems like a repetition. And then, we notice that in the oracle against Tyre, there is no ending formula ("says the Lord God"). b. In all three of these later oracles, the description of the crime is longer than the others, and the punishment is shorter. When we read the oracle against Judah, moreover, it seems Deuteronomical; the crime is "they have rejected the law of the Lord" (2:4), nothing having to do with war or violence. c. That's why scholars believe that these were added later; perhaps during or after the Babylonian exile. The aim would have been to reestablish the codes of morality that were lost during that time. d. Now a challenge - how can we then accept the proposal of concentric structure with a center on Judah, since the diachronic doesn't have Judah? e. It's important to take both the synchronic and the diachronic approaches together; we can't look at these things in isolation. It's not so simple sometimes to resolve certain problems; you may very well find it impossible to find a clear, convincing solution; and that's just the way that it is. It is better to have a clear vision of the problems and situation than to exclude some for superficially clear answer. If we are going to understand better, we need to look at these texts both as a progressive development (diachronically) and in their current and final form (synchronically). f. As far as the overall structure, now we can see and understand how the original structure was just two parts, both of five elements (five oracles against the nations, and five visions); how three more oracles were added; and then how a social criticism section was added in between later. So, three distinct sections to this text.

What is the historical framework of the 7th century?

Assyrian Collapse: Assyria is the major regional power and controlled nearly all of the fertile crescent. The large size of Assyria was too much to govern which led to frequent revolts. King Esarhaddon of Assyria succeeded in conquering Egypt but the empire is too large to manage, Assyria's glory gives way to an irreversible crisis. Nineveh falls in 612 BC. Reform of Josiah: Manasseh, king from 698-643, forsook the God of Israel his later successor (at 8 years old) Josiah (640-609) was a great reformer. Josiah is considered the one truly great king of this era in Judah. He orders scroll of the Law to be read in the temple and renews the covenant. He initiated deuterononical religious reform (no more foreign gods) and politically he brings about stability and peace. He had a nationalistic agenda, and there was a national renewal. However, he dies in battle against the advancing Egyptians at a young age, in 609. Deportation and Exile: After Josiah, the last kings of Judah are: Jehoahaz (609), Jehoiakim (609-598), Jehoiachin (597), Zedekiah (597-587). In 600, Babylon makes its first attempt to capture Jerusalem. This first attempt failed, but the Babylonians kept up the attack. In 597, Jehoiachin is deported with his family and many of Jerusalem's elite, including many prophets such as Ezekiel to Babylon. This is the first deportation. After this, Zedekiah (It: Sedecia), one of Josiah's sons, was appointed by Babylon to be king in Jehoiachin's place. He eventually rebels against Babylon in 587. In punishment, Jerusalem is destroyed. This is the second deportation and is much larger. The Temple is destroyed, and so we see the end of Judah.

Why is the book of Hosea difficult?

Because of its language, style, the state of manuscripts, and verse numeration... − Language o Hosea is from the Kingdom of the North, with its particular dialect, which differs from the language spoken in Jerusalem. − Style o The book lacks a common concept or theme, and it contains many repetitions, with frequent shifting between negative and positive elements. These transitions are often sharp and without any apparent reason. The post-exilic Jewish reader is confronted with these negative/positive pairs. He understands the fall of the Northern and Southern Kingdoms as God's judgment. At the same time, he can be comforted by the salvific passages which promise a future hope. The Christian reader is likewise confronted with these negative/positive pairs. However, he is able to draw a connection with the Paschal Mystery, which involves both suffering and triumph, judgment and salvation, death and resurrection. ■ The author may have wanted to be difficult to understand in order to emphasize God's transcendance in the face of man's desire to comprehend His wisdom (11:9 - I am God and not man. I am holy and in your midst). − Manuscripts o The Masoretic text (Hebrew Bible version) is not in good condition. Many phrases are not understood or ambiguous and require guessing. − Numeration: o Verse numbers are often quite different depending on manuscripts and translations (especially in the first three chapters).

Regarding #56, what was Bernard Duhm's theory? The Magisterium's response?

Bernard Duhm (1847-1928) proposed that the book was in three parts, which is the currently accepted position today. 1. Chapters 1-39 ("proto-Isaiah") - section still considered to be from Isaiah and his oral preaching and mostly pre-exilic 2. Chapters 40-55 ("deutero-Isaiah") - separate section, written during the exile by an anonymous author 3. Chapters 56-66 ("trito-Isaiah")- a third section by another author, or several anonymous authors, certainly from after the exile. Catholic Reaction. This scholarship began in a Protestant environment, which was not trusted in the Catholic world of the time. But things started to change in the 20th century. Although the Pontifical Biblical Commission said there was not enough evidence to support Duhm's theory in the early 1900s, Pope Pius XII's encyclical, Divino Afflante Spiritu (1952), which opened the Catholic world to the idea of "historical-critical" research on the Bible, gave occasion for more research into the theory. Now Duhm's theory is widely accepted in the Catholic world.

What is the current situation regarding the study of Isaiah?

Duhm's theory is generally accepted. The first part of the Book of Isaiah is from the 8th century BC, during the prophet's time, and thus could well have been influenced by him, and possibly even written by him or his scribe. The other parts are considered to be from later: the exilic (deutero-Isaiah) and post-exilic (certainly trito-Isaiah) periods. There are many internal connections between the three books: vocabulary, theology, expressions, etc., and some elements in the earlier sections even come from later times. So, the whole book as we read it presents itself in a relatively strong unity. Thus, we cannot look at the three sections in isolation

Explain: the crisis in Judah (8th cent.).

During the reign of Ahaz, Judah was happily allied with Tiglath-Pileser III. But later under King Hezekiah, a good king like Josiah (according to the Deuteronomist), left things in ruin. He rebelled against the Assyrians, hoping for the assistance of Egypt. In 701, Sennacherib (the king of Assyria) took 46 cities of Judah and surrounded Jerusalem, which was reinforced but not invulnerable. Jerusalem was not taken, nor damaged, nor occupied (2Kings 18-19), but only because of an agreement with Hezekiah: he paid a large tribute and they spared the city. Hezekiah remained on the throne, although Judah was still a vassal state of Assyria. This was seen as a blessing of YHWH, protector of Jerusalem. In the end, however, most of the countryside of Judah was completely destroyed, and Hezekiah wound up in the exact same situation he was in the first place. It was very surprising that Sennacherib did not follow his usual practice of destroying the city and spilling blood.

Explain: ecstatic prophets.

Ecstatic prophets are characterized by strange behavior, entering into a trance or ecstasy. They represent a primitive form of prophecy, usually communicating with signs instead of with words. The point was to have contact with the divine through the ecstatic state. This type of prophet is found also in other cultures.

Comment on Isaiah 5:1-7

Exordium (the narrator) 1a Let me sing for my beloved a love song concerning his vineyard: Song (narration) 1b My beloved had a vineyard on a very fertile hill. 2a He digged it and cleared it of stones, and planted it with choice vines; 2b he built a watchtower in the midst of it, and hewed out a wine vat in it; 2c and he looked for it to yield grapes, but it yielded wild grapes. Song (citation of the words of the beloved) 3a And now, O inhabitants of Jerusalem and men of Judah, 3b judge, I pray you, between me and my vineyard. 4a What more was there to do for my vineyard, that I have not done in it? 4b When I looked for it to yield grapes, why did it yield wild grapes? 5a And now I will tell you what I will do to my vineyard. 5b I will remove its hedge, and it shall be devoured; 5c I will break down its wall, and it shall be trampled down. 6a I will make it a waste; it shall not be pruned or hoed, 6b and briers and thorns shall grow up; 6c I will also command the clouds that they rain no rain upon it. Conclusion (the message is revealed) 7a For the vineyard of the LORD of hosts is the house of Israel, 7b and the men of Judah are his pleasant planting; 7c and he looked for justice, but behold, bloodshed; 7d for righteousness, but behold, a cry! Final Form of the Text (Synchronic Study): − This passage is a poem, written before the Syrian- Ephraimite War. A vineyard is the subject, which is a common theme in the Bible in general, both in the Old Testament and New Testament. It is a metaphor from an agricultural society (their sitz in leben). − Delimitation of the text: Establishing the beginning and end of this passage is pretty easy since the theme is completely different from what is before or after it. There is no mention of vineyards before this passage, and verse 5:8 begins the "Woe..." oracles, a completely different type altogether. − Structure of the text: 1. Exordium (the narrator) 5:1a: "Let me sing for my beloved..." (in Italian, "diletto") - 1st, pers. sing. 2. Song (narration) 5:1b-2c: (3rd, pers. sing.) It is all in the past tense, recounting the background of the situation. 3. Song (citation of the words of the friend) 5:3a-6c: Note that the story is finished—there is a direct discourse. In the first subdivision (5:3-4b), the verbs are in the present. In the next section (5a-6c), they are all in the future, a prediction of judgment. Both subsections start with the word "now." 4. Conclusion (here the message is revealed) 5:7a-7d: The vineyard is revealed to be the House of Israel. The present tense in the first half of the verse, and then the past tense. Commentary on the text: (1) The theme of contrast. There is a contrast between the owner's original desire and what he actually does. First, he wanted to care for his vineyard, and now he intends to destroy it. Second, he was expecting grapes, but what he got was "wild (or rotten) grapes." This is the same as we find at the explanation: justice was expected but blood was shed instead, etc. This is basically social criticism! The final verse is poetic: words are similar in sound but very different in meaning in the Hebrew. (2) Ambiguity in the language. This passage is written in poetic language, which makes it difficult to determine what exactly the author is trying to convey. (cp. Is. 1:8 or 3:14, which both mention vineyards.) In Hebrew, this passage is ambiguous and hard to translate. For example, Is. 5:1a can be translated in several ways: a. RSV: "Let me sing for my beloved a love song concerning his vineyard" b. NRSV: "Let me sing for my beloved my love-song concerning his vineyard..." c. D-R: "I will sing to my beloved the canticle of my cousin concerning his vineyard" Whose song is being sung: the speaker's, the speaker's beloved's, or someone else's? Also, the image of the vineyard itself contains ambiguity. Frequently in love poetry, a vineyard refers to a beloved woman, thus Isaiah could be talking about a love story that ended badly. Or at least, this could assume this right up until v. 7, when the meaning of the vineyard is actually revealed—the poem is about the Lord's people. Thus, the explanatory verse is really necessary. The overall purpose of this passage is to communicate a strong message of social criticism to the Israelites (judgment oracle). (Also, a related meaning -- judgment -- is present in the other vineyard verses in this section, i.e. 3:14.) Nevertheless, some Biblical images can have multiple meanings. Vineyards appear in the story of Noah to represent new life post-flood (a positive sense), but sometimes with the nuance that you can get drunk from it. Also, in Num. 13, it occurs again when the Israelites first see the Promised Land. − The literary genre of the text: The literary genre is disputed. It is obviously poetry, but it is also seen as a parable of judgment. A similar text would be the story of Nathan and David (2 Sam 12), and Nathan's parable of the rich man and the poor man, and the lamb that the rich man took from the poor man to feed a guest, while he had tons of his own sheep. Likewise, in our passage, a person passes from the role of judge in an invented situation to being the guilty one in the real situation. And this is exactly what happened in the case of David. He judged a fake case, and thereby convicted himself. Thus, here, no names are mentioned; we just know that there is a friend and he has a vineyard, and the listeners are asked to judge between the man and his vineyard -- until the very end. (In our passage, we learn that the owner is actually the Lord and the judges (Israelites) are the wild grapes (who betrayed the Lord), and whom they have just condemned, or at least consented to the justice of the owner's decision to destroy the vineyard.) Also, Jesus uses the same tactic since it gets the point across. This is a rhetorical device that we see not only in Isaiah but also in Micah—harsh judgment of social injustice coming in very beautiful packaging. Genesis of the Text (Diachronic Study): − Was the text written just like it is, or has it been redacted over time? Obviously, diachronic study is hypothetical, and the important thing is to be aware of the possibility, not to segment off little verses of the text as if they do not actually relate to one another. − Textual clues: There are some problems verses with the passage itself. For example, verse 1 is textually ambiguous. Verse 7 is very different from the rest of the passage, and while it is the solution to the riddle, it is a real turn from what comes before. Verses 5-6 are rather scathing, though perhaps a little "exaggerated." − Proposal for explanations: There are three positions of scholars on deciphering the text. The first (one extreme) is that there is no problem with the text. The whole passage reflects the voice of the prophet. The second (more balanced approach) is that the poem is partly from Isaiah, or was used by him. Afterwards, some redactors might have stretched it out a bit, added the explanation, made it more precise, etc., in light of the invasions which happened. Quite a few scholars accept this idea, and it is the most plausible. Many texts were changed with the passage of time, and scholars often take note of rhetoric that seems a bit "off-track" with the rest of the passage. Third, a few others say the whole poem must be post-exilic, but this is the other extreme minority opinion. Thematic Study: Social Criticism in Proto-Isaiah (1-39) Social criticism is not exclusive to proto-Isaiah but reoccurs throughout the prophetic literature. Yet, there are many texts of social criticism in proto-Isaiah. Trito-Isaiah also has a few but not Deutero-Isaiah. Jeremiah has some social criticism, as do Ezekiel, Amos, Micah, and one in Malachai. So, it seems to characterize pre-exilic prophecy of the 8th cent. Sicre asks and answers some questions about the use of social criticism: 1. Who are the victims and oppressors? ■ The victims are those least privileged and most vulnerable, i.e., poor, widows, and orphans. ■ The oppressors are those who are privileged and in power, i.e., leaders, governors, elders, rich, etc., including those who do not oppress directly, but whose style of life is still the result of oppression. 2. What are the specific accusations? ■ Injustices against the widow, orphan, etc. The lifestyle of the rich who eat and drink well by taking advantage of the poor. 3. What are the roots of evil? ■ The heart of man: he thinks he is able to act without God and thinks of himself as a god. Also, economics and wealth are additional sources. 4. What is the purpose of the critique? ■ To announce judgment, certainly, but not just that. The more important goal is conversion and to regain the Lord's favor. Even punishment has a purpose. 5. Where does the prophet get the criteria of the critique? ■ He gets it from Amos and from the law, but the idea of social justice is not unique to Israel since this is part of the moral law. 6. What about the divine origin of the critique? ■ God does not tolerate injustice and oppression of those who are weakest in society. Prophets do not see themselves solely as social critics, and they are not the only ones who desire a better society. They are denouncing injustices because God told them to, and they are responding to God's call

Explain: the crisis of Northern Israel (8th cent.).

First Assyrian invasion: Siro-Ephramite War (734-733 BC). Before the war, the North [Israel/Ephraim] and King Tiglath-Pileser III made a treaty, and Israel paid tribute, until a certain king of Israel, Menahim (745-738), refused to pay. Instead, he made an alliance with the Syrians to fight Tiglath-Pileser III. He called on King Ahaz in the south (Judah) to join the alliance, but Ahaz (744-727) refused. So Syria and Israel attacked Judah. Judah called for help from Tiglath-Pileser, and so Assyria invaded Israel and Syria (734-733 BC). This drama is the context for Isaiah 6, who counseled against the alliance. Second Assyrian invasion (722-21). Another king, King Hoshea of Israel (732-722), was also tired of paying tribute to Assyria. In 724 he decided to stop paying. By now the king of Assyria was not Tiglat-Pileser III but Shalmaneser V. Israel had hoped that Egypt would aid them, but the prophets advised against looking toward Egypt. Rather, they should trust in the Lord, and look to Him for help! Sure enough, no help from Egypt came. Samaria fell under Salmanassar V and Sargon II (his successor) in 722-721 BC. Thousands of Israelites were deported to Assyria, and the Assyrians imported a bunch of other people to take their place. Deportation and colonization was a typical strategy of Assyrian imperialism. These mixed and intermarried with the remaining Israelites, and thus the "Samaritans" were created. Thus we can understand how the people of the South in Jesus' time did not get along with the Samaritans. It comes from this time. They were an idolatrous group of half-breeds, in the southerners' eyes. There were also lots of refugees from the North who went south. The mixture of Northern and Southern traditions in Jerusalem was vital for the formation of the sacred books. These happenings are the central theme of the prophet Amos (the deportation).

Why is Hosea theologically important?

Hosea's emphasis on the personal character of God's relationship with Israel, especially his use of a spousal image for Israels' relationship with God (for the first time in Heb. literature), has a profound influence on later prophetic books (e.g. Isaiah). The Lord is portrayed as an ever faithful husband while Israel is an unfaithful and adulterous wife who prostitutes herself (commits idolatry). Even the NT evangelists pick up on this image.

Comment on Hosea 2:4-25

I. Hosea 2:4-25 - A Love Betrayed A. The composition of Hos 1-3 1. Hos 1:2-2:3 Matrimony and Children a. 1:2-9 (negative) b. 2:1-3 (positive) 2. Hos 2:4-25 The Unfaithful bride a. 2:4-17 (negative) b. 2:18-25 (positive) 3. Hos 3:1-5 The Bride is taken back a. 3:1-4 (negative) b. 3:5 (positive) II. Hos 2:4-25: literary aspects A. Literary genre: two-sided controversy or argument (rîb) 1. The first question is that of literary genre. Most commentators say that the literary genre of this text is a rîb, an argument or controversy between two parties. This is a genre that is common in the prophets. The two parties are God and Israel; in this case, they are represented by the spousal metaphor of Hosea and his wife, Gomer. They reflect the covenant between God and his people. Here, it is God that takes the initiative in the conflict by "strongly inviting" Hosea to take Gomer as his wife. 2. We find three elements in the text: first, the theme of adultery; second, the accusations and shame of prostitution; third, the lovers who intrude on the relationship and tempt the wife. While some scholars claim the oracle to be a rîb, it can also be read as an oracle of judgment, with two parts (accusation of crimes followed by a "therefore" with a future tense of punishment; e.g., "Upon her children also I will have no pity, because they are children of harlotry" [v. 4]). Thus, maybe the oracle has some elements of a rîb, but it is a standard example of an oracle of judgment. 3. We also find "therefore" (לָכֵן, lakhen) in verse 6; again in verse 9; and finally, in verse 14. In the first two instances of lakhen, it speaks of an erring action, a lack of fidelity, a misdeed, and God's consequent promise to avenge it. But in the final lakhen, in verse 14, we would rightly be awaiting another misdeed; instead, we find something less severe: "[she] forgot me, says the Lord" (v. 13). Then, next, after the lakhen, we find words of gentleness: "I will allure her, / and bring her into the wilderness, / and speak tenderly to her" (v. 14). So it's not the harder punishment which we would expect, but an oracle of salvation. This creates a difficulty in dividing the text. B. Structure of two parts: 2:4-17 / 2:18-25 1. From the structural point of view, the divisions of this text are obvious; there are three lakhens, so there are three divisions. But thematically, it's not so simple. And another problem: where does the second part of this oracle begin? Is it in verse 16? Or earlier, in verse 14? The verbs are in the future tense throughout this section, which is a classic feature of oracles of salvation. 2. We find a clear oracle of judgment and listing of misdeeds from 2:4-15, and by the time we arrive at verses 18-25, we're clearly at an oracle of salvation. The difficult to classify portion is from 16 to 17. They may be interpreted as belonging either to the first part or the second, but probably represent a bridge between the two. At the very least, these two verses appear to be at the heart of the passage, as a decision of the Lord in how to respond. C. Annotated reading 1. The theme of the first part is a disagreement between a husband and wife. The personal life of the prophet may be the context, but the family language could also be a metaphorical way of speaking about the relationship between God and his people. (Calduch would choose the second option: that it is about God and his people, although framed in family terms.) 2. The infidelity of the wife is a major theme that is constantly underlined. Note that twice we see the term Ba'al appear. Ba'al was the head of the Canaanite pantheon; he was the god of rain and storms, and therefore associated with fertility. Worship of Ba'al was widely diffused in this time and place, even among the Israelites. There was the problem of religious syncretism, as we've already studied; people would worship Ba'al when it seemed convenient, and YHWH when that seemed convenient. Remember also the practice of religious prostitution, as a religious rite, which was meant to encourage fertility of the land. 3. An interesting theory is that in verse 6 ("Therefore I will hedge up her way with thorns; and I will build a wall against her, so that she cannot find her paths"), there may be a reference to some sort of agrarian crisis. Worship of Ba'al has not proven effective in ensuring the growth of crops, and the referenced "water, wool, flax, oil, and drink" (cf. v. 5) have been taken away. God then punishes the Israelites with conflict. Why? This must be seen as a kind of divine pedagogy; God is leading his people closer to himself by punishing their offenses. 4. Each of these three reactions of the Lord is prefaced by the phrase "in those days." The third reaction of the Lord, however, is a reaction of love and affection; we see this in verse 14: "I will speak tenderly to her." The literal translation of "tenderly" is "to her heart" (al-libbah). This means to the very deepest part of her being; this is a sign of the complete conversion that God desires from his people. The way of speaking will change; "You will call me, 'My husband,' and no longer will you call me, 'My Ba'al'" (v. 16). The word "husband" literally means "man" ('ish). The pact will be reestablished and a new relationship will be founded. Even the land will respond to this new relationship between God and his people.

In general, what are the Confessions of Jeremiah? How many are there?

In general, the Confessions of Jeremiah are the personal testimony of Jeremiah's experience of suffering and agony during his prophetic ministry. They are strong, direct, dramatic, and give us a very personal and even biographical account. They are not unlike the Confessions of St. Augustine (and may even have been his inspiration for them). There are five confessions, which all share two important features: 1. They contain very personal words of a biographical nature. He describes the hostility directed toward him by others, and intercedes for them, even while he explains that the Lord will not pardon them. He also expresses his feelings of isolation among the society. Like Job, he insists on his innocence and sincere service of the Lord, but also curses the day of his birth. This personal nature suggests that the confessions are biographical. 2. They also share parallels with the Psalms of lament and Job (e.g. Jer 15:17 = Ps 102:8).

What is the international situation of the 8th century?

In the 9th c., Israel enjoyed relative peace. But in the 8th c. the situation changed radically: the Assyrian king Tiglat-Pileser III, or "Pulu" (745-727 BC) wanted to expand into the Mediterranean for access to the sea. He started an ambitious and aggressive program of expansion, marked by ruthless cruelty. His empire not only conquered nations, but also deported the conquered people and forced assimilation into their lands, thus preventing future uprisings and destroying the cultural identity of the deported. His campaign led to the complete destruction of the Northern Kingdom.

Where are the prophets located? Does this order have some theological motivation?

In the Hebrew Bible, the Prophets are placed directly after the Torah (Pentateuch). They are organized according to the figure of Moses: Joshua begins by mentioning Moses, and Micah, the last prophet, also mentions Moses—thus, Moses serves as a bookend to the prophets. They are also presented as interpreters of the Law that Moses delivered (esp. in Deut, Josh, Malachai), just as Moses was the original interpreter of the Torah. In the LXX, most of the prophetic books are separated from the Pentateuch and the Law. Christian redactors may have placed them at the end of the OT (closer to the NT) to emphasize their fulfillment in the NT. The prophets do not look back to the Law, but forward to the New Covenant and to Christ.

Explain: Noadia

In the book of Nehemiah 6:14 (RSV): "Remember Tobiah and Sanballat, O my God, according to these things that they did, and also the prophetess Noadiah and the rest of the prophets who wanted to make me afraid." (Interestingly the LXX has "prophet" and not "Prophetess.") Hence, she may have been a false prophetess. She was against the reform of Nehemiah. Although a number of other prophets opposed Nehemiah's reforms, she is the only one mentioned by name ("Noadiah and the rest of the prophets"). Thus we can assume that she had some prominence. Noadiah shows that Hebrew prophetesses were a regular and important part of Hebrew culture.

What is the historical situation of the 8th century?

In the previous century (9th), Israel had no great threats. But now, in the 8th c., the situation is radically different: the Assyrian king Tiglat-Pileser III, or "Pulu" (745-727 BC) wanted to expand into the Mediterranean for access to the sea. He started an ambitious and aggressive program of expansion, marked by ruthless cruelty. It would end with the complete destruction of the Northern Kingdom. Israel's Golden Age is fading fast. This was the golden age of prophecy in Israel. The prophetic books of this era (Amos, Hosea, Isaiah, Micah) all begin with a historic introduction, including the name of the king or kings. This shows how history and prophecy are intimately connected. Prophets cannot be understood apart from their historical context.

What are the types of Divinization?

In the two types of divination, technical: the observation of nature, astrology, animals, sacrifices, liquids etc.; and natural: interpretation of dreams, consultation of the dead, and oracles), the divine message is mediated indirectly, by means of natural objects or persons, which require a technique to interpret. In contrast, the prophet receives the divine message directly, without any instrument.

Explain: the history of the research of the book of Isaiah.

Isaiah is the most quoted, researched and well-known prophetic book of the OT. The history of this work is best understood in stages: firstly, the theory of Multiple Authorship. Until the 17th century, the book was unanimously believed to have been written by the Prophet himself. However, that began to change, specifically trough Ibn Ezra (1092-1167) and Baruch Spinoza (1632 - 1677), who doubted single authorship. In the 1700s, Johann Doderman and Johann Eichhorn proposed a bipartite structure (1-39 written by Isaiah; 40-66 by another disciple in Exile). Bernhard Duhm (1847-1928) proposed a tripartite structure (see Q. 57), which is generally accepted today. In the last 30 years, a synchronic approach to the study of Isaiah has come back into fashion, in favor of studying the book as a whole. So, while most scholars accept the tri-partite structure of the Book, they also accept the unity of Isaiah as a whole.

The problem/difficulty of the Confessions.

Jeremiah's "confessions" seem to be describing a real, personal experience. Yet he often borrows languages from the psalms, and seems to be drawing on them for inspiration. How accurately is Jeremiah describing himself, and how much is he exagerrating to fit into a traditional pattern of lament?

The phases of Jeremiah's ministry.

Jeremiah's ministry is lengthy (640-587 B.C.), and is divided into four distinct parts, beginnning with the reign of Josiah and lasting till the 2nd deportation from Judah. − The reign of Josiah (640-609BC) - Jeremiah received a prophetic message in the 13th year of King Josiah (c. 627 BC). In that era, the state of Judaism was not good, due to the apostasy of Manasseh, but King Josiah was working on reform. Jeremiah was from a priestly family, but we are not told whether he exercised priestly functions. He received his vocation while young. The first phase of Jeremiah's activity may have been criticizing the cult, along with predicting an invasion from the North. Note that these chapters are similar to Hosea 1-3, especially in the spousal metaphor, though Jeremiah's version is less organized. − The reign of Jehoakim (609/8-598BC) - Jeremiah opposed the king for not following the good path of his predecessor Josiah. He also opposed the priests, false prophets and the masses. Jeremiah is presented as an outsider: him vs. the world. Chapter 36 captures the hostility toward the prophet ("You shall die!"). Also, Jeremiah's celibacy is mentioned (16:1-4), which was a prophetic sign of Israel's impending doom. − Reign of Zedekiah (597-587/86 BC) - Jerusalem falls under Babylonian seige. King Zedekiah seems to treat Jeremiah with respect at first, but Jeremiah continues to insist that they accept the yoke of the Babylonians lest things get worse. False prophets opposed him, and King Zedekiah rebelled, which brought about the final destruction of Jerusalem . Jeremiah seemed to be a traitor to his people. Chs. 36-38 recount a plot against his life. − Jeremiah in Egypt (586BC...) - With the fall of Jerusalem, Jeremiah was forced into exile in Egypt (ch. 43-44), where he continued to prophesy. It is thought that he died there. This may have been a symbolic anti-exodus, returning to the place of slavery.

Explain: the prophetic phenomenon in Mesopotamia (Mari and Assyria).

Mari in Mesopotamia The city of Mari was discovered and excavated in 1933 by French archeologists. They found archives in the palace of the king containing 20,000 written tablets. Most dealt with economic issues, but there were also 50 letters regarding prophets and prophetesses. This was the most important discovery for the question of prophecy outside of Israel. The collected writings regarding the prophets was published in two sections: − The Official Section includes those who were employed as prophets by the king, including: o muhhum -ecstatic prophets o apilum - prophets that interpreted the oracles ■ the word nabum was also found, corresponding to the Hebrew nabi. − The Unofficial Section contains the other (miscellaneous) prophets. Some prophets received prophecy while they slept in the temple (cp. Samuel). The prophecies were all favorable toward the king, which explains why the king kept them in his archives. No messages of confrontation or criticism of the king or social problems were found. The prophecies often used the formula "Thus says [name of the God]," which is seen as a point of contact with biblical prophets, as is their use of symbols. Arbela in Assyria (7c. BC) This collection is similar to the one at Mari. It contained both men and women prophets (10 prophetesses, in fact), as well as both official and unofficial prophets. The prophecies were always favorable to the king. The prophecy seems to have had a political function. Two points of contact with the Hebrew prophets: − the common formula "Do not fear..." (reassuring the king), and − the grouping of oracles according to the name of the prophet (or the name of the deity)

Structure of the book of Micah?

Micah alternates between Oracles of Judgment and Oracles of Salvation. 3 possible divisions: − In 4 parts (Mays and Renaud) o Threats and accusations against Israel (1:2-3:12) There is a debate as to whether these oracles were actually said. Some say they were stated in Jerusalem addressed to the North. Others say that it was to both Jerusalem and the North. In 2:6-7, and 12-13, the adversaries or enemies of Micah appear, creating a dialogue through the oracles of Micah. o Promises of Israel (4:1-5:14) The central theme here is salvation and not social injustice. Here, there is the confrontation between the false prophets and Micah with respect to three different aspects: the time, the place, and the content of salvation. For example, the false prophets speak of salvation being now, while Micah preaches that salvation is not imminent. According to the false prophets, salvation will come from the Jerusalem, the capital, while according to Micah salvation will come from Bethlehem, a rural place. (cf. Mi. 5:12) o Threats against Israel (6:1-7:7) These are oracles of judgment in the "rib form" (or confrontation) between God and the people where the people are trying to worship other gods instead of the Lord. They try to offer sacrifices, but the Lord only wants justice and kindness. o Hope (7:8-20) This oracle of salvation is considered to be a poem, a song, or a final psalm where the people recognize their sins and meditate on their punishments. The book concludes with a promise full of hope, reconstructing the destroyed city, and returning back. It also stresses forgiveness of their sins and compassion from God. − In 3 parts (Macchi) ■ Oracles of judgment (ch. 1-3) ■ Oracles of salvation (ch. 4-5) ■ Oracles of judgment and liturgy of salvation (ch. 6-7) − In 2 parts (Sicre) ■ Theophany and its consequences (ch. 1-5) ■ The judgment of God (ch. 6-7)

Explain: the prophet as a seer/fortune teller.

Most people think that a prophet is someone who predicts the future. This does have a Biblical foundation (e.g. Isaiah predicts the Virgin Birth). But not all prophets foretell the future. The mission of the prophet is primarily to illuminate the present with the word of God, not to predict the future.

What do we know about the prophet Micah?

Personal data. He is the last prophet from the VIII Century and a native or Moresheth, a rural area 35 km SW from Jerusalem and near Philistia. He probably was a farmer who spent most of his life in the countryside. He eventually went to Jerusalem where he found lots of social injustice. He did not like urban life, and he uses direct and dramatic language, which can sometimes be even cruel and violent. His oracles often have a negative, pessimistic tone (cf. Mi. 3:2) His writing style is unsophisticated and not refined and shows that he is from a rural area. Time period: Micah prophesied during the days of Kings Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah of Judah, specifically regarding visions he saw concerning Samaria and Jerusalem. Although he was a prophet from the South, there are some visions in regard to North (Samaria). Also, he was a contemporary of Isaiah, writing around 722 BC, during the fall of the Northern Kingdom, along with the Assyrian siege of Jerusalem by Sennacherib in 701 BC.

Explain: Pre-Classical prophecy (anterior prophets) - Who were they? Historical context?

Pre-Classic prophecy includes the period covered in the biblical books of Joshua, Judges, 1-2 Samuel, and 1-2 Kings. Nothing is known of these prophets outside of the biblical accounts, which were written in the Deuteronomist tradition years after the prophets lived. The period, dating from about 1150 -750 BC involves a variety of historical contexts in the life of the nation of Israel, sketched out below. Remember that the books were written in the "south" therefore, they are prejudiced against the northern kingdom. − Judges (c.1150 BC) was written during the Iron Age (1200-600 BC). Israel was in a state of social confusion, lacking a government, with its tribes dispersed throughout the land, especially in the central mountains. "Everyone did what was right in his own eyes" (Jgs 21:25). The Philistines, Israel's principal foe at this time, occupied the coast (around modern-day Gaza) and threatened to invade. Israel wanted a king, although they did have the judges, who were charismatic leaders who brought order in the midst of anarchy. − Saul (1050-1010 BC) initiated Israel's transition to a monarchy. He was above all a military leader, though his reign ended badly as the Philistines defeated his army. The tribes began to unite with each other to defend themselves against their foes. − David (1010-970 BC) unified N & S Israel, and introduced a period of stability. At the beginning, he secured the land in the south (in Judah), and then expanded towards the north. The most important thing he did was to drive away the Philistines and confine them to a narrow stretch on the coast. Even though Saul is called the first king, it was really David who established the monarchy as a stable institution. − Solomon (970-930 BC) organized the kingdom more thoroughly than David. His reign was the Golden Age of Israel, marked by peace, happiness, and political and economic success. Unfortunately, this Golden Age ended at his death, when the kingdom was divided... − Divided Kingdom. The Deuteronomist blames the split on the imprudence of Solomon's son Rehoboam, who treated the North harshly when they begged for lower taxes. (Solomon had always favored Judah, with its great city Jerusalem). The North rebelled and chose their own king (Jeroboam), and erected their own shrines (thus the Deuteronomists called them the source of idolatry). Judah's dynasty continued with a constant Davidic line while the North experienced constant political turmoil. Yet the North was still stronger and richer.

Genesis of the book of Amos.

Pre-exilic period: composition of 1-2; 7-9 and then later 3-6. Why are these sections put together? Groupings of five: 5 woes, 5 oracles against other nations (now there are 8 oracles, but scholars think that three (Phoenicia, Edom, Judah) were added later.)... − Exilic and post-exilic "re-reading": 2:4-5; 3:1-2; 9:7-10:11-15. The point is to apply the themes of Amos to new situations. For instance, 2:4-5 is the oracle against Judah. From this perspective ones sees that Judah also fell. In the oracle of restoration, people in the exile are given hope.

What relationship is there between the three aforementioned phenomena and biblical prophecy?

Prophecy was not a phenomenon isolated to the Israelites. There are many similarities between Biblical and pagan prophecy in vocabulary, phrasing, and even content. Yet there are also significant differences, including the role prophecy played. Outside of Israel, prophecy was often marginalized and more attention was given to divinization (wonder working). But in Israel, prophecy was an essential religious and social institution. Probably, Israel incorporated the widespread phenomenon of prophecy into its own religious world, just as it did with priesthood. Yet Israel's prophecy is unique since God actually, authoriatively used Israel's prophets to speak to His people.

Macro-structure: negative/positive? Give examples.

Prophetic books are difficult to find a structure in. One way to organize them is to look for a macro-structure based on negative and positive elements. For example, one part of a book might contain oracles of judgment, warnings, penalties, disasters, etc., and another part might contain an oracle of salvation. This structure can be found in ... − Isaiah: 1-39 (oracles of judgment) and 40-55 (message of salvation) − Amos: 1:2-9:7 (oracle of judgment) and 9:8-15 (oracle of salvation) − Hosea: 1:2-9 (unfaithful spouse) and 2:1-3 (reconciliation)

Explain: Hulda

She is the only woman whom the OT describes as saying "Thus says the Lord." In 622 B.C., a document was found in the temple, and King Josiah (great reformer- king of Judah) advised Hilkiah the priest to "inquire of the LORD" if the text was truly the Mosaic Law. Hilkiah and his group went directly to Huldah, indicating that she was recognized as a real prophet (although some suggest that Josiah went to her only because Jeremiah was busy). She declared that the text was truly of God, and she also took the opportunity to announce that a catastrophe was on the way, in which God would punish the people for their unfaithful way of life. She uses the famous phrase "Thus says the Lord..."! As a prophet, her task was to assert the authenticity of the book found in the temple. Moreover, she assumes the responsibility to interpret the words of the Lord. Her prophecy ended up being true, and is much discussed among scholars.

What is the Syro-Ephreamite war (8th cent.)?

Siro-Ephramite War (734-733 BC). Before the war, the North [Israel/Ephraim] and King Tiglath-Pileser III made a treaty, and Israel paid tribute, until a certain king of Israel, Menahim (745-738), refused to pay. Instead, he made an alliance with the Syrians to fight Tiglath-Pileser III. He called on King Ahaz in the south (Judah) to join the alliance, but Ahaz (744-727) refused. So Syria and Israel attacked Judah. Judah called for help from Tiglath-Pileser, and so Assyria invaded Israel and Syria (734-733 BC). Israel became a vassal kingdom of Assyria. This is the context for Isaiah 6, who counseled against the alliance.

Explain: "the book of the 12 prophets?"

The "Book of the Twelve Prophets" is so-called because the books of the twelve minor prophets were frequently written together on the same scroll (which ended up being about the same size as one major prophet book). Originally, each of these 12 prophets existed independent of each other. But already in antiquity, they were often studied together as the "Book of the Twelve Prophets," as attested to by Sirach 49:10 ("bones of the Twelve prophets"), as well as by Josephus and St. Jerome. In the Middle Ages and Renaissance, reference to the twelve disappears, and the 'minor' prophets are read and studied individually. Only in the last 15-20 years has the study of the Book of the Twelve as a unity come back into fashion. R. Albertz's theory: At the center of the book of the Twelve there was a nucleus—Hosea, Amos, Micah and Zephaniah. The other minor prophets developed based on that nucleus, as well as on the influence of Isaiah, which has many points of contact with the minor prophets. Today, scholarship is focusing on the connections between the Twelve and the major prophets. One challenge of studying the Twelve together is that they are from very different periods. Canonical Order. There is a difference between their order in the Hebrew Bible (which seems to be the older ordering, and which we use in our Bible) and the LXX (Septuagint). − MT (Hebrew): Hosea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Jonah, Micah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi. − LXX (Greek): Hosea, Amos, Micah, Joel, Obadiah, Jonah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi. Regardless of which order is used, Hosea is the first and most prominent.

Explain: the wife of Isaiah.

The Hebrew word used here in Isaiah 8:3 is nebia, but it is unclear why, "And I went to the prophetess, and she conceived and bore a son. Then the LORD said to me, "Call his name Ma'her-shal'al-hash-baz." Perhaps she is only called "prophetess" inasmuch as she is married to Isaiah the prophet. There are no prophecies attributed to her. Isaiah had two sons by her, who bore symbolic names (8:18) - Shear-jashub, 'Remnant will return' (7:3; see 10:22, 'Only a remnant will return') and Maher-shalal-hash-baz, 'Pillage hastens, looting speeds' (8:1-4).

Prophets outside of Israel in the OT

The OT speaks of prophecy occurring outside of Israel: − Balaam (Num. 22-24) − The 450 prophets of Baal and the 400 prophets of Asherah (1Kgs 18:19-40). − Prophets of various foreign peoples (Jeremiah 27:9). The Bible confirms the presence of these other prophets, but we have to distinguish if these are to be understood as prophets in the biblical sense, or if they are diviners (see discussion of differences in General Intro section 2, above).

Message of Micah?

The central message of Micah is that of social injustice. He issues a very violent critique against the rich and the powerful and condemns their behavior. 2:1-5 speaks against the wealthy who rob the poor; 3:1-4 speaks against the governors who oppress the people; 3:5-7 speaks against the false prophets; and 3:9-12 speaks against the leaders, judges, priests etc.

Who are the Major Prophets and who are the Minor Prophets?

The fifteen prophetic books of the "classic" prophets can be further divided into Major and Minor Prophets. This sub-category is based on the length of the prophet's book. (The book of one of the major prophets is about as long as all twelve minor prophet books combined!) Major Prophets = Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Ezekiel Minor Prophets (= the Book of the 12) = Hosea, Amos, Micah, Joel, Obadiah, Jonah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi

What is the difference between prophecy and divinization?

The main difference between a prophet and a divinizer, according to M. Nissinen, is in the mediator—the point of contact between heaven and earth. In the two types of divination (see next question), the divine message is mediated indirectly, by means of natural objects or persons, which require a technique to interpret. In contrast, the prophet himself is the mediator, since he receives the divine message directly, without any technique. Also, a prophet works for free. Note that divinization was prohibited by the Torah (Deut. 18:10).

The genesis of the book of Hosea according to J. Jeremias?

The majority of the material of the book reflects the figure of prophet. The disciples of Hosea synthesized the material. Other hands added to this material, including some from the South who added to it to make it relevant to the Southern Kingdom (see question 95). Disciples synthesized, rather than actualized, Hosea's teachings for the Southern Kingdom. Disciples fled to the South, which accounts for this re-synthesis. − 3 moments in the formation of this book (Jörg Jeremias) o 1. Oral preaching: The majority of this book's material comes from Hosea's preaching. o 2. Written collections: The disciples of Hosea synthesized the material. o 3. Final phase: Other hands added to this material, including some from the South who added to it to make it relevant to the Southern Kingdom. o Oral preaching (Jeremias proposes three stages to Hosea's ministry) ■ The last years of Jeroboam II's reign. (Hos 2:4-15; 4:4-5:7) ■ Syrio-Ephraimite war - political alliances(Hos 5:8-9:9) ■ The last years of kingdom of North (Hos 2:16-17; 3:1-4; 9:10-14:1) + Since the book does not speak of the fall of Samaria, Jeremias believes that Hosea exercised his ministry slightly before the fall of Samaria. o Written collections by disciples of the prophet ■ Written collections are made a few years after the Fall of Samaria (722 BC). ■ Many Jews fled from the North to the Southern kingdom after the fall. The words of Hosea went with them. (Hos 4-11, 12-14) + Hos 1:2-9; 2:4-17; 3:1-4 - Jeremias believes that only at the end were these first three chapters gathered, along with the dominant spousal metaphor. o Final phase - Redactions were done with the aim of updating the message of Hosea, to adapt it to the situation of the South. ■ The history of the fall of the North under the Assyrians, was in a certain sense repeated in the South under the Babylonians. ■ Jeremias proposed the following three divisions for the written accounts: + Earliest: Chapters 4-11 (right after the fall of Samaria). This is the most important moment because it confirms Hosea's prophecy. After the fall, it is likely that the confirmation of the prophet led to the appearance of the first written account of his words (according to Jeremias). + Later: Chapters 12-14. + Latest: Chapters 1:2-9; 2:4-17; 3:1-4 (spousal metaphor).

Evolution of pre-classical prophecy?

The most notable characteristic of the pre-classical prophets is their great variety. There are diverse types of prophets, messages, settings, activities. There are some similarities with later prophecy, but also many differences. For example, in this former period there is no concern for eschatology or messianism. Even where there's a touch of messianism, as when Nathan tells David that his line will reign forever, this is a promise that deals with him. But the biggest difference, perhaps, is that pre-classical prophecy is directed at individuals, not groups of people as with classical prophecy.

Explain: Miriam, the sister of Moses and Aaron.

The use of the word prophetess to her is notable. Some say the word here has a liturgical, cultural function (the context in Exodus is Miriam's dancing and singing), but this is heavily debated. Others say it is simply an honorable title. Some even say it's simply a "mistake" in the text. But there is evidence that her role was substantial: − Numbers 12:1-16—Aaron and Miriam murmur because the Lord seems to favor Moses, and Miriam asks: "Did the Lord speak only through Moses? Did he not also speak through us?" This suggests the Lord spoke through all 3. − Micah 6:4—Incredibly, the figure of Miriam appears again. Micah does not talk of prophecy, but he mentions all three siblings (Moses, Aaron, Miriam - the order is important). We understand that all three were sent by the Lord to this people with an assignment and with authority. This is the only text upon which one can say that Miriam had a certain authority and that the word prophetess might therefore imply authority. Remember how the story ended after Miriam was punished for her murmuring in Exodus: the people did not move until she returned. All this is to say that maybe the title of prophetess is not simply liturgical, honorific, or anachronistic, but used by the author for a reason. Miriam is admired greatly in rabbinic literature with many legends about her prophecy. Her role as older sister was to prepare the way for the birth of Moses. She said to her father, "You are destined to beget a son who will free Israel." Philo of Alexandria calls her "hope." For the rabbis, she was "almost a perfect model."

Explain: the phases of Isaiah's ministry.

There are four phases of his 40-year ministry (the longest of any prophet of this time period - Amos, Hosea, Micah). Before the Syro-Ephramite War. He began his ministry probably around 740-735 BC. Most of the oracles are critiques of the behavior of the people (like Amos), especially their overly materialistic way of living. No foreign power was harassing Judah, so politics don't come up here. During the War Isaiah opposed King Ahaz' plan to seek aid from Assyria, though Ahaz did it anyway. (Ahaz had refused to ally with the Israelites of the North, and turned to the Assyrians instead.) Isaiah's prophecy centered around having trust in God, instead of man. Between 732-705 (in particular 713-711) Isaiah fell silent for a while (at least, we know of no oracles from this period). Then his political criticism starts again around 713-711. This time, it is against King Hezekiah who seeks to ally with the Egyptians against the Assyrians. Despite Isaiah's warning, he makes an alliance with Egypt, but the Assyrian king Sennacherib showed up unexpectedly and wiped out his army. Isaiah points out the folly of allying with foreign nations. The Second Anti-Assyrian Rebellion (705-701) Again, Isaiah warned against rebellion, or seeking an alliance with Egypt, but Hezekiah didn't heed him. Assyria invaded, tho' they spared Jerusalem for a hefty tribute.

What do the following words mean: roeh, hozeh, and ishha'elohim?

These terms are only used in the former prophets—never in the latter. Seer (rō'eh), from ra' ("to see"); the one who sees things that others do not see. Seer / Visionary (ḥōzeh), from hazah ("to see"). Hozeh indicates a religious type of vision, but means virtually the same thing as rō'eh. Man of God ('îš [hā]'ĕlōhîm). This title was often applied to thaumaturgists (miracle workers) and healers, esp. Elijah. Later it came to be applied to someone in special contact with God, esp. Hosea and Isaiah.

Is the order of the books in the Hebrew Bible the same as the LXX? Where are the prophets located? Does this order have some theological motivation?

They are NOT the same. Hebrew order = Tanak (Torah, Former Prophets, Latter Prophets, other Writings incl. wisdom books.) LXX order = prophets mostly at the end.

Who are the anterior (former) prophets and who are the posterior (latter) prophets?

This categorization of the books of Prophets is the most popular and most widely used. Anterior/former Prophets = Joshua, Judges, 1 & 2 Samuel, 1 & 2 Kings. Posterior/latter Prophets = Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and the "Twelve Prophets" (Hosea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Jonah, Micah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi)

The Oral Preaching of the Prophet

This is the first stage in the development of a prophetic book. Nothing is written down yet. The prophet is proclaiming God's message to a person or group of people. Inevitably some followers were struck by the prophet's words and decided to make a memory of the prophet. The beginnings were the memory of the prophet or of his disciples and the first accounts were placed in writing.

What does the term nabi' mean and to whom is it applied?

This is the most common Hebrew word for "prophet." It may come from the Hebrew root nbi ("to announce" or "to call"), in which case a prophet would be someone who calls or announces (active sense), or who is called (passive sense). The feminine singular variation nebî'āh also occurs (6 times), as does the masculine plural nebî'îm. It is applied to both true and false prophets (e.g. the prophets of Ba'al). This is the only term used for "prophet" in the Latter Prophets (though it is also used often in the Former Prophets).

What is the tri-partite division of the Bible and in which biblical deuterocanonical book is it cited?

Torah (Law), Nebi'im, (Prophets), Ketubim (writings). the book of Sirach is cited.

Was the book of Isaiah found in Qumran? In how many scrolls?

Two scrolls were found in 1947 in a cave near the Dead Sea in Qumran. The Great Isaiah Scroll (1QIsaiah "a") contained the oldest copy of Isaiah (150 BC), complete with all 66 chapters. Another scroll (1QIsaiah "b") (50 BC) contained cc. 40-66.

Explain: the personal dates of the prophet Isaiah.

We don't know much about him. He is the son of Amoz, (not the prophet Amos) situated during the historical period of the kings of Judah. He married a prophetess (either a real one, or considered so because of her husband) and had at least two children with symbolic names. He was probably from the upper class of society, based on his elevated writing style and his rapport with the King, as well as his knowledge of the international scene. He exercised his ministry in Jerusalem over a long period (40 years), spanning the reign of four kings of Judah.

From the prophet to the book. (the genesis of the books- the process of their formation)

We normally attribute a book to a particular author. But this is not the case with prophetic books. Even in the book of the prophet Obadiah, which is only one page long, the last 3 verses are written in a different style and were probably added later. There are four general stages in the formation of a prophetic book: 1. Oral preaching of the prophet 2. from the prophet to the book — The prophet's disciples are moved by his words and write down the most important messages, sometimes adding their own explanations and comments. These were put into small collections (organized by theme and not chronologically). 3. Editors: They systematized the small collections. 4. Other additions: Significantly different additions. (Is 24, 27 and deutero- Zachariah).

Are there prophetesses in the Bible?

Yes! In the Old Testament, the term nebi'ah (prophetess) appears 6 times: − Miriam (Exod. 15:20) − Deborah (Jgs. 4:1-24) − Huldah (2Kgs. 22:14-20; 2Chr 34:22-28) − Noadia (Neh. 6:14) − The wife of Isaiah (Is 8:3) − **also, in Ezekiel 13, the "daughters of Israel" are commanded to prophesy. In the New Testament, the term προφητις (prophet - feminine) occurs 2 times − Anna (Lk. 2:36-38) − Jezebel (Rev. 2:20-23) − **also, 1 Cor. 11:5 mentions women who prophesy without their heads covered

What is the meaning of the Greek term prophetes?

from pro-phemi ("to speak for"). Thus it means "one who speaks for [God]" − What does the prefix "pro" ("for") mean? 3 possibilities... o 1. "before" temporally - to announce the future. o 2. "before" spatially - to speak in front of someone o 3. "for" or "in the place of" - to speak in place of someone else [i.e. God]. ■ This last meaning is the most attested to. Unlike Hebrew, Greek has a special word for false prophets: ψευδο-προφήτης (pseudo-prophets). The term προφήτης is reserved only for true prophets of the Lord.

Explain: the prophetic phenomenon in the Syro-Palestine area.

o Emar (14/13c. BC): the first city of Syria. ■ Prophets are called nabu and munabbiatu (from the Heb. root nabi), which meant "to call, to scream, or to complain." ■ Unlike the last at Mari and Arbela, these prophecies were lamentations. They did not reinforce the king, but are full of mourning, grief, and funeral poems. o Biblo (11c. BC) ■ A story about an episode of ecstatic prophecy. o Hamat (8c. BC) ■ There was a text that was found that presents the activity of seers. A king prophetically describes his kingdom being threatened. + The points of contact here are 1) the word haziyim is found, which has a similar root as Hebrew hozeh "to see," and 2) the formula "Don't fear..." o Deir 'Alla (8/7 c. BC): in today's Jordan. ■ Discovered in 1976, this is the only case where a prophet mentioned in the Bible was found mentioned elsewhere: Balaam. He is described as a seer of the gods. Balaam exhorts the people to repent so that a calamity does not come from God. This mode of expression is reminiscent of Jeremiah.

What is the content of the pre-classical prophecies?

− (1) Prophets who give help in everyday situations help with problems that don't require great insight but are important nonetheless: e.g. help finding a donkey; healing a minor illness. (see 1 Sam 9; 1 Kings 14; 2 Kings 4) − (2) Prophets who help in time of war and advise the king. For example, Deborah. (see also 1 Sam 22:5; 1 Kings 22; 2 Kings 3, 6:8-7:20) − (3) Prophets who criticize abuses of power on the part of the king. This function is a foreshadowing of the kind of prophecy we'll find more often in the classical era. We do not find many cases of this in the pre-classical era since many prophets worked for the king. But some had the courage to criticize (e.g. Nathan and Elijah). (see 2 Sam 12, 24; 1 Kings 14, 21) − (4) Prophets who directly intervene in political action. For example, choosing a new king. (see 2Kings 9-10; 1Kings 16:1-8) − (5) Prophets who defend the exclusive cult of Adonai. These prophets fought against idolatry and religious syncretism. They had to live in a foreign land that had its own gods, where it was reasonable to expect some mixture. Syncretism is not a matter of abandoning one's God for another, but of adding other gods to one's cult (see 1Kings 18f; 2Kings 1; 9f). In this period there is no concern for eschatology or messianism. (Even where there's a hint of it , as when Nathan tells David that his line will reign forever, this is a promise that deals with him at that time). Also, pre-classical prophecy is directed at individuals, not groups of people like with much classical prophecy.

Explain: the Kingdom of Judah (7th cent.).

− 700 - 630, King Manasseh: the idolater who repented too late o When King Hezekiah died, Manasseh ascended to the throne and reigned for 45 years, the longest reign in Israel's history. Under him, Judah's economic situation was tolerable. But he welcomed foreign gods and ushered in a time of decadence. Thus he is lamented as Judah's worst king ever (2 Kings 22:1ff). Yet no great prophet arose to condemn him. In his old age he had a conversion (2 Chron. 33:10ff), and tried to rid Judah of idols, but the damage had been done. − 630 - 609, King Josiah: the reformer o Josiah became the king of Judah at 8 years old. Later he started drastic religious reforms: the scroll of the Law was found in the temple and he centralized worship in Jerusalem. He died at a relatively young age in 609 during a battle with Nekau, king of Egypt. The Jews thought that if you died young, you must have done something wrong in the eyes of the lord. Thus, many concluded that Josiah's reform only seemed to be good, but was in fact just an attempt to augment the political and economic power of Jerusalem and the temple. Josiah's reign is a brief parenthesis in the waning years of the Kingdom of Judah. − 609 - 586, Judah's twilight - the last kings before the catastrophe o After Josiah, a string of incompetent kings rule in Judah. ■ Joakaz reigned very briefly. ■ Joachim abandoned the great religious reform. He returned to Manasseh's pagan gods and temples. (Many Jews didn't mind the Babylonians and their culture.) Others hoped that Egypt would come to drive out the Babylonians. This is the context in which Jeremiah is working. + The first crisis in these dark years happens when King Joachim changes his politics and decides to resist the Babylonians. King Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon came in with his army and easily defeated the Jews. ■ Joachin was deported in 597 as a child, along with the prophet Ezekiel. ■ Zedekiah was named king of Judah by the Babylonians. But he rebelled against the Babylonians, hoping for Egypt's help, which never came. In 589 the Babylonian army attacked, and shortly thereafter, the Southern Kingdom fell for ever. The city was besieged, the temple destroyed, and the people were deported for a second time. The beginning of the Exilic Period is often placed here with this second deportation, even though the first deportation was more numerous. Thus Judah fell in the same way as Samaria in the north. Jerusalem's fall was catastrophic for the Jews.

Who are the prophets of the 8th century?

− Amos (760-759 BC) is the first of the "latter prophets". He was from the South, and was a prophet perhaps only for a year. He went to the North during Jeroboam II's reign but was not welcomed, as he criticized the social injustices he found there. At the time, Israel was in a fairly prosperous period, but with a great gap between rich and poor. Thus his big theme was social justice. He announced the impending fall of the Northern kingdom and was sent away to the South. No records remain of his activities then. − Hosea (750-725 BC) was from the North where he did all his prophecy. He focused on the problems of worshiping other gods, religious syncretism, infidelity, etc. He was around during the Syro-Efraimite war, and denounced allying with Syria, insisting that the only alliance should be with the Lord. His big contribution was the spousal image of the relationship between God and his people. Many themes of his prophecy influenced the book of Deuteronomy and the Deuteronomic author. − Isaiah (c. 740s-700 BC) was a contemporary of Hosea, originally from Jerusalem, where he carried out his activity. A very cultured man from a good family, he received his call a little before the Syro-Ephraimite War. Concerned with political questions between Kings Ahaz and Hezekiah, he reiterated Hosea's admonition that the king and the people should not look to political allies for salvation, but only to the Lord. − Micah (725?-701 BC) was from the South and of humble origins. He also engaged in social criticism (like Amos), especially in the first three chapters of his book, which are considered to be its "nucleus". Scholars think his disciples wrote the rest of the book.

What is the international scene of the 7th century?

− Assyrian Hegemony (700-600 BC) o The Assyrians controlled a lot of land (from the Caspian Sea to the Black Sea down to Egypt—see map on dispense). Israel was incorporated into their empire, but the Kingdom of Judah remained a separate vassal kingdom. Around 663BC, King Esarhaddon (youngest son of Sennacherib) ascended the Assyrian throne and conquered Egypt, expanding their domain even more. But... − Rapid collapse (630-610BC) o Assyria had bitten off more than it could chew. Its territory was too big to control! Rebellions began to spring up, the first of which was led by the Babylonians. − Victory of Babylon (610 BC) o The Babylonians began to get strong. Their initial rebellion was suppressed, but it allowed Egypt, being more geographically isolated, to gain independence. Assyria was losing all control. At the death of Assurbanipal, a civil war broke out. In 612, the Medes and the Babylonians formed an alliance and took the Assyrian capital, bringing about the fall of the Assyrian empire. In the vacuum of power, the Babylonians easily took control. o In 605 there was a famous battle at Carchemish where the Babylonians defeated the Egyptian forces, leaving the Near East under Babylonian control. The Egyptians retreated and waited for another opportunity to take control of the Levant (= Eastern Mediterranean).

The large parts in the structure of the book

− Hosea 1-3 o Three very different chapters, though all characterized by spousal love metaphor ■ Hos 1: Prose, narrative in 3rd person ■ Hos 2 : Poetry in 1st person ■ Hos 3: Narrative in 1st person o Familial/matrimonial themes. These chapters present the personal account of Hosea, his family, his infamous marriage to a prostitute, etc. o Negative and positive responses: the general style of the book. The positive (which are not common in Hosea) announce a hopeful future. ■ There are 3 negative/positive tone pairs: + Hos 1:2-9 (negative) / Hos 2:1-3 (positive) + Hos 2:4-15 (negative) / Hos 2:16-25 (positive) + Hos 3:1-4 (negative) / Hos 3:5 (positive) − Hosea 4-14 o The spousal love metaphor and personal account of Hosea's marriage disappear. o Two main themes: the criticism of worship and of government. o More Negative/Positive pairs ■ Negative: 4:1-11:7 / Positive: 11:8-11 ■ Negative: 12:1-14:1 / Positive 14:2-10 o Threefold division of Chapters 4-11 ■ 4:1-5:7— Criticism of Worship: The metaphor of prostitution is used in this section to explain the relationship between Israel and YHWH. + The word "zanah" ("to prostitute oneself") is used to explain this relationship because they have whored themselves out. ■ 5:8-9:9— Criticism of Government of the Northern Kingdom. + Military language is used here. E.g. 5:10. Very strong criticism. ■ 9:10-11:11—Kerygmatic use of history ■ The prophet wants to use the past to give answers to the present, and to give hope to the future. This is a very Deuteronomistic use of history.

Structuring the book of Amos.

− Introduction (1:1-1:2) o Amos begins with chronological information and situates the book. It then uses the image of a roaring lion to represent God (cf. Joel 3:16). This gives the impression that something terrible is coming. Yahweh has an attitude of judgment from the start and this will continue throughout the book. Judgment is the key to reading this book. − Oracles against eight nations (1:3-2:16) o Amos gives 8 oracles, all beginning with the same formula—"For three crimes of [name of nation] and for four, I will not revoke my condemnation..."—and each one against a nation: the first six are against the foreign nations, and the last two are against Judah and Israel. The tone is very critical tone, especially against the foreign nations. The central theme is social injustice. − Oracles of social criticism: the hallmark of Amos (3:1-6:14) o There is much thematic variety in these verses, making them difficult to study. There are two different proposals for where to divide this passage: + Proposal 1: (Paul et. al.) − 3:1-5:17: voice of YHWH − 5:18-6:14: voice of Amos —a response, characterized by 'woe' + Proposal 2:3-4 & 5-6 (Jeremias et. al.). Based on the beginning phrase of the chapters Listen to this word (3:1 and 5:1 directed to the Israelites, while 4:1 is directed to a particular group). Calduch prefers this second division. o Concentric structure in Amos 5:1-17 (Calduch showed us this just to illustrate how well this book is structured. It is the work of a very good redactor)... A. 5:1-3 Funeral lament (qinah) B. 5:4-6 Exhortation to look for God: "seek... that you shall live." C. 5:7 Fault (social sins) D. 5:8-9 Hymn to the Lord of the universe C'. 5:9-10 same as above B'. 5:14-15 same as above A'. 5:16-17 same as above − Narratives of the five visions of Amos (7:1-9:10) o Locusts (7:1ff), Fire (7:4ff), Plumb-line (7:7ff), Chest of fruit (8:1ff) Sanctuary falls (9:1ff) o The first three visions have a kind of narrative to them. God asks Amos what he sees, then explains the meaning of it. The first two times, Amos asks God to forgive, and he does. But the third time, no forgiveness. − Conclusion (9:11 - c.15) — Unexpected Consolation This conclusion is surprisingly positive, compared to the rest of the book. In fact, this is the only place in Amos where a word of consolation is offered: restoration and promise of salvation. It may have been added later by a redactor.

What are the principle divisions of Isaiah 1-39?

− Is. 1-12*: These chapters seem to be from before the Syro-Ephraimite War. Chapter 1 has a "programmatic" function, introducing the themes that will follow in the whole rest of the book (not just proto-Isaiah). Chapters 1-5 focus on the theme of war and are judgment oracles from before the Syro-Ephraimite war, while chapters 6-12 are the oracles of the Messiah (aka the "Book of Emmanuel"). Chapter 12 serves as a type of doxology, giving thanks to God. This section seems to be some of the oldest material and closest to the prophet himself, even if a few verses were inserted later. − Is. 13-23: These are oracles against foreign nations. These would seem to be exilic or post-exilic, with little or nothing from the prophet Isaiah himself. − Is. 24-27: This section is traditionally referred to as "the great apocalypse of Isaiah." This is a misnomer, though, because "apocalyptic" literature was a later development, and these oracles are more eschatological, since they look towards the future. These too are post-exilic, possibly even from the Hellenistic period. − Is. 28-32*: This section's material — more oracles of judgment and descriptions of the political environment — is considered to be very close to the historical prophet Isaiah. − Is. 33, 34-35: Chapter 33 has a liturgical character. Its style is markedly different from the rest of Isaiah. Chapters 34-35 are the "Little Apocalypse" of Isaiah, containing eschatological material, and probably written during or after the exile. − Is. 36-39: This is a narrative section (it parallels 2 Kings 18-20), with accounts about King Hezekiah and the prophet Isaiah. This section is from after the 8th c. BC.

Who are the prophets of the 7th century?

− Jeremiah (during the reign of Josiah, c.627-587 BC) o Jeremiah fought hard to establish his credibility as a prophet, since many false prophets had arisen, and people had become skeptical of prophecy. He began his long ministry around 627BC, and ended up in exile in Egypt. o Central themes of Jeremiah are: ■ Infidelity to the God of Israel ■ Critique of political issues ■ Critique of false prophets + This was a crucial issue for Jeremiah. False prophets were predicting good things right up till the first deportation. They duped the people with oracles of hope, and Jeremiah was very angry with them. − Zephaniah (dates uncertain — under King Josiah) o Main theme: the day of the Lord is coming. His writings were edited during and after the Exile. − Nahum o Main theme: the fall of Nineveh (capital of Assyria). He is clearly writing after the fall of Jerusalem too. − Habakkuk (dates unknown — maybe under King Joachin). Habakkuk wrote his book of protests during the high point of the Babylonian empire. He is famous for bringing complaints against and questioning God Himself.

Division of the Book of Jeremiah

− Jeremiah 1-25: oracles against Judah and Jerusalem. o Chp. 1: The calling of Jeremiah. o 25:1-14: summary of first 24 chapters. o 25:15-38: introduces coming chapters' theme: foreign nations. But note that the oracles against foreign nations only come at Ch. 46. So we can see the hand of a redactor here. − Jeremiah 26-45: personal narrative. o This section is very unusual for prophetic literature, which often contain a few narrative or autobiographical verses, but never a section this large. o 30-31: Book of Consolation (not to be confused with Deutero-Isaiah, which is also sometimes called by this title). o 36: The scroll of the prophet Jeremiah. o 37-45: extended story (the passion of Jeremiah). o 45: personal oracle in favor of Baruch (Jeremiah's 'secretary'). − Jeremiah 46-51: oracles against foreign nations − Jeremiah 52: The End (Fall of Jerusalem & historical appendix) (cf. 2Kings 24-25)

The Hebrew and Greek texts of the book of Jeremiah.

− Length: LXX is 14% shorter than the Masoretic Text. This is strange and contrary to the norm, since usually translations are longer than the original! − Order of Chapters: The chapters in the Masoretic Text are numbered differently than those in the LXX (MT chapters 46-51 = LXX chapters 26-31). − Explanation of the differences between the LXX and Masoretic versions of Jeremiah: The old theory was that LXX redactors had trimmed down and cleaned up the Masoretic Text, thinking it was too complicated. Thus, the Masoretic text was supposed to be the more authentic, less "processed" version. BUT then the Dead Sea Scrolls were discovered, which included fragments of Jeremiah. These fragments seemed to come from two different two Hebrew versions of Jeremiah: one (longer) similar to the Masoretic Text, the other (shorter) similar to the LXX. And since it is a principle of textual criticism that the shorter of two versions is to be preferred (since people tend to lengthen a text rather than shorten it), the current theory is that the LXX version is based on a more dependable Hebrew tradition than the Masoretic text.

Genesis of the book of Micah?

− Nucleus of Micah (Ch. 1-3) Most scholars recognize Micah as the only author of this book, but a few scholars argue that the book is the work of several hands, on account of seemingly added verses. Everyone agrees that the heart of the book, ch. 1-3, is authentically Micah. − Micah and Deutero-Micah? Scholars suggest that there might be two principal authors of the book. They cite chapters 1-3 and parts of chps. 4 and 5, which contain oracles are addressed to Judah (South), while chapters 6-7 are addressed to the North. Chapters 1-5 have some similarities with Isaiah (who was from the South) where the prophet addresses the people in general. Chapters 6-7 however, have some similarities with Hosea (North), and the prophet addresses the leaders of the people in particular. Thus, on one extreme, some argue that only ch. 1-3 are strictly from Micah, and on the other extreme are those who argue that the whole book is from him. − Post-Micah oracles of judgment (6:1-7:7) While the nucleus of the book is ch. 1-3, there were some additions made even to this part. Some of these are the "Post-Micah" oracles which show evidence of prophecy of Micah in a later period, perhaps during the time of the Persians. Also, in ch. 1-3 are found some variations made by the Deuteronomist during or after the exile (cf. 1:5, 2:4). − Oracles of salvation (4-5; 7:8-20; 2:12-13) The added verses of the oracles of salvation (ch. 4-5 and 7) contain themes not from the VIII century but from the exilic or post-exilic period literature. For example, these later themes include the pilgrimage of the nations, the reunion of all of Israel, and the waiting of the Messiah.

Explain: the problems of reading the prophetic books.

− One problem in studying the prophetic books is the difficulty of finding a clear order and organization. One method is to look for a macro structure based on negative and positive elements (see next question). Another problem is that many prophetic books underwent a series of changes, additions, restructuring. So it can be difficult to approach a prophetic book as a unified whole because of the long process of composition and redaction. It is therefore necessary to look at these books both Synchronically (as we have them today) and Diachronically (as they developed over time) in order to avoid distortion.

Description of the prophet?

− The prophet is an inspired person. His inspiration comes from a personal contact with God. The prophet does not consult documents and existing sources, but he refers to his own real-life experience. His strength is an intimate relationship with God and His word. − The prophet is a public character. He is not a hermit. His place is in the piazza, in the street, in the midst of the people. He lives in contact with others. He knows the plots of politicians, the life of ordinary citizens, and the sufferings of the people. He cares about all aspects of life, because God does. Even Jesus spent most of his time with people. − The prophet is a threatened (minacciato) person. He is threatened by those he criticizes (esp. the powerful, and those who do not practice what he preaches), and he is accountable to God. There are numerous examples of cruelty towards prophets: o Hosea was called crazy and stupid. o Jeremiah was called a traitor. o Zechariah was stoned. o Jesus was treated the same way. − The prophet is a person with a charism. o Prophecy is a charism, a gift from God. It breaks the barriers of sex, culture, social class, religious barriers, and age.