Quiz #4 315

Variety in relationships

brothers vs sisters, age; age gaps; biological vs adopted versus step versus half

body as obstacle vs rouge test

children in more interdependent country (Zambia) did better on body as obstacle task. - Children whose mothers were more likely to emphasize verbal communication were more likely to pass the mirror task - whereas the children whose mothers were more verbal/ physically directive were not

Authoritarian parenting (low warmth, high control)

cold and unresponsive to children's needs - expect children to comply without question - correlated with children refusing to accept socialization - low in social and academic competence - children inability to cope with everyday stressors - high levels of depression, delinquency etc..

authoritative parenting (high warmth, high control)

correlated with, kids being more popular with peers - better adaptive skills - low in anti-social behaviour - as adolescence, better academic and social competence, self-reliance and coping skills

Uninvolved (low warmth, low control)

low in demandingness and responsiveness - disturbed attachment as children -problems with peer relationships when they are older - as adolescence, they display anti-social behaviour and low academic performance - internalizing problems substance abuse, risky sexual behaviour - effects of this parenting style cumulatively gets worse

Sexual Identity

ones sense of oneself as a sexual being - sexual minority folks may take some time to realize this about themselves - first go though first recognition -- that one is somewhat different - test and exploration - may lead to identity acceptance, ie, positive feelings about identity, disclosure of identity to family and friends - Note: people change their labels "ie., mostly straight to "bi"' - females are most likely to use "mostly straight" rather than guys - one third changed their labels 2 or more times over the 10 years -- LGB youth report more of all forms of violence , report higher sadness and higher likelihood to attempt suicide than straight youth

Affirmation

positive/negative feelings about your ERI

Having a clear sense of identity

resolution, achieved through exploration, provides adolescents with a sense of wholeness; continuity / benefits of this / reduces self-hate

Permissive parenting (high warmth, low control)

responsive to Childs wishes - the child tends to be impulsive, unregulated, high in externalizing problems, and as adolescents -- engage in more school misconduct than authoritative parents kids

same sex dyads and intimacy

same sex dyads they tend to be pretty close in early adolescents, stay pretty close

Step-parents

simple: just parent, or complex/blended: they have kids: step-families

The current study ERI

tested whether the identity project intervention would increase adolescents' ERI exploration and resolution under optimum circumstances Half randomly assigned to treatment (Identity Project) other to control (Academic Success curriculum) Pre-test post-test surveys (T1, T2) --Results indicated that adolescents in the treatment condition reported higher T2 ERI exploration compared to adolescents in the control condition -- Minority status significantly predicted T2 ERI exploration and T3 ERI resolution, with White youth reporting lower levels than ethnic-racial minority youth. --Intervention condition significantly moderated the relation between T2 exploration and T3 resolution --Ie., the intervention predicted moving from exploration to resolution (support for their model) not for the control condition --Future research should look at the relationship of intervention on psychosocial functioning

Socialization

the process though which children acquire the values, standards, skills, knowledge and behaviours that are regarded as appropriate fpr their present and future roles in their particular culture

Children of both sexes are more adjusted in stepfamilies when

the stepparent is warm and involved and supports the custodial parents decisions rather than trying to exert control -- Level of conflict between biological parent and non-custodial parent impacts childrens adjustment in step families --If the non-custodial biological parent conveys negative attitudes toward the step-parent the child will feel caught in the middle contributing to the Childs poor adjustment --May also encourage the child to feel hostile towards them

Acculturative stress

the stress of needing to come to terms with two cultures

Family dynamics

the ways in which family members interact through various relationships: mother with each child, father with each child, siblings with one another etc...

Mixed sex dyads and intimacy

theres a huge drop in adolescents, but then increases into early adolescents

Identity considerations

exploration and commitment

parents matter findings *correlates

father involvement closeness to mother, teenage mother hostility, parental training

different types of roles of grandparents

for example, --influential parents (involved, contact, authority role), ---supporting grandparents (still involved, no authority), --authority (not super involved except for discipline and authority), --passive or detached (not involved emotionally or authoritatively)

Self-concept

how individuals view themselves (internal)

Self-esteem

how they evaluate themselves (internal)

Program was designed to

increase students' salience and understanding of their own ethnic-racial heritage(s), increase their awareness and understanding of historical experiences of discrimination and racism in U.S. history, introduce the notion that within-group differences are oftentimes larger than between-group differences, clarify misconceptions regarding a "right or wrong" way to identify with an ethnic-racial group, provide students with tangible tools with which to explore their background(s), and provide students with opportunities to discuss their back- ground(s) with others.

child influences on parenting

individual differences in children contribute to parenting they recieve - ex. disobedient children make it hard for parents to be authoritative - genetic factors -- makes certain kids sensitive to their environment - temperament - bidirectionally of parent-child interactions: mutually effected by each others behaviours ex. coercive cycles

Influence 1: cognitive development

- they ways we think about the world influencing self-concept

influence 2: parents

- warmth & support: those children tend to have positive self- concept versus more critical parents

Discrimination is pervasive for youth from ethnic-racial minorities/marginalized groups

- Discrimination -> stress -> maladjustment In schools/classrooms?

Discipline

-- Physical punishment associated with poorer outcomes in children -- Power assertion: coercion, control, denial of privileges — using power to change behaviour — linked with poor outcomes Inductive discipline: provide explanation; rather than just asserting authority -- Other orientied inductive discipline: "think about how your friend would feel" --reasoning focused on the effects of a behaviour on other people, is particularly effective at promoting internalization --Teaches empathy --effective when the child stops undesirable behaviour Engages in new desirable behaviour --Internalization: effective discipline that leads to a permanent change in the child's behaviour because the child has learned and accepted the desired behaviour

Teenagers as parents

-- Rates are dropping -- Being involved with religious organizations & living with both biological parents reduces the risk -- As well as success in school and having parents with supportive parenting styles -- Factors that increase risk are being raised in poverty by a single or adolescent mother -- Having low achievement and dropping out of school, significant family problems, death of a parent, drug or alcohol abuse in the family, having an older adolescent sibling who is sexually active or is already a parent, having friends who are sexually active, history of abuse

Family Structure

-- Refers to the number of and relationships among the people living in a household— can influence interactions among family members --Decline in number of children with married parents since 1961, now only 65% of children live with married parents --More lone parents and common law --More likely for aboriginal children to live with a lone parent, compared to non-aboriginal --Family structure has big implications for family income— 37% of children living in lone-parent families lived below the low-income line in Canada --Lone parents have to do all the household work and usually have to work more than one job, get to spend less time with each child

Role of SES and Culture in Family

-- SES: income, education status, job status (tend to correlate) -> taken together SES -- Low SES percentage, Vancouver is really high percent 22%, versus the rest of BC around 18% -- This variable changes, people move in and out of this status Income related to: paying for necessities, access to safe neighbourhoods / environments -- Time spent with children -> relates to SES, parents need to work 2-3 job -- Therefore low SES spend less time with children -- From all of this parents with low SES tend to experience increase conflict and stress -- Low SES is a risk factor for children's physical, emotional, academic development

Mixed findings on outcomes associated with these parenting approaches...

-- Some classic studies showing no negative effects of higher control parenting in Chinese families -- Many more recent studies showing similar negative effects of high-control in Chinese and N.American families -- In china, different across ages, younger children no negative effects -- Negative effects of physical control, but maybe not of emotional or behavioural -- Classic studies done in the 90s, rather than newer studies, things have changed in this time

Parenting styles

-- Study findings: we tend to see consistent advantage for authoritative parents: high support, high control on variables like: self-reliance, social competence, GPA, academic performance, low distress and low school misconduct --We also see a disadvantage for children of neglectful parents on the same variables The other two styles far somewhere in between --Though parenting style predicts outcome it can vary between situations, children, time etc

ERI: Process

-- Unexamined ethic identity: not thinking about what that means in a broader context (children are here) -- Exploration ^ the gap between these two: realization of difference -- Resolution - resolve questions, associated with positive outcome

Divorce versus Conflict?

-- When there hasn't been fighting and the parents divorce thats hard for psychological distress, maybe its the element of surprise? -- If there is a lot of conflict, there the children whose parents are divorced show fewer psychological symptoms, probably because their parents aren't together to fight — children are happier -- Divorce is a process Short term effects and long term effects -- Children of divorced parents are more likely to get divorced themselves

First time parents are older

-- Women are choosing to have kids later and teen birth rate is declining —> on average first time parents are older -- Older first time parent advantages: higher eduction, higher status occupations, higher incomes, more likely to have planned the birth -- More positive parenting for older mothers and fathers, less likely to display harsh parenting in one study -- Predicted fewer problem behaviours

Divorce

-- associated with increase problems in children, academic, social etc, higher school drop out rates.. -- Why? Parent conflict, stress, diminished parenting, economic difficulties, social difficulties ie., moving making new friends, absence of a parent or fear of the absence, relocation --People are more likely to get divorced than in the past, but also likely to re-partner after divorce

acceptance and warmth / responsiveness

-- cross culturally related to psychological adjustment for parenting

influence 3: Family narratives

-- how parents talk about the child: "this is what you were like in grade one" "stories we tell about family members" -- Helps children remember events and construct an understanding of the self -- Peers: also influence

Birth Order

--Sparked the idea and study of birth oder differences (Francis Galton) --Different home environments/ treatments may lead to different personality trait outcomes? But when it comes to the research though, most research on birth order differences are quite mixed --Confounded with family size, which is also confounded with income, education and culture and ethnicity

Step-mothers generally have more difficulty with step-children than do step-fathers

--though there is less research on this --Children may reject her authority — while the father wants her to take a role of disciplining them --Stepmothers may feel resentment toward the children and view them as a burden

Parents re-marriage

--young adolescents appear to be more negatively affected then younger children --Key factor that effects: High quality contact with non-custodial parent = better adjustment

Same Sex Parents

-- 59% of children of same sex parents are biologically related to one of their parents -- Children of same sex parents are not different from hetero parented children -- They report low level of stigmatization and teasing, though sometimes they report feeling excluded or gossiped about by peers -- When gay fathers have low levels of social support and a less positive gay identity, they experience more stress regarding parenting and are more likely to have a poor relationship with their children.. for child happiness, must have good relationship with fathers partner and biological father -- Children of lesbian parents are better adjusted when their parents aren't stressed

Identity

-- A description or definition of the self; a theory of oneself -- The extent to which individuals feel secure about who they are who they were, who they can become -- Different aspects of identity: political, occupational, gender, etc...

Defining "family"

-- Across cultures, same goals of child-rearing -- Protect -- Nurture -- Help children to become competent members of society -- In all cultures, use of warmth and control -- But, parenting reflects the values and beliefs of a given cultural context -- Right amounts of warmth and control -- How warmth and control are expressed

Influence of Culture on Parenting

-- Authoritarian more common in non-white groups, non north American ex, china (more likely to be authoritarian, however, less negative effects for Chinese or Chinese American children before adolescence compared to n. American children. only physical punishment is related to negative effects for Chinese) --Authoritative being best is in white, north american samples --Some positive outcomes cross culturally with authoritarian — raises the question of discipline

Early Childhood: self concept dev.

-- Can describe self -- Focus on concrete, observable features -- Unrealistically positive: they describe themselves in unrealistically positive terms -- Don't distinguish between actual self and ideal self -- Piaget would have described this as ego-centrism

Types of sibling relationships:

-- Caregiver relationships: quasi parent, more common when older sister -- Buddy: like each other and try to be liked by each other, more common with girl girl relationships -- Casual/uninvolved: siblings have little to do with each other -- Critical/conflictual/rival: teasing, fighting

Middle Childhood

-- More integrated, global characteristics: ex. "Creative" across a range of things -- More realistic and balanced -- Linked to actual competencies / evaluation — still tends to be observable things and less internal -- Social comparisons

Consequences for teen mom and child

-- More likely to have poor parenting skills — children are more likely to display low impulse control, problem behaviours -- Children born to teen moms are more likely to fail academically, be incarcerated, early sexual activity, less education, income and life satisfaction as young adults -- Not all are doomed to poor developmental outcomes - parents with better knowledge about child development and parenting and who display authoritative parenting style are better off -- The presence and support from the father can be beneficial to the child and the mother -- Exposure to father figure is only beneficial on the children if the the relationship is positive and if the father does not have a criminal history

Divorce: why its hard

-- Mother is now a lone parent: financial hardship, less time, less warmth, less emotionally available, less supervision of the children -> a shame because if they were more warm and emotionally available then better adjustment to the divorce -- Move to new neighbourhood and new School: difficult transition ,/ effects mental health directly -- Positive outcomes: if there were high levels of conflict, then positive outcome -- Conflict linked with emotional and behavioural problems in kids Among children raised in high conflict families —> divorce meant better adjusted kids -- In low conflict families -> divorce meant poorer adjusted kids -- Ongoing conflict after divorce, negative impact on kids, especially if they feel caught in the middle ex. Disclosing sensitive information about one parent to the other

Gender Differences

-- Mothers: more likely to identify with authoritative style -- More likely to spend time with child (an hour and a half more per day), more likely to engage in caretaking activities (physical and emotional care) -- more likely to be more warm and responsive , be over-protective -- Fathers: More likely to identify with authoritarian or permissive style -- More likely to engage in physical play (ie. coaching) (not a cross cultural finding-- fathers in India, Malaysia and Sweden dont. -- All highly depending on culture Parenting quality -> related to outcomes, rather than gender

Same sex/gender parents

-- No difference in adjustment, personality, achievement, sexual orientation -- Children of LGB families report feeling different and subjected to social slights —> but feel positively about their families -- Not a lot of studies and small samples and non-representative samples, WEIRD samples

Normativeness

-- Not all parents within a culture think and behave the same -- If parent's practices are congruent with others in their cultural context -> adaptive for children? -- More might be predicted by the culture/individual fit

Extended family

-- Not much research on extended family, this role changes across culture -- Within north American society, black families are more likely to live with more extended family —> this is beneficial in this cultural context -- Help with effective child-rearing, reduce costs, transmission of culture, —> broader support: emotionally, financially, etc...

Adolescence, self-concept dev.

-- Nuanced view of self -- Understand role of situations and context -- Begin to develop coherent / integrated self -- More so towards the end of adolescence -- Begin to think about the future; possible selves -- False self behaviour: intentionally presents a false impression to others (most in romantic situations) -- Personal fable: belief that one's own experience is unique and novel (ex. Screaming to your mom that your unique and they don't understand you) -- Imaginary audience: the belief that everyone else is focused on you (more pronounced in boys> girls) - By late adolescence, more integrated less determined by what others think, more likely to see the behavioural change across situations as "Adaptive"

Grandparents: parenting

-- Parenting as a grandparent is difficult: tend to be poorer financially, maybe on fixed income -- Their peers aren't going through the same thing -- Children of grand-parenting have many difficulties and its not possible to know whether this is poor grand-parenting, trauma of separation from biological parents

Affinity Groups (ie, same race/ethnicity)

An opportunity to discuss shared experience

Families are smaller

Children have less siblings

in both types

Conflict — lots of conflict in both types of relationships, tends to drop into late teens

Process: how we form this sense of identity

Ex., unexamined ethnic identity (as a child unidentified), exploration (adolescence), resolution (adult)

sexual identity stages for gay ppl

First engage in a same-gender intimate relationship, then disclose his sexual identity to his mother, then disclose his sexual identity to his father

Influences on Self-Concept

So many!

Family Structures are More Fluid

The more family structure transitions a child experiences, the more behaviour problems they can develop

Parenting is culturally situated

What is valued as "Good" parenting differs The relationship between parenting practices and outcomes may differ And even within cultures, there may be a lot of variability

Content

affirmation (process &content), public regard, centrality, salience

A child who bonds with the stepparent

also gains another trusted adult, may have positive benefits -- May be a good role model: adolescent son less likely to be delinquent if parent re-marries --Children become as close to step-fathers as to biological, without effecting relationship to biological parent --Having a good relationship to both is associated with good outcomes

identity

babies have an identity even if they dont have self-concept, because they have a name and belong to a family - many different identities possibly (& both internal and external)

Parents want their kids to

-- Make value-based decisions -- Self-assurance to follow their dreams -- Be generous and giving towards others

Cross cultural disciplinary methods

- mothers across all countries reported high rates of teaching about good and bad behaviours - low rates of love withdrawal

Children's adjustment to divorce, children versus adolescent, different genders

-- Children of divorce are at greater risk for a variety of short-term and long-term problems compared to 2bio-kids -- More likely to experience depression, sadness, lower self-esteem, less socially responsibly, competent -- Boys may be especially prone to high externalizing problem behaviours ex. Aggression and anti-social behaviour --Both soon after the divorce and years later --Drop in academic achievement for both genders --More likely to drop out of school, engage in delinquent activities and substance abuse, have children out of wedlock --As adults, they themselves are at greater risk of divorce --Women but not male adults also at risk of poorer quality intimate relationships; lower self esteem; and lower satisfaction with social support from friends and family --Lower incomes At slightly greater risk for depression, anxiety and phobias --Despite these differences and risks, most children whose parents divorce do not suffer significant enduring problems as a consequence --Over differences in psychosocial functioning are very small --Can reflect extension of parent psychological functioning that existed years prior to the divorce Adolescents are particularly at risk for problems adjusting— more opportunity to get into trouble --College students less reactive, because they are more detached

Parent Relations

-- Conflict between parents —> poorer outcomes, depressive symptoms and less good grades in school, consistent result -- While important, not as important as the quality of parenting

Influences on ERI

-- Ethnic racial socialization: where children are taught about race, typically by parents --Much more common in marginalized groups --Common themes: understanding/valuing ones' culture --Dealing with racism Succeeding in mainstream society

Two facets of ERI:

-- Ethnic-racial identification: how someone labels their race and/or ethnicity (seems to develop during childhood) -- Ethnic-racial identity: a person's thoughts and feelings about their race and ethnicity and the process of developing those thoughts and feelings (questions of identity seem to be heightened in adolescence)

Influences on self-esteem

-- Gender: in general, males higher than females in all cultures -- Approval of others -> parents, peers, teachers: self-esteem can be based on the feedback and comparison to others -- Societal standards: physical attractiveness -- Single biggest predictor of overall self-esteem more so than any other domains -- Relates to societal standards --Might play into the gender difference too: huge gap in perceived physical appearance --Culture: impact on self esteem - lower scores of self -esteem in collectivistic cultures --> they are more self-efficacious -- more likely to acknowledge the negative qualities in self than n. Americans --Different meanings of self-esteem: individualist: about our own accomplishment --Collectivist: focus on group accomplishments -- Response to praise: whether praise boosts or lowers our self esteem -- kids with low self esteem who receive inflated praise will be less likely to take a challenge -- when children with low self esteem were given regular praise they took the challenge

Latinx parents:

-- Hard for them to capture what parenting looks like -- More warmth, more controlling —> come out of cultural beliefs -- Familismo -> desire for family ties, for family support -- Respeto -> fulfil obligations, maintain family relationships -- Again, somewhat inconsistent findings on outcomes -- Some studies do find positive outcomes linked with warmth + "hostile control" for Latinx youth

Self-Esteem and Development

-- High self-esteem -> better in school, better well-being -- Low self-esteem -> emotional and behavioural problems Self-Esteem Movement: programs designed to boost self-esteem in order to boost academic performance -- Some of these programs boost self esteem BUT doesn't mean it helps with other outcomes - Great lesson in correlation versus causation

Ethnic and Racial Identity (ERI)

-- How you identify yourself but also how this is integrated into your sense of self -- Process: how we form this sense of identity Ex., unexamined ethnic identity (as a child unidentified), exploration (adolescence), resolution (adult) -- Content: affirmation, public regard, centrality, salience Affirmation: positive/negative feelings about your ERI

Self-concept: development

-- Infancy: early implicit awareness: self as seperate entity, as active/causal agent -- Even the first months of life, ex. --Foot attached to a toy, they can kick to make that toy move — they are an active agent - at 8 months they realize that they are separate from their parent, and cry at prolonged separation --At about a year and a half to two years, aprox 18 months - 20 months: they pass the rouge test (children with ASD have difficulty with this) --Until this time they would wipe the mirror for red lipstick that is actually on their face --At 18 months and older they wipe their own face --At about 2 years: --Recognize self in pictures; --Label self using their own name / "me" --Use category labels for self ("categorical self") ex. Im a girl, im a big kid etc...

Development of ERI

-- Informed by ethnic aspects of ancestry (e.g., cultural traditions) and the racialized nature of their group in a socio-historical context (e.g., discrimination based on phenotype) --Two processes that inform the development of ERI are exploration: of their race and ethnicity --Resolution: regarding the personal meaning ascribed to this aspect of their identity --Conceptual model of the Identity Project: a curriculum designed to increase ERI exploration and resolution will result in greater identity cohesion, and in turn, psychological cohesion

Growing up under extreme affluence

-- Kids from very privileged families don't spend as much time with families -- Very good nutrition, access -- Higher rates of alcohol/drug use -- Higher levels of anxiety and depression -- Higher than low SES! Perfectionism, lead to high levels of anxiety -- Affluent families have access to resources to help -- Not the same situation as risks for children low SES

Chinese parents:

-- Less warm: tend to withhold praise, believed to lead to self-satisfied children: use shame to make children want to do better. --- Don't use praise so they keep working -- More controlling: deeply involved parents, need to be involved in shaping child's development, respect for family/ authority -- More use of discipline to establish family bonds, collectivistic culture —> "family is what matters" -- Discipline and control "with love" This idea of a responsible parent, its a duty

Siblings

-- Longest lasting relationship that you are going to have -- Distinct social relationships, not vertical or horizontal power structures -- Tend to be marked by both warmth/support and conflict -- Different to relationship with peers where its characterized only by warmth/support -- Non-voluntary relationships

function of sibling relationship

-- practice communication and social skills -- Buffer for peer rejection, parent conflict, stressful experience -- opportunity to learn about another gender -- Promote individuality -- Conflict -> destructive or constructive? -- Learn how to have constructive ways of fighting BUT if theres too much conflict it can be destructive -- High levels of conflict —> associated with negative outcomes ie, disobedience, delinquency, risky sexual behaviour, low self regulation, etc.. - parents should learn how to intervene properly -> helps learn conflict resolution - parents should treat them similarly --> predicts better outcome for their relationship (not a cross-cultural finding, Mexico not the case) - less conflict in collectivist than individualist cultures - relationship with half-siblings can be especially charged, older sibling may resent the younger, mad about new marital relation - the more preferential treatment in a blended family, the harder it is on the sibling relationship - parental conflict/divorce predicts poorer sibling relationship

influence 4: Culture

-- self-concept differs across culture -- Individualistic (more likely to focus on internal traits) versus collectivist (relational descriptors — "im my mums child") --Organization: whether or not they focused on personal or outward oriented qualities --Private qualities: personal to you --Collective: im from second grade - part of a group - im from Vancouver - all collective -- Public - relation to others - my friends really like me - im my mothers son -- And while everyones doing a bit of all of these descriptors Individualistic more likely to use private, collectivist more likely to use public -- Abstractions: "general descriptors" ie., im funny or kind -- Or specific: "I broke my arm last year" Individualist more likely to use abstract Collectivist more likely to use specific

Conflict between step-fathers and stepchildren

-- tends to be greater than that with bio offspring -- Stepfathers more likely to see the children as burdens that biological fathers -- Children with stepfathers tend to have higher rates of depression, withdrawal and disruptive problems -- Preadolescent girls in particular are likely to have problems with their step-fathers -- Disrupts the relationship among the girls mother-daughter

evolutionary role of grandparents

--7% of kids grow up with a grandparent --Grandparents: evolutionarily adaptive? Useful for survival? --We live for a long-time There might be an adaptive role of grandparents for survival --Can boost emotional well-being The closer you are with your grandparents - the lower the depressive symtoms! A buffer --Especially for children who are growing up in riskier contexts, ex., children growing up in single parent families Similar pattern in other high risk groups

ERI: content:

--Affirmation: how good/bad a person feels about being part of their ethnic/racial group — tends to be a protective factor (but depends on other aspects of ERI, seen below) --Public regard: how positively a person believes other people view their ethnic/racial group --Centrality: how important a person's ethnic/racial group is to their identity --Salience: how important a person feels their ethnic/racial group is to a particular situation

ERI Reading Notes

--Better adjustment for those who explore their identity through ERI --Findings from the Identity Project, which was developed as a universal mental health promotion intervention, that targeted ERI --Program was designed to a) be delivered to the general youth population rather than youth identified as being at high risk or already showing signs of problem behaviour, b) be efficacious for youth from ethnic- racial minority and majority backgrounds, and c) be relevant to youth from any ethnic-racial background

Identity:

--Coming to terms with who you are, how you are seen in society --Erikson: identity versus role confusion --We have all these little puzzle pieces "kind" "Creative" but it needs to be put together into one coherent sense of identity --Identity resolves, according to Erikson, when we feel at home in ourselves --Psychosocial moratorium: time in which individuals are free from excessive obligations and can experiment with different roles ex. Universities, --Clearly a luxury --Most current theorists wouldn't talk about developing identity as a crisis but more as a process

Self-Esteem *look into this

--Different evaluations of self in different domains --Becomes more differentiated with development --Still there is a global self-esteem --Starts high, decline through childhood - rebounds in adulthood --Children can start to talk about this around age 8 For many, self-esteem increases in adolescence But it is really variable --Gender differences? Males have a sharper increase in self esteem, females a duller increase - males overall higher than females - might be that females have higher self esteem in certain domains (moral, ethical, behavioural) -- no cross cultural gender differences -> increases at age 16 on for both genders, females never reach males self-esteem - boys higher in self satisfaction, physical appearance, athletic --Schooling differences: school change linked to a drop in self esteem --Individual differences in how self-esteem might change in adolescence

Correlates of these identity considerations

--Identity diffusion: high levels of psychological / behavioural problems --Identity achievement: high achievement, maturity, intimacy, sense of agency, integration of the various aspects of self --Identity foreclosure: high levels of prejudice, needs for social approval, low autonomy --Moratorium: high anxiety, conflict with authority

"The Identity Project"

--Intervention designed to boost ERI exploration and resolution -> intent to improve mental health --Intervention designed to boos ERI exploration and resolution --Increase self-esteem, decrease depressive symptoms, increase grades

Family Systems Approach

--Many different systems within the family --Parent-children, parent relations with each other, siblings relationships --All these systems impact each other

One-child Law China

--No consistent support for concerns over only children Some evidence only children perform better on intelligence tests --Some evidence more self interested and less co-operative --No more prone to depression and anxiety than are children with siblings --No real difference in personality or social behaviour

Family

--Reproduction --Promoting Survival --Support: emotional, financial --Socialization: the process though which children acquire the values, standards, knowledge and behaviours seen as appropriate in culture

In adolescents and young adults, positive ERI tends to be associated with...

Lower levels of depressive symptoms Higher self-esteem Positive academic outcomes Protection in the face of discrimination

Different types of identity (2 cultures)

Marginalized identity: when you don't identify with either Assimilated identity: identify with mainstream culture, but not minority culture Bicultural: identify with both — often associated with positive outcomes, but not always (may have to do with the history of abuse and trauma - not always good to identify) Separated: identify with heritage culture - for some may be more ideal ex., indigenous youth

punishment

Most punishments fall into the category of too much pressure Punishment is a negative stimulus that follows a behaviour to reduce the likelihood that it will happen again Time out, love withdrawal, spanking, taking away privileges, yelling - have all been associated with negative outcomes — not effective