Quiz bowl

William I (the Conqueror)

(1028-1087, r. 1066-1087) House of Normandy. Duke of Normandy from 1035, he was promised succession to the throne by Edward the Confessor, but when Edward gave the throne to Harold II in 1066, _ invaded England, killing Harold and defeating the Anglo-Saxons at the Battle of Hastings. An able administrator, he authorized a survey of his kingdom in the 1086 Domesday Book. By that time _ had replaced Anglo-Saxon nobles and clergy with Normans and other continentals.

Henry II

(1133-1189; r. 1154-1189) House of Plantagenet. The son of Geoffrey of Anjou and Matilda, he married Eleanor of Aquitaine in 1152, and invaded England the following year, forcing Stephen of Blois to acknowledge _as his heir. While king he developed the common law and due process, but fought with Thomas (à) Becket over submission to the Pope; _had Becket executed in 1170 but performed penance at Canterbury. Eleanor and his four sons conspired with French king Philip II against Henry on several occasions.

Richard I (the Lion-Hearted)

(1157-1199; r. 1189-1199) House of Plantagenet. Third son of Henry II, he spent only five months of his reign in England. He went on the Third Crusade to Jerusalem, winning many victories in the Holy Land, but on his way back was captured and ransomed by Holy Roman Emperor Henry VI. He also fought Philip II in Normandy, and died while defending his possessions in Aquitaine.

Philip II

(1165-1223, r. 1179-1223) House of Capet. Philip was the first of the great Capetian kings of France. Fighting and negotiating against Henry II, Richard I, and John of England, Philip won back Normandy, Brittany, Anjou, and other territories. He also took part in the famous Third Crusade (with Richard I and Frederick Barbarossa) and made use of the Albigensian crusade to pave the way for the annexation of Languedoc by his successor.

Henry VIII

(1491-1547, r. 1509-1547) House of Tudor. The son of Tudor founder _ VII, he brought England into both the Renaissance and the Reformation. _ patronized the philosopher Erasmus, the painter Hans Holbein the Younger, and the writer Thomas More. Originally a supporter of the Catholic Church--the Pope had named him "Defender of the Faith"--he named himself head of the Church of England in 1533 so that he could divorce Catherine of Aragon and marry Anne Boleyn. Henry executed top ministers who crossed him, including Thomas Cromwell and Thomas More. He married six times, but only his third wife, Jane Seymour, bore him a son, the sickly Edward VI.

Catherine II/Catherine the Great

(1729-1796; ruled 1762-1796) _ wasn't really a Russian at all: she was born Sophie of Anhalt-Zerbst (a minor German principality) and was chosen as the bride of the future Peter III. She had thoroughly Russianized herself by the time Peter became tsar, and soon had him deposed: she then dispatched several claimants to the throne and crushed a peasant uprising led by Emilian Pugachev. She also corresponded with Enlightenment philosophes, granted charters of rights and obligations to the nobility and the towns, oversaw the partition of Poland, and expanded the empire. _ is well known for her extravagant love life: her 21 acknowledged lovers included Grigorii Potemkin (who constructed the famous Potemkin village on an imperial inspection tour).

George III

(1738-1820, r. 1760-1820) House of Hanover. Though he lost the American colonies in the Revolutionary War, Britain's economic empire expanded during his reign. While _ 's ministers kept their lives, they fell from power frequently, including both William Pitts, Lord Bute, and Lord North. Popular at home, he suffered from porphyria, causing the "madness" that ultimately led to the Regency period (1811-1820) of his son _ IV.

Alexander I

(1777-1825; ruled 1801-1825) _ took the throne in 1801 when his repressive father Paul was assassinated and immediately set out on a more liberal course, but he left his strongest supporters disappointed. He is best known for his wars with Napoleon (first as an ally and then as an enemy), and for seeking to establish a Holy Alliance in the years that followed. _ was an eccentric and a religious mystic. Some even say that he didn't really die in 1825: instead, they argue, he faked his own death, became a hermit, and died in a monastery in 1864.

Nicholas I

(1796-1855; ruled 1825-1855) _, who ruled Russia from the failure of the Decembrist Uprising to the middle of the Crimean War, has traditionally been portrayed as the embodiment of the Russian autocracy. His government pursued a policy of Official Nationality, defending a holy trinity of "Autocracy, Orthodoxy, and Nationality," and established a repressive secret police force known as the Third Section. Contemporaries referred to him as the "Gendarme of Europe" after he helped the Habsburgs squelch the Hungarian Revolution of 1848.

Alexander II

(1818-1881; ruled 1855-1881) _ embarked on a program of Great Reforms soon after taking the throne near the end of the Crimean War. The most famous part of his program was the serf emancipation of 1861--a reform which occurred almost simultaneously with the end of American slavery (and whose gradual nature disappointed liberals.) But he also introduced a system of local governing bodies called zemstvos, tried to increase the rule of law in the court system, eased censorship, and reorganized the army. _ became more reactionary after an attempted 1866 assassination and was assassinated in 1881.

Victoria

(1819-1901, r. 1837-1901; Empress of India 1876-1901) House of Hanover. The longest-reigning monarch in British history, she relinquished much of the remaining royal power, both to her husband Albert and to her favored prime ministers, Lord Melbourne, Robert Peel, and Benjamin Disraeli. After Albert's death in 1861, _ largely went into seclusion, though she influenced the passage of the Reform Act of 1867, which doubled the number of Britons who could vote.

Alexander III

(1845-1894; ruled 1881-1894) Those who hoped that the assassination of Alexander II would lead to liberalization saw the error of their ways when the new tsar,_, launched his program of "counter-reforms." Under him, the state enacted a series of Temporary Regulations (giving it the power to crack down on terrorism), increased censorship, tightened controls on Russia's universities, created a position of "land captain" to exert state control in the countryside, and either encouraged or ignored the first anti-Jewish pogroms.

The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo

(1848) ended the Mexican-American War (1846-1848) and was signed in its namesake neighborhood of Mexico City. Its most significant result was the "Mexican Cession" transferring California, Nevada, Utah, and parts of four other states to the U.S. It also made the Rio Grande the boundary between Texas and Mexico. This treaty provided for one side to settle more than three million dollars in debts. After the initial failure of the Wilmot Proviso, the Senate also voted down an attempt to attach that Proviso to this treaty. Nicholas Trist was the chief negotiator of this treaty. This treaty included the American government paying fifteen million dollars for a land transfer. This treaty established a boundary at the Rio Grande river. Through this treaty, America gained control of California.

Nicholas II

(1868-1918; ruled 1894-1917) _, the last of the Romanovs, ruled until his overthrow in the February Revolution of 1917. He is usually seen as both a kind man who loved his family and an incapable monarch who helped bring about the end of the tsarist state; he led his country through two disastrous wars, the Russo-Japanese War (which helped spark the Revolution of 1905), and World War I (which helped cause the 1917 revolutions.) He is best known for his loving marriage to Alexandra and for allowing the crazed monk Grigorii Rasputin to influence court politics while treating the hemophilia of Alexei, the heir to the throne. _abdicated in 1917 and was shot in 1918.

The Treaty of Portsmouth

(1905) ended the Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905). It was signed in _, New Hampshire, after negotiations brokered by Theodore Roosevelt (for which he won the Nobel Peace Prize). Japan had dominated the war and received an indemnity, the Liaodong Peninsula in Manchuria, and the treaty was widely condemned in Japan because the public had expected more. A state governor, John McLane, arranged the conference which ultimately produced this agreement. The facilities of the Wentworth Hotel and the Rye Beach transatlantic cable access point proved optimal for (*) Witte and Komura to work on this treaty, made necessary by the Battle of Tsushima Straits. For 10 points name this Theodore Roosevelt-mediated treaty that ended the Russo-Japanese War.

Second Bull Run / Second Manassas

(August 29-30, 1862). This resounding victory by Lee and Jackson pushed Union forces back to Washington, D.C. President Lincoln had replaced McClellan with John Pope, who would supposedly be united with the Army of the Potomac, commanded by Henry Halleck. Lee maneuvered Jackson's troops behind those of Pope; Jackson detained Pope's men at Manassas while Lee sent James Longstreet to crush Pope's left flank. Halleck's army was supposed to land at Aquia, but instead retreated to defend Washington, ceding all of Virginia to the Confederacy and marking a low point in the Union effort. This battle began at Brawner's Farm with a Confederate attack on the 2nd Wisconsin, who engaged in a hot fire-fight with the Stonewall Brigade. Later in this battle, the 5th New York sustained the highest single-battle casualties of any infantry unit in the Civil War. This battle was preceded by the smaller battles at Thoroughfare Gap and Cedar Mountain. For refusing to make an attack at this battle, FitzJohn Porter was court-martialed, though his name was cleared after the war. The losing force at this battle was forced to retreat over the Stone Bridge, and this defeat led to the dissolution of the Army of Virginia. The losing commander at this battle, who had won fame for capturing Island Number 10 in the Mississippi theater, was reassigned to fight the Sioux in Minnesota. The winning commander followed up this battle by invading Maryland. For 10 points, name this 1862 battle where Robert E. Lee defeated John Pope, fought near the site of the Civil War's first battle. Important locations on this battlefield include Brawner's Farm, Matthews Hill, and Henry House Hill, and it was bisected by the Warrenton Turnpike. It is where famous letter-writer Sullivan Ballou was mortally wounded. John Pope's retreat from this battlefield was quite orderly, thanks in part to a lack of ammo on the opposing side. An earlier retreat from this battlefield by Irvin (*) McDowell was much more chaotic, and was complicated by the presence of panicked civilian onlookers. This battlefield is where a commander from Virginia received his famous nickname, when Confederate General Barnard Bee noted that he stood "like a stone wall." For 10 points, identify this battlefield, the site of two separate battles during the Civil War. Rufus King was unable to participate in this battle due to a bout of epilepsy. Early fighting in this battle took place at Brawner's Farm and resulted in the amputation of Richard Ewell's leg. A follow-up engagement to this battle saw the deaths of Isaac Stevens and Philip Kearny and was called the Battle of Chantilly. Fitz John Porter was court-martialed for disobeying orders during this battle. Shortly after this battle, the Army of Virginia was (*) dissolved and the losing commander would spend the remainder of the war in Minnesota, fighting the Dakota. The winning commander at this battle would cross the Potomac River and initiate the Maryland Campaign. For 10 points, name this August 1862 Civil War battle where Robert E. Lee laid the smackdown on John Pope's forces at the same location as a battle the previous year.

Fredericksburg / Marye's Heights

(December 13, 1862). At this site, about 50 miles south of Washington, Union commander Ambrose Burnside (who had replaced McClellan) tried to take the initiative and cross the Rappahannock River in a march toward Richmond. He met Lee's forces, which were well entrenched in the hills behind the town. With a superior position, Lee routed the Union army; 13,000 Northern troops fell there, while only 5000 Confederates were killed. After the battle, Burnside's troops were forced to make "The Mud March" up the Rappahannock, made foul by weather and dead and wounded bodies. The outcome of this battle probably was determined by a seventeen day wait by Union forces for supplies to build pontoon bridges, allowing Confederate forces to set up artillery at points such as Telegraph Hill and Howison Hill. Union attacks such as the one led by Edwin Sumner and William Franklin were easily turned back by troops under James Longstreet and Stonewall Jackson. The Union plan to advance on Richmond was halted at this battle on the Rappahannock River, harming the reputation of General Ambrose Burnside. Name this battle that lasted five days in December, 1862. Following this battle, one side attempted a disastrous offensive known as the Mud March. During it, the Confederate soldier Richard Rowland Kirkland aided wounded Union soldiers and became known as the Angel of one location. That location was the site of a failed assault by Edwin Sumner that was repulsed by the First Corps of James Longstreet. A fight for Marye's Heights took place during this battle, which saw Union engineers build numerous pontoon bridges to cross the Franklin River of Northern Virginia. For 10 points, name this lopsided Confederate victory of the Civil War, in which Robert E. Lee crushed Union forces under Ambrose Burnside. William B. Franklin led a charge from Bowling Green Road during this battle, while casualties of this battle included Maxcy Gregg and Thomas Cobb. The "second battle" at this location pitted Jubal Early against John Sedgwick, who was attempting to relieve the pressure on Joseph Hooker during the Battle of Chancellorsville. Though it isn't Antietam, during the first battle at this location, Prospect Hill and the Sunken Road were key defensive points. Before this battle, the losing commander spent weeks waiting for a pontoon train to arrive and build bridges that would allow him to assault Marye's Heights across the Rappahannock River. For 10 points, name this decisive victory of Robert E. Lee over Ambrose Burnside in northern Virginia. Richard Rowland Kirkland was called an "angel" after this battle for providing water to both sides' wounded. During this battle, Thomas Meagher's Irish Brigade saw its force reduced from over 1600 to less than 300. The losing commander was soon removed from his post after his failed "Mud March." After witnessing this battle, Robert E. Lee remarked, "It is well that war is so terrible, or we should grow too fond of it." This battle is best remembered for bloody, unsuccessful charges on Confederate positions at Marye's Heights and led to the promotion of Joseph Hooker. For 10 points, name this December 1862 Civil War battle in which Confederate forces decisively defeated Ambrose Burnside's Army of the Potomac.

Kublai Khan - 1215

1294, Mongol emperor, founder of the Yuan dynasty of China. _ was visited by Marco Polo on his famous trip to China. This leader employed mangonels built by two Muslim engineers in the successful siege of Xiangyang. Later, this ruler ordered failed invasions of Java and Hakata Bay. This ruler divided his population into four social classes, defeated the Southern Song dynasty, and established (*) paper money as the sole currency. He was elected to his highest position by a kurultai after the death of his brother Mongke. Il Milione depicted one traveler's experiences in this man's court at Dadu. This leader, whose two invasions of Japan were stymied by kamikaze, was visited by Marco Polo.

Tubman, Harriet - 1820

1913, African American abolitionist and escaped slave famous for conducting the Underground Railroad, leading many slaves to freedom.

Abernathy, Ralph David - 1926

90, American civil rights leader. _ succeeded Martin Luther King Jr. as leader of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference after King's assassination.

Simon Bolivar

childhood tutor was Simon Rodriguez, leader convinced another general to retire to France in the Guayaquil Conference,Guayaquil Conference, won the Battle of Boyaca, won the Battle of Carabobo, first president of Gran Colombia, worked alongside Jose de San Martin to oust Spanish viceroys from Latin America, won a victory over Jose de Canterac at the Battle of Junin, one victory came after the Vargas Swamp Battle, got help from Antonio Jose de Sucre, aka "the liberator", wrote that he did not think it possible to "consolidate a great republic" in his Jamaica Letter, wrote the Jamaica Letter, his "Decree of War to the Death", issued a proclamation granting liberty to murder any civilians supporting a certain European country in his "Decree of war to the Death", his victory Battle of Carabobo led to the independence of Venezuela, his first military offensive is called the "Admirable Campaign", responded to Henry Cullen in his Letter from Jamaica, described the failure of a movement led by Francisco de Miranda in the "Cartagena Manifesto", victory at Ayacucho, summoned the Congress of Angostura, Congress of Cucuta elected this man President of Gran Colombia, inspired by a conversation Alexander Von Humboldt,

John Lackland

(1167-1216, r. 1199-1216) House of Plantagenet. Though he tried to seize the crown from his brother Richard while the latter was in Germany, Richard forgave _ and made him his successor. Excommunicated by the Pope for four years for refusing to accept Stephen Langton as Archbishop of Canterbury, _ was also weak as a fighter, as French King Philip II routed him at Bouvines in 1214. A year later, England's barons forced John to sign the Magna Carta at Runnymede, an event that marked the beginning of the development of the British constitution.

Louis VIII

(1187-1226, r. 1223-1226) House of Capet. Though he reigned for only three years, Louis' contributions to the rise of French power were enormous. He annexed Languedoc and captured Poitou from England. Perhaps more importantly, he established the systems of appanages (land grants) which replaced the older, local nobles with barons who owed their fiefs to the crown. This allowed for the subsequent rise in French royal (and national) power.

Louis IX

(1214-1270, r. 1226-1270) House of Capet. Louis led the Seventh Crusade that ended in military disaster, but after his ransoming remained in the Holy Land to successfully negotiate for what he couldn't win. He returned to Europe with his reputation intact and negotiated a peace with England that saw Henry III become his vassal. He stabilized the French currency and is generally held to have reduced corruption in the kingdom. He died leading a crusade against Tunisia. St. Louis is the only canonized king of France.

Charles V

(1338-1380, r. 1364-1380) House of Capet. _ had an inauspicious start (before his reign even began) with having to ransom his father, John II, from England for three million crowns and most of southwestern France. Later, with military advisor Bertrand du Guesclin, he recaptured almost all of that territory. He also concluded alliances with Portugal, Spain, and Flanders, reorganized the army, and restructured the collection of taxes while leading France's recovery from the devastation of the early period of the Hundred Years' War.

Richard III

(1452-1485, r. 1483-1485) House of York. He was made Duke of Gloucester in 1461 when his brother Edward IV deposed the Lancastrian king Henry VI, as part of the Wars of the Roses. Upon Edward's death in 1483, _ served as regent to his nephew Edward V, but likely had the boy murdered in the Tower of London that year. Two years later, Richard died at the hands of Henry Tudor's Lancastrian forces at Bosworth Field, ending the Wars of the Roses and beginning the reign of Henry VII.

Charles VIII

(1470-1498, r. 1483-1498) House of Valois. Charles' short reign is remarkable for the enormous cost in men and money of his Italian campaign but more so for the number of his successors that to followed his catastrophic lead. Charles was motivated by a desire to govern Naples, which he had theoretically inherited. He died before he could surpass or absolve his disastrous first campaign with another.

The Treaty of Tordesillas

(1494) ostensibly divided the New World (and, in later interpretations, the entire world) between Spain and Portugal. It resulted from a bull by (Spanish-born) Pope Alexander VI granting lands to Spain and established a line west of the Cape Verde islands between future Spanish possessions (west) and Portuguese possessions (east). The line passed through Brazil, allowing the Portuguese to establish a colony there while Spain received the rest of the Americas. Endless wrangling and repeated revisions ensued. The 1777 exchange of the island of Fernando Poo and some of the coast of what's now Niger for land in what's now western Brazil was the last official invocation of this document. The bull Inter Caetera, promulgated by Calixtus VI, was used as precedent for the claims of one monarch, while provisions of the later bull Aeterni Regis and a second Inter Caetera were championed by the other signatory. That latter Caetera, written by Pope Alexander IV, was furthered by Dudum Siquedem, which extended Spanish jurisdiction to India. The gift of an elephant prompted Leo X to issue Praecelsae devotionis, which partially abrogated it in favor of an earlier papal declaration, Nicholas V's Romanus pontifex. An abortive conference was held on a bridge between the cities of Elvas and Badajoz to amend this document, which was based, in part on the earlier papal bull Inter Caetera. This document was extended by the Treaty of Zaragoza, which was prompted by the need to establish an eastern equivalent to this agreement. A distance of three-hundred seventy leagues west of Fogo, one of the Cape Verde Islands was established for a line of dema

Francis I

(1494-1547, r. 1515-1547) House of Valois. Francis's early military victories (like the Battle of Marignano), his lavish court, and his support of luminaries like Leonardo da Vinci augured a splendid reign. His rivalry with Charles V of the Holy Roman Empire spelled his doom, however. He was captured in battle in 1525 and held for a humiliating ransom. Wars continued after his release, but bankruptcy and religious strife laid France low.

Ivan IV/ Ivan the Terrible

(1530-1584; ruled 1533-1584) _ is known in the West as "I_," but his Russian nickname ("Groznyi") could be more accurately translated as "awe-inspiring" or "menacing." _ was proclaimed Grand Prince of Muscovy 1533 and tsar in 1547. Scholars differ on whether _ was literate and on how auspiciously his reign began. Early in his reign, he pushed through a series of well-received reforms and called a zemskii sobor (or "assembly of the land"), but _ had an amazingly cruel streak and eventually became unstable: he temporarily abdicated in 1564, killed his favorite son, created a state-within-the-state called the oprichnina to wage war on the boyars, and participated in the torture of his enemies. _ combined the absolutist tendencies of his predecessors with his own violent personality, helping to plunge the country into the subsequent period of civil strife known as the "Time of Troubles."

Elizabeth I

(1533-1603, r. 1558-1603) House of Tudor. Known as the "Virgin Queen" because she never married, as Henry VIII's daughter by Anne Boleyn, the Catholic Church considered her illegitimate. After the death of her Catholic sister Mary I, _ tried to restore religious order by declaring England a Protestant state but naming herself only "Governor" of the Church. She foiled attempts at her throne by Spanish king Philip II and Mary, Queen of Scots; the latter _ reluctantly executed in 1587. Her reign saw great expansion of the English navy and the emergence of William Shakespeare, but when she died, the Crown went to Scottish king James VI, the son of Mary, Queen of Scots. In an unusually horizontally oriented portrait, she is shown resting her hand on a globe, wearing a puffy dress adorned with many pink bows, and sitting in front of two seascapes showing the extent and destruction of the Spanish navy.

Henry III

(1551-1589, r. 1574-1589) House of Valois. _ 'sreign was suffused with blood, at first because of the continuous Wars of Religion that pitted Catholics against Huguenots, but later because of the struggles that arose when it became clear that he was going to be the last of the Valois line. The War of the Three _ broke out after his brother died and the then-Protestant _ of Navarre (later _ IV) became heir, leading the Catholic Holy League to strike out of fear for its interests. _ was assassinated by a crazed friar in 1589.

Henry IV

(1553-1610, r. 1589-1610) Founder of the house of Bourbon. Henry, the king of Navarre, became the heir to the throne when Henry III's brother died in 1584. After fighting Catholic opposition in the War of the Three Henries, he renounced Protestantism and accepted Catholicism in order to enter Paris and become king. With the help of Maximilien Sully he erased the national debt and removed much of the religious strife with the Edict of Nantes (1598).

James I

(1566-1625, r. 1603-1625) House of Stuart. At age one James succeeded his mother Mary as King _ VI of Scotland. As the great-great-grandson of Henry VII, he claimed the English throne upon the death of Elizabeth I. _ was the intended target of Catholic fanatic Guy Fawkes' failed Gunpowder Plot in 1605. A believer in absolutism, _ dissolved Parliament from 1611 to 1621, favoring ministers Robert Cecil and the Duke of Buckingham instead. His rule saw English expansion into North America, through royal charter in Virginia and Puritan protest in Massachusetts.

Michael

(1597-1645; ruled 1613-1645) In 1613, near the end of the Time of Troubles, a zemskii sobor elected the 16-year-old _ as the new tsar. _ was a grandnephew of Ivan the Terrible's "good" wife Anastasia and the son of a powerful churchman named Filaret (who soon became patriarch); as tsar, he has usually been seen as a nonentity dominated by Filaret and other relatives. Nevertheless, his election marked the return of relative stability and the succession of the Romanov dynasty.

Charles I

(1600-1649, r. 1625-1649) House of Stuart. The last absolute English monarch, _ ran into trouble almost immediately. His minister, the Duke of Buckingham, asked Parliament for money to fight costly foreign wars, and when Parliament balked, _ had to sign the Petition of Right. From 1630 to 1641 he tried to rule solo, but financial troubles forced him to call the Short and Long Parliaments. His attempt to reform the Scottish Church was the last straw, as Parliament entered into the English Civil War. They defeated _ , convicting him of treason and executing him. England became a Commonwealth with Oliver Cromwell as Lord Protector.

Louis XIII

(1601-1643, r. 1610-1643) House of Bourbon. Sometimes working with his chief minister, Cardinal Richelieu, and sometimes against, _ turned France into the pre-eminent European power during his reign. This was largely achieved via French victories in the Thirty Years' War. The Three Musketeers is set in the early years of his reign.

Charles II

(1630-1685; r. 1660-1685) House of Stuart. While Cromwell ruled the Commonwealth, _was crowned King of Scotland in 1651. After Cromwell died, _used the Declaration of Breda to restore himself to the English throne. He fought two lackluster wars against the Dutch, and needed protection from Louis XIV through the Treaty of Dover. His wife Catherine of Braganza produced no legitimate heirs, but this "Merry Monarch" has as many as 14 illegitimate children. Tolerant of Catholics, he dissolved Parliament over the issue in 1681 and refused to prevent his brother James from succeeding him._

Louis XIV

(1638-1715, r. 1643-1715) House of Bourbon. _'s reign is often cited as the best historical example of an absolute monarchy. _ led France against most of the rest of Europe to win the throne of Spain for his grandson (the War of the Spanish Succession). He championed classical art, religious orthodoxy, and instituted a great program of building throughout France. Known as the "Sun King," his 72-year-reign is the second longest in recorded history.

The Peace of Westphalia

(1648) is the collective name for two treaties ending the Thirty Years' War that were signed by the Holy Roman Empire, minor German states, Spain, France, Sweden, and the Dutch Republic. It confirmed the principle of "cuius regio eius religio" (that a ruler's religion determined that of his country) introduced by the Peace of Augsburg, but mandated relative tolerance of other (Christian) faiths. It adjusted the borders of German states and strengthened their princes with respect to the Emperor and transferred most of Lorraine and some of Alsace to France. This treaty transferred control of a ten-city alliance called the Decapole. The signing of this treaty was delayed by the actions of Lennart Torstenson in the so-called Hannibal War. This treaty was condemned by the decree Zelo domus dei. This treaty built on the Peace of Prague by rejecting the Edict of Restitution. Since this treaty established territorial integrity, the modern system of state sovereignty is often named for it. This treaty consisted of separate agreements signed at Osnabruck and Munster. The war ended by this treaty featured commanders like Count Tilly, Albrecht von Wallenstein, and Gustavus Adolphus. For 10 points, name this agreement that ended the Thirty Years War. The city of Bremen claimed imperial immediacy in this agreement and separated from the Prince-Archbishopric of Bremen, which later caused conflict in the Swedish-Bremen Wars. This agreement partitioned Pomerania between Brandenburg-Prussia and Sweden and officially recognized the independence of the Dutch Republic from Spain. This agreement officially recognized the principle of cuius regio, eius religio, first established by the Peace of Augsburg. This agreement gave much territory to France due to the efforts of Cardinal Mazarin. For 10 points, name this series of agreements in 1648 consisting of the Treaties of Münster and Osnabrück, which ended the Thirty Years' War. : One opponent of this pact called it "null, void, invalid, iniquitous, unjust, damnable, reprobate, inane," and "empty of meaning and effect for all times." Its mediators included Fabio Chigi, sent by Innocent X, and it divided a region containing Stettin and Bremen known as Pomerania. Its components included the Treaties of Munster and Osnabruck, and it initiated the diplomatic congress format later used at Vienna and Berlin. It added Calvinism to the acceptable religions a German prince could choose, expanding the earlier Peace of Augsburg. Signed to end the conflict in which Gustavus Adolphus died. One side during negotiations of this treaty was represented by John Salvius, while another delegation was led by the Count d'Avaux and the Marquis de Sable. This treaty, which gave the Rhenish Palatinate to Charles Louis and east Pomerania to Brandenburg, also gave Bremen to Sweden and Verdun and Alsace to France. Largely negotiated by Count Trautmansdorff , this treaty reversed the Edict of Restitution and reaffirmed the Treaty of Augsburg. Also recognizing the independence of the Spanish Netherlands and Switzerland. One portion of this treaty ended the eighty year long Dutch Revolt, and another overruled the Edict of Restitution. This treaty is the collective name for treaties signed in Munster (MUHN-stir) and Osnabruck. This treaty upheld the Peace of Augsburg. This treaty broke a siege of Prague, where a defenestration began the war that this treaty ended. That war ended by this treaty is often divided into four different phases. This treaty was signed after Gustavus Adolphus died during the war it ended. Reversing the Edict of Restitution, the terms of this agreement resulted in the sovereignty of the Helvetic Body, and the Ober, Elbe, and Weser being given to Sweden. France made away with three Lorraine bishoprics and certain rights in Alsace. In addition, the Holy Roman Empire could no longer raise taxes under this agreement, which renewed the terms stated in the Peace of Augsburg by allowing each German state to choose its own religion. Also allowing Calvinism, it was comprised of two treaties signed at Münster and Osnabrück.

Peter I

(1672-1725; ruled 1682-1725) _ is famous both for his push for Westernization and for his boisterous personality. His Grand Embassy to Europe enabled him to learn about Western life (and even to work in a Dutch shipyard); he later invited Western artisans to come to Russia, required the boyars to shave their beards and wear Western clothing, and even founded a new capital, _ --his "window on the West." He also led his country in the Great Northern War (in which Charles XII of Sweden was defeated at Poltava), created a Table of Ranks for the nobility, and reformed the bureaucracy and army. But could also be violent and cruel: he personally participated in the torture of the streltsy, or musketeers, who rebelled against him, and had his own son executed.

The Treaty of Paris

(1898) was, surprisingly, the _ to make the list. It ended the Spanish-American War and transferred Guam, the Philippines, and Puerto Rico to the U.S. while making Cuba (ostensibly) independent. The treaty was the beginning of American imperialism and underwent a lengthy and contentious ratification. One provision in a treaty of this name called for Congress to "eagerly recommend" that state legislatures provide for the rights and properties of certain citizens to be returned. One treaty by this name ended the French and Indian War, and another treaty by this name would give one of the countries involved Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines. Negotiation of this treaty was aided by interpreter Arthur Ferguson, who dealt with several translation issues. A paper in the Anglo-Saxon Review on the consequences of this treaty was written by Whitelaw Reid, who was part of the American delegation along with Cushman Davis and George Gray. That five-man commission was led by Judge William R. Day, who had resigned from his post as Secretary of State to attempt to negotiate this peace. Two years after this treaty, it was clarified by the Treaty of Washington, sometimes called the Cession Treaty, which dealt with the islands of Sibutu and Cagayan. The main provision of this treaty stated that the U.S. would pay twenty million dollars within three months of ratification; that payment occurred after Queen Regent Christina cabled her acceptance of this treaty, reportedly causing George Frisbee Hoar to have a heart attack in March of 1899.

Elizabeth II

(1926-present, r. 1952-present) House of Windsor. Representative of the modern ceremonial monarchy, she and her husband "Prince" Philip Mountbatten have traveled the globe representing British interests. Marital failures by her sons Charles (the Prince of Wales) and Andrew have plagued her reign.

The Camp David Accords

(1978) were negotiated at the presidential retreat of this name by Egypt's Anwar Sadat and Israel Menachem Begin; they were brokered by U.S. President Jimmy Carter. They led to a peace treaty the next year that returned the Sinai Peninsula to Egypt, guaranteed Israeli access to the Red Sea and Suez Canal, and more-or-less normalized diplomatic and economic relations between the two countries. This isolated Egypt from the other Arab countries and led to Sadat's assassination in 1981. One part of this agreement enacted the provisions endorsed in Security Council Resolution 242 even though it was condemned for not following self-determination. One provision of this agreement saw the guarantee of right of passage through the Straits of Tiran and the return of the Sinai Peninsula. Its two main signatories received the 1978 Nobel Peace Prize for reaching this agreement, which later led to Anwar Sadat's assassination. Immediately before the negotiations of this treaty, one country involved recently had a change in power from the Alignment Party to the Consolidation. One side began receiving 1.3 billion dollars per year of military aid in order to facilitate modernization efforts after this agreement. The first part of this treaty promised the full implementation of Security Council resolution 242, and during the negotiations the parties would often shut themselves in their cabins and refuse to speak to each other. Partly facilitated by Cyrus Vance and Zbigniew Brzezinski, it set the precedent for the Oslo Accords and allowed free passage through the Suez Canal.

The Treaty of Ghent

(8 Stat. 218), signed on December 24, 1814 in the city of this name, was the peace treaty that ended the War of 1812 between the United States and the United Kingdom. The treaty restored relations between the two nations to status quo ante bellum, restoring the borders of the two countries to the lines before the war started in June 1812.[note 1][1] The Treaty was approved by the UK parliament and signed into law by the Prince Regent (the future King George IV) on December 30 1814. It took a month for news of the peace treaty to reach the United States, and in the meantime American forces under Andrew Jackson won the Battle of New Orleans on January 8, 1815. This was not fully in effect until it was ratified by the U.S. Senate unanimously on February 18, 1815. It began two centuries of peaceful relations between the U.S. and Britain, although there were a few tense moments such as the Trent Affair. Signed in Belgium on December 12, 1814. One side of this treaty initially demanded the creation of an Indian barrier state in the American Northwest Territory. During negotiations for this treaty, the British launched several simultaneous invasions; one that originally marched south from Canada before being stopped at the Battle of Plattsburg and another that landed and won the battle of Bladensburg prior to burning Washington DC but failed to seize Baltimore. American forces led by Andrew Jackson soundly defeated British forces at New Orleans two weeks after this treaty was signed. The primary American negotiators were two future secretaries of state, Henry Clay and John Quincy Adams

Alfred the Great

(849-899; r. 871-899) Saxon House. Actually just the King of Wessex in southwestern England, he expelled the rival Danes from the Mercian town of London in 886, eventually conquering most of the Danelaw territory. _ also kept England from the worst of the Dark Ages by encouraging his bishops to foster literacy; in addition, he translated Boethius, Augustine, and the Venerable Bede's works into Anglo-Saxon.

Fort Sumter

(April 12, 1861). Built on an island in 1829, the fort was one of three that the United States maintained in the harbor of Charleston, South Carolina. In order to claim true independence from the Union, Jefferson Davis decided that the forts needed to be taken; a Confederate force under P.G.T. Beauregard ordered the small Union garrison, controlled by Major Robert Anderson, to surrender. Anderson refused, shots were fired, and the Union commander surrendered two days later, with only one soldier killed. The Union made two unsuccessful attempts to recapture the fort with ironclad ships in 1863, but Confederate forces finally abandoned Sumter when they left Charleston in February 1865. A naval assault on this location ordered by Rear Admiral John Dahlgren resulted in complete failure. Two years earlier, the ship Star of the West was prevented from bringing supplies to it prior to an engagement that saw Abner Doubleday fire the first shot to leave this location. That battle saw this location defended by forces under Major Robert Anderson, and the residents of the neighboring city, including victorious General P. G. T. Beauregard, watched the fighting from balconies overlooking Charleston Harbor. For 10 points, name this South Carolina fort that withstood 34 hours of continuous bombardment before surrendering in the first battle of the American Civil War. The first shot of this engagement was fired by the soil chemist Edmund Ruffin, and the defenders here were later awarded the Gillmore Medal. Comer Woodward won the 1982 Pulitzer for editing an account of this incident which was recounted in the diary of Mary Boykin Chestnut who viewed it from The Battery. With commanders including the legendary founder of baseball, Abner Doubleday, Robert Anderson and PGT Beauregard, for 10 points, name this April 1861 engagement in South Carolina which saw the first shots of the Civil War.

Vicksburg Campaign

(April 29 - July 4, 1863). This campaign was launched by Grant to take control of the Mississippi River and cut off the western Confederate states from the east. Grant ordered regiments led by James McPherson, John McClernand, and William Tecumseh Sherman through bayous west of the Mississippi to Hard Times. They were up against rebel forces under Joseph Johnston and John Pemberton. Sherman and McPherson drove Johnston from Jackson, Mississippi on May 14, and the Union scored a victory at Champion's Hill two days later, but could not drive the Southerners out of , so Grant laid siege to the town. Outnumbered 71,000 to 20,000 and on the brink of starvation, Pemberton finally surrendered his men; Johnston withdrew east. In the build-up to this battle, Grant's forces utilized the fleet of David Porter to move northeast, where his forces took Port Gibson and Grand Gulf before blocking the forces of Joseph Johnston. John Pemberton's forces retreated from Big Black River to the site of this battle, which culminated in isolating the western part of the Confederacy. Won a day after Gettysburg, name this siege fought on a key port in Mississippi. This battle began with bloody and unsuccessful attempts on the Graveyard Road and the well-fortified Stockade Redan. It was followed by the fall of the nearby Port Hudson, and prompted by retreating action from Raymond and Champion Hill. Pemberton's Independence Day surrender at this battle caused Lincoln to comment that "the Father of Waters again goes unvexed to the sea," as it yielded control of the Mississippi River to the Union. For 10 points, name this siege by Ulysses S. Grant of a Mississippi city. Richard Taylor tried to assist troops stationed here with an ultimately unsuccessful counter-attack against a regiment of black soldiers at Milliken's Bend, while John Hunt Morgan almost crossed into Pennsylvania in an attempt to draw opposing forces from this city. Engagements in a campaign named for this city included the Battles of Champion's Hill and Port Gibson, the latter of which resulted in troops under William T. Sherman turning the city of (*) Jackson into a "chimneyville". Shortly after this city fell, another Union victory in the same theatre was secured in the Battle of Port Hudson. Confederates in this city finally surrendered on July 4th, 1863. For 10 points, name this site of a prolonged siege by Ulysses S. Grant to give the Union control of the Mississippi River.

Shiloh / Pittsburg Landing

(April 6-7, 1862). This was named after a church in Pittsburg Landing, Tennessee (100 miles southwest of Nashville). Confederate commander Albert Sidney Johnston led a force north from Corinth, Mississippi. Ulysses S. Grant, who had just captured Fort Donelson, brought five Union divisions to face him. At first, the South led the attack, but Union troops held the "Hornets' Nest" for hours, killing Johnston in the process. Beauregard took over, but by the second day Northern Generals Don Carlos Buell and Lew Wallace (who wrote Ben-Hur) brought reinforcements, causing the Confederates to retreat. More than 13,000 Union and 10,000 Confederate soldiers lost their lives. A commander in this battle responded to hearing about the tough day for his side with "Lick'em tomorrow, though." Forces arrived too late for the first day of this battle after a general took his troops from Stoney Lonesome on the Shunpike Road instead of the River Road. In a rearguard action after this battle, Nathan Bedford Forrest was shot at Fallen Timbers. Daniel Ruggles concentrated the fire of more than fifty cannons on a position here. A surprise Confederate attack started this battle before Union reinforcements from the Army of the Ohio under Don Carlos Buell could arrive. Albert Sidney Johnston died in this battle, which occurred after the fall of Forts Henry and Donelson and had hard fighting at the Hornet's Nest. For 10 points, name this 1862 Union victory in Tennessee. This battle saw one general's planned offensive on the Memphis & Charleston Railroad causing him to not erect proper defenses. This led the opposing side forces to march from Corinth towards an army that had recently taken Fort Donelson. Fought in 1862, the Confederate armies here attempted to drive the Union Army towards Owl Creek, but forces under Grant fell back towards an area that became known as the Hornet's Nest. Also known as the Battle of Pittsburgh Landing, this battle saw General Buell's troops arrive, leading to a Confederate Retreat days after Albert Sidney Johnston perished. A group of reinforcements missed the first day of this battle by trying to take the Shunpike Road while under the direction of Lew Wallace. A force of sixty-two cannon assembled on Duncan Field during this battle was attributed to the command of Daniel Ruggles. That artillery fired on the men of Benjamin Prentiss, whose position in this battle was nicknamed the Hornet's Nest. During the first day of this battle, the Confederate general Albert Sidney Johnston was killed. This battle is also known as the Battle of Pittsburg Landing. For 10 points, name this Civil War victory for the Union under Ulysses S. Grant fought in April 1862 in Tennessee. In this battle, the Confederates on Corinth Road hoped to force the Union enemy into a swamp called Owl Creek. The Union lost the Sunken Road after Benjain Prentiss was unable to hold the Hornet's Nest, but the Confederates retreated after Buell came with Union reinforcements. Albert Sidney Johnston was killed during this battle, sometimes called Pittsburg Landing. The victorious general Ulysses S. Grant followed the Confederates to Vicksburg. For 10 points, name this Civil War battle fought in Tennessee.

Gettysburg

(July 1-3, 1863). This marked both the farthest northward advancement by the Confederacy and the turning point that led to its defeat. Lee, along with Longstreet, A.P. Hill, and Richard Ewell, led the southern Pennsylvania attack; J.E.B. Stuart was supposed to monitor Union movement with his cavalry but strayed so far east of Gettysburg that his force did not return (exhausted) until the second day. George Meade replaced Hooker as leader of the Union side; Southern forces drove Northerners through the town but could not secure key positions at Cemetery Ridge and Little and Big Round Tops. Low on supplies, on the final day Lee ordered an attack on the center; George Pickett led his famous "charge" through open fields, where the Union mowed down one-third of his 15,000 men. The Confederates lost 20,000 and Lee retreated to Virginia. The campaign that culminated in this battle began with a large cavalry engagement at Brandy Station, and early on in this battle John Reynolds was killed while leading the Iron Brigade. The 1st Minnesota regiment's charge bought time for one side to rescue Sickle's beleaguered III Corps, and battle was met despite the absence of one side's main cavalry. Armistead's division made the farthest significant advance north during this battle's third day. The charge of the 20th Maine led by Joshua Chamberlain was crucial in maintaining the Union position at Little Round Top here. For 10 points, identify this Union victory in Pennsylvania that featured Pickett's failed charge up Cemetery Ridge. During this battle, Daniel Sickles' Third Corps was overwhelmed by James Longstreet as it defended the Peach Orchard and the Wheat Field. On the first day of this battle, Harry Heth's division clashed with dismounted cavalry under John Buford before reinforcements under John Reynolds arrived. Edward Everett gave a two-hour speech at the site of this battle. On the second day of this battle, a bayonet charge by Joseph Chamberlain ended the successful defense of Little Round Top. The final day of this battle featured Pickett's Charge. For 10 points, name this "high water mark of the Confederacy," a July 1863 Civil War battle fought in Pennsylvania. This battle started after troops under Henry Heth (HEETH) spotted John Buford's cavalry. Key locations in this battle included the Peach Orchard and Devil's Den. One general in this battle, Dan Sickles, disobeyed orders by moving his corps from its location along Cemetery Ridge. That ridge was the object of Pickett's Charge at the end of this battle. George Meade's victory in this battle ended a Confederate invasion of the North. For 10 points, name this battle whose site was later the location of an Address by Abraham Lincoln.

First Bull Run / First Manassas

(July 21, 1861). Fought at a creek near Manassas, Virginia (30 miles west of Washington D.C.), this was the first major showdown of the war. Beauregard led an army against Union commander Irwin McDowell and received reinforcements from Joseph Johnston's troops (whom Union General Robert Patterson failed to detain). The Confederacy routed the Union when Thomas Jackson's brigade held the left line at Henry House Hill; this effort earned him the nickname "Stonewall." Congressmen and reporters, who had expected to watch a Union victory, fled in panic back to D.C. The winning side of this battle had its main position at Henry House Hill. The losing side was led by General Irvin McDowell. General Joseph Johnston rushed reinforcements to P. G.T Beauregard at this battle. General Bernard Bee was shot at this battle after proclaiming, "There stands Jackson like a stone wall!" Three days before this battle, Jubal Early's troops turned the tide at Blackburn's Ford. Wilmer McLean's house served as headquarters for one side in this battle, which was decided when Irvin McDowell's forces retreated after Joseph Johnston reinforced (*) P.G.T. Beauregard. Stonewall Jackson earned his nickname at, for 10 points, what first major battle of the Civil War, also the site of a second battle one year later? Early in this battle, probing attacks were launched at Blackburn's Ford, but one side's main attack was eventually launched across Sudley Springs Ford. Francis Bartow and Barnard Bee helped stop that attack at Henry Hill, and the arrival of fresh units from the Shenandoah by rail under Joe Johnston caused Union forces under Irwin McDowell to retreat and then rout across the Stone Bridge. However, Confederate forces under P.G.T. Beauregard were unable to pursue due to exhaustion. For 10 points, this July 1861 clash in northern Virginia, the first major battle of the Civil War.

Hampton Roads

(March 9, 1862). A channel in southeastern Virginia was the site of the first major fight between two ironclad ships. The Confederates raised an old wooden boat, the Merrimack, and fit it with ten guns and iron armor plates. Renaming the Virginia, it was captained by Franklin Buchanan. The Union countered by constructing a large oval with a rotating gun, called the Monitor and piloted by John Worden. The Virginia tore through Union wooden ships (Cumberland, Congress, Minnesota) but when the Monitor arrived, the two ironclads fought to a stalemate - thus the Union maintained its blockade. The South deliberately destroyed the Virginia two months later, while the Monitor sank in a storm off Cape Hatteras in December 1862. The source of this engagement was a blockade enforced by ships including the USS Cumberland and the USS Congress. Those two vessels were sunk by one enemy craft, however, while another ship, the Minnesota, ran aground. Those ships were all defeated by a vessel commanded by Confederate Captain Franklin Buchanan on the first day of this battle, but day two saw the arrival of a vessel designed by the Swede John Ericsson, which used its "cheesebox," or rotating turret gun to fight the CSS Virginia to a standstill, saving the blockade. For 10 points, name this 1862 Civil War naval battle, the first fight between two ironclads.

Chancellorsville

(May 1-4, 1863). Victory for the South, but with great cost, as Stonewall Jackson lost his life. Lincoln called on "Fighting Joe" Hooker to command the Union army; Hooker took a force of 134,000 and provoked Lee and Jackson's 60,000 men into battle. Jackson moved around Hooker and counterattacked the Union flank on May 2. That night, while Jackson was on reconnaissance, his own men mistook him for a Northerner and shot him; he died of pneumonia eight days later. The following morning, a cannonball blast hit the Chancellor House, knocking Hooker unconscious; Union troops led by John Sedgwick then retreated. Casualties for the North outnumbered those of the South, 17,000 to 13,000. Before this battle, George Stoneman failed in an attempt to destroy the Orange and Alexandria Railroad to cut enemy supply lines. Lafayette McLaws defeated John Sedgwick's Sixth Army Corps at Salem Church and drove them back to Banks' Ford during this battle. Zoan Church was one position fortified by Confederates during this battle. Oliver Howard's Eleventh Army Corps was outflanked by a division of the victors of this battle that started when Union forces crossed the Rappahannock River. For 10 points, name this "perfect battle" fought by Robert E. Lee against Joseph Hooker, after which Stonewall Jackson was mistakenly shot by his own men. This battle, which took place simultaneously with the Second Battle of Fredericksburg and the Battle of Salem Church, was unaffected by George Stoneman's cavalry raid near Hanover Junction because he had raided the wrong place. A surprise attack by split Confederate forces surrounded the Union Eleventh Corps commanded by Oliver Howard, and "Jeb" Stuart became a confederate leader here two months before Gettysburg. This battle ended soon after Lafayette McLaws's forces pushed John Sedgwick's forces back across the Rappahannock River. Name this 1863 battle which led to the dismissal of Joseph Hooker and the death of Stonewall Jackson from friendly fire.

Antietam / Sharpsburg

(September 17, 1862). The bloodiest day of the Civil War: 12,000 Union men lost their lives, as did 10,000 Confederates. Lee planned a northern invasion into Maryland but a Union soldier discovered those battle plans wrapped around three cigars. Instead, Lee marched his army toward Sharpsburg Creek. Meanwhile, Jackson's forces captured Harper's Ferry, Virginia, and rushed to reunite with Lee. McClellan had a large enough force to capture the entire rebel army but did not use all of his troops nor coordinate one solid attack. Antietam thus was actually a series of five skirmishes; in one of them, dubbed "The Bloody Lane," 2000 Union soldiers fell in a few minutes. As it was, Union forces drove the Confederates back across the Potomac. One side in this battle positioned its army along the Hagerstown Turnpike, though their lines of retreat consisted only of the Boteler's Ford over a river to their rear. One attack in this battle attempted to capture the Dunker Church, leading to vicious fighting in close quarters in a field of corn. Prior to this battle, one side received information about the other's strategy by obtaining a copy of Special Order 191. The reinforcements of A.P. Hill stopped an offensive on the southern flank of this battle that culminated in Ambrose Burnside capturing a bridge that would later be renamed after him. Several Union charges in this battle targeted the Sunken Road, and the indecisive attitude of George McClellan after it led to his dismissal. For 10 points, name this 1862 Civil War Battle after which Lee was forced to withdraw from Maryland, known for being the bloodiest single day battle in American history. Early on in this battle, the Union hoped to capture the hilltop Dunker Church. Like many other Civil War battles, a "sunken road" was a focal point for fighting, though this one earned the nickname "Bloody Lane." The tide in this battle turned when A.P. Hill arrived from Harpers Ferry and pushed back Burnside's advance. Though it was not a Union victory, this battle allowed (*) Abraham Lincoln to issue the Emancipation Proclamation. For 10 points, name this Civil War battle in Maryland that was the bloodiest single day of fighting in U.S. history. In this battle, John Pelham's guns on Nicodemus Hill fired on troops heading for the Dunker Church. Following the Battle of South Mountain, this battle saw fighting in Miller's cornfield, and the Irish Brigade attacked a sunken road dubbed "Bloody Lane." After reinforcements arrived from Harpers Ferry, this battle ended with Stonewall Jackson's counterattack near Burnside Bridge. Although it was a tactical draw, Lincoln subsequently issued the Emancipation Proclamation. Before this battle, McClellan had found Lee's orders. For 10 points, name this September 17, 1862 battle, fought near the town of Sharpsburg, Maryland, America's bloodiest one-day combat.

Chattanooga Campaign

(September-November 1863). It began when Union General William Rosecrans forced Confederate commander Braxton Bragg out of the city on September 9. Ten days later, at Chickamauga (in Georgia), Bragg and Longstreet turned the tables by whipping Rosecrans, forcing him into a siege position at Chattanooga. Only George Thomas (the "Rock of Chickamauga") saved Rosecrans from annihilation. Well-developed railroad networks, however, allowed Grant, Hooker, and Sherman to bring reinforcements. On November 24, Hooker took Lookout Mountain in the southwest, in the "Battle Above the Clouds." The next day, Thomas ran right over the Southern force at Missionary Ridge, securing Tennessee for the North. Prior to this battle, one side opened up a key supply route called the Cracker Line and defeated an enemy force at Wauhatchie. During its beginning, General George Thomas was able to quickly take Orchard Knob. In the aftermath of this battle, Joseph Johnston replaced Braxton Bragg as the head of a large army. Lookout Mountain and (*) Missionary Ridge were two defensive structures during this battle whose aftermath saw an assault on Atlanta. For 10 points, name this November 1863 battle of the American Civil War fought several months after the Battle of Chickamagua, a Union victory in southeastern Tennessee.

Boris Godunov

(ca. 1551-1605; ruled 1598-1605) _ began his career as a boyar in Ivan the Terrible's oprichnina, and eventually became tsar himself. Boris first cemented his influence by marrying a daughter of one of Ivan's court favorites and arranging his sister Irina's marriage to Ivan's son Fyodor; then he became regent under Fyodor, and was elected tsar when Fyodor died in 1598. But _ was rumored to have arranged the murder of Fyodor's brother Dmitrii, and the first of several "False Dmitriis" launched a revolt against him. _ died in the midst of growing unrest and is now best known as the subject of a Pushkin play and a Mussorgsky opera.

Jackson, Jesse - 1941

, African-American political leader and clergyman. _became the first legitimate African-American presidential candidate with his unsuccessful attempts in the 1984 and 1988 presidential primaries. This man negotiated with Hafez Assad to secure the release of pilot Bobby Goodman from Syrian captivity. This man's falling out with Ralph David Abernathy led to this man leaving the SCLC. This onetime leader of Operation Breadbasket also founded People United to Save Humanity. For 10 points, name this minister and civil rights activist who founded the Rainbow Coalition and ran for the Democratic Presidential nomination in 1984 and 1988.

Castro, Fidel - 1926

, Cuban leader over overthrew Batista's dictatorship in 1959. Served as premier from 1959-76 and president from 1976-2008, when he transferred presidential duties to his brother Raul. This leader was targeted by Operation Verano, which ended after his forces won the Battle of Yaguajay (yah-goo-AH-hay). In honor of the date of his failed attack on the Moncada Barracks, this man named his revolutionary movement after the Twenty-Sixth of July. This leader overthrew Fulgencio Batista (fool-HEN-see-oo buh-TEES-tuh) and was the target of the Bay of Pigs Invasion. For 20 points, name this man became ill in 2006, leading him to transfer his duties to his younger brother Raul.

Kissinger, Henry - 1923

, German-born US Secretary of State (1973-77). He shared the 1973 peace prize for negotiating a cease-fire with North Vietnam. This man's approval of Suharto's war crimes in East Timor was one of the subjects addressed in a book by Christopher Hitchens about his fictional "trial." He criticized the "massive retaliation" nuclear strategy, influencing Kennedy with his doctrine of "flexible response." Other strategies he developed included "shuttle diplomacy" to settle the (*) Yom Kippur War and "detente" (day-TONT) with the Soviet Union. For 10 points, name this National Security Advisor and Secretary of State, who oversaw the U.S. withdrawal from Vietnam under Nixon and Ford.

Hussein, Saddam - 1937

, Iraqi political leader. _ played a leading role in the 1968 coup that brought the Ba'ath party to power. He became party leader and president in 1979, and has ruled since. His leadership has led to the Iran Iraq War and the Persian Gulf War. April Glaspie was one US ambassador to this man's regime, and one of this man's projects was destroyed in Operation Opera. As part of this his war against the Peshmerga, this man ordered the Halabja attack and the al-Anfal campaign. The Israeli-led Operation Opera stopped this man from building a nuclear reactor. He succeeded Ahmed al-Bakr, with whom he had led a coup to overthrow King Faisal II and put the Baath party in power. This man lost power in an invasion planned by Paul Wolfowitz and Donald Rumsfeld. For 10 points, name this Iraqi dictator overthrown in 2003.

Mandela, Nelson - 1918

, South African political leader. President of South Africa (1994-), and winner of the 1993 Nobel Peace Prize with F.W. DeKlerk for his efforts to end Apartheid. This man sued lawyer Ismail Ayob to prevent him from selling prints signed by this leader. He warned that "no one nation should be complainant, prosecutor, and judge" when offering his country as the site of the trial of the Pan Am Flight 103 bombers. Former censor officer James Gregory wrote the possibly fraudulent biography Goodbye Bafana about this man, whose own memoir is titled Long (*) Walk to Freedom. This man famously presented a trophy to athlete Francois Pienaar and was succeeded by Thabo Mbeki. He spent many years in prison at Robben Island after being arrested while leading the Spear of the Nation wing of the African National Congress. For 10 points, name this man who shared a Nobel Peace Prize with F.W. de Klerk, the first black President of South Africa.

Gorbachev, Mikhail - 1931

, Soviet political leader. _ served as the final president of the USSR (1988-91). He introduced the policies known as glastnost (or openness) and perestroika (restructuring). In 1990 he won the Nobel Peace Prize. This leader spent three days in house arrest during an event masterminded by the "Gang of Eight." More than a hundred civilians were killed on Black January after this leader ordered an invasion of Baku. This leader encouraged small-scale private ownership with his Law on Cooperatives and urged economic acceleration with his slogan uskoreniye. Cartoonists often poked fun at the port wine-colored (*) birthmark on this leader's forehead. A coup against this man was defeated by his successor, who spoke from atop the turret of a tank. This leader withdrew his country's troops from Afghanistan and pursued the duel policies of "openness" and "restructuring." For 10 points, name this coiner of the terms glasnost and perestroika, the final leader of the Soviet Union.

Thatcher, Margaret - 1925

, conservative British political leader and the first woman prime minister of Great Britain (1979-90). She was longest serving PM in the 20th century and succeeded by John Mayer in 1990. This rival of Michael Foot and David Steel once filled the position of Foreign Secretary with Lord Carrington. This leader held firm after the battle of Orgreave and passed an ordinance banning "flying pickets" in response to Arthur Scargill, who led a large coal miners' strike. The unpopular "Community Charge," which was in reality a poll tax, contributed to the downfall of this elected official, who negotiated the creation of Zimbabwe and sent troops to Argentina to defend the Falkland Islands in 1982. For 10 points, name this Conservative British Prime Minister nicknamed the "Iron Lady."

Lewis, John L. - 1880

1969, American labor leader. President of the United Mine Workers of America (1920-60), and an important figure in the AFL, he broke from the AFL founding the CIO (Congress of Industrial Organizations) in 1940. One of these events ended after pictures of the Battle of the Overpass were published in newspapers. Walter Reuther led that one of these events and other people known for organizing these events include

Ben-Gurion, David

- 1886-1973, Israeli statesman. Born in Poland as David Grun, he settled in Palestine in 1906 and devoted his life to Zionism. After Israel achieved independence, he became the first prime minister (1949-53, 1955-63). his man became Minister of Defence after a failed operation that led to Meir Max Bineth's suicide. That operation was foiled by the arrest of Philip Natanson based on information from Avri Elad and saw the bombing of a library by members of Unit 131. The failure of Operation Susannah led to this man's second term as Prime Minister after the resignation of Moshe Sharett during the (*) Lavon Affair. His first Premiership saw his country's forces carry out the Qibya Massacre as well as the successful Operation Magic Carpet. This man collaborated with the British and French to launch the 1956 Sinai War after Nasser nationalized the Suez Canal. For 10 points, name Israel's first Prime Minister.

Kim Il Sung - 1912

- 1912- 94, North Korean political leader. He served as North Korea's first premier (1948-72) and became president in 1972. His son Kim Jong Il (1942-) was groomed as his successor. This man is symbolized by a namesake blue orchid that is used in the Arirang Festival. Rumored supporters of this man were killed in the Bodo League Massacre. The Mindan Organization opposes a system of schools set up by supporters of this man, the Chongryŏn movement. This man's birthdate serves as (*) Year One of a calendar currently used in the country that he ruled. That calendar is part of a system that includes Military First and Socialism of Our Style in this man's Juche philosophy. This man was given the title "eternal President" by his son and successor, and he attacked a neighbor led by Syngman Rhee in a war that led to the creation of the DMZ. For 10 points, name this leader of North Korea who was succeeded by his son Kim Jong-il.

DuBois, W.E.B.

1868-1963, African-American civil-rights leader. He co-founded the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (1910), and edited the NAACP magazine, The Crisis, until 1932. In 1961, he joined the communist party and moved to Ghana. This man's name was appropriated by "Clubs of America" which tried to recruit youths into Communist Party USA in the 1960s. Joel Spingarn attempted in vain to reconcile this man's break with Walter F. White. This man called together a "national strategy board" with newspaper owner William Monroe Trotter; he included an essay on his Dutch and French ancestors in Darkwater: Voices from Within the Veil. He described viewing oneself through others' eyes as double consciousness, and died in Ghana years after advocating leadership training for the "talented tenth" and founding the magazine The Crisis. For 10 points, name this sociologist whose Niagara Movement became the NAACP, and who fiercely criticized Booker T. Washington in his collection The Souls of Black Folk.

Luther, Martin - 1483

1546, German leader of the Protestant reformation. His belief that salvation was received by faith alone andnot by works and his hate of the indulgences led to the posting his 95 theses on the door of the Wittenberg castle church. Lutheranism is a religion based on Luther's principles. The theology developed by this person was explained in Loci communes by Philipp Melanchthon. Forty-one errors made by this person were outlined in the papal bull Exsurge domine. This man rejected the idea of the Eucharist as symbolic at the Marburg Colloquy, at which he debated his contemporary Huldrych Zwingli. He declared "Here I stand; I can do no other" at the Diet of Worms, where he defended statements he posted on a church in Wittenberg. For 10 points, name this man whose 95 theses helped kick off the Protestant Reformation.

Williams, Roger

1603-1683, American advocate of religious freedom and founder of Rhode Island (1636). Though he wasn't a politician, as a result of this man's actions, the town of Marblehead was originally built on his city's lands. This man published the first study of Native American language in his A Key into the Language of America. This passenger on the Lyon taught John Milton Dutch in exchange for learning some Hebrew. He published The (*) Bloody Tenent of Persecution, calling for a "wall of separation" between church and state while living among the Narragansetts in 1644. This man's extant letters to John Cotton and John Winthrop preserve his rivalry with the Massachusetts Bay Colony after he was expelled from it for his religious views. For 10 points, name this early theologian who founded the colony of Rhode Island.

Bradford, William- 1590

1657, Governor of Plymouth Colony. He succeeded John Carver as governor in 1621, and was reelected 30 times. His work History of Plymouth Plantation described the Mayflower voyage and early years of the colony. His most notable work chronicles the changing of the name of Mount Wallaston to Merry Mountain. That work also contains John Robinson's letters addressed to his brother, as well as a description of a cow, two goats, five sheep and a turkey being thrown into a giant pit because Thomas Granger had committed bestiality with all of them. A different work of his imagines a conversation between "Young Men" and "Ancient Men" who are from New England and Holland respectively. The aforementioned first work by this man chronicles how John (*) Carver became a governor and describes the signing of a document on November 11th 1620. Also chronicling the Massasoit Squanto's relationship with settlers in the namesake colony, for 10 points, name this man that kept a history of Separatists in Massachusetts, titled History of Plymouth Plantation.

Arnold, Benedict - 1714

1801, American revolutionary traitor. After his plot with John Andre to betray the American post at West Point was discovered (1780), Arnold escaped and later fought for the British. His name is now synonymous with "Traitor". This man survived a military campaign that saw the death of Richard Montgomery, although he was wounded severely in the leg. His actions during the Battle of Valcour Island successfully delayed Guy Carleton's invasion of New York. Along with Ethan Allen, he participated in the capture of Fort Ticonderoga, and during the Saratoga campaign he clashed with Horatio Gates and suffered additional wounds to his leg. His most notable action was foiled when Major John Andre was captured by American militiamen. For 10 points, name this American officer who conspired to surrender West Point to the British during the Revolutionary War.

Lee, Robert E.

1807-70, Confederate general in the US Civil War. The son of Henry _, he served in the Mexican War, was superintendent at West Point (1852-5), and led the capture of John Brown at Harpers Ferry. After the succession of the southern states, he declined the field command of the US forces. After the succession of Virginia, he took command of the Army of Northern Virginia and began the Seven Days Battles. Lee's troops destroyed the Union army at the second battle of Bull Run, but his first invasion of the North was halted by General G.B. McClellan in the Antietam Campaign. He stopped the Union advances at Fredericksburg and Chancellorsville, but lost his best lieutenant, Stonewall Jackson at Chancellorsville. His second invasion of the North ended in defeat in the Gettysburg campaign. Lee was named general in chief of all Confederate armies in February 1865, but soon surrendered to Grant at Appomattox Courthouse (April 9, 1865). This man's first Civil War leadership was a loss at Cheat Mountain. Prior to the Civil War, he led the Marines that ended John Brown's raid on Harper's Ferry. He succeeded Joseph Johnston as commander of the Army of Northern (*) Virginia, which he led to tactical victory at Chancellorsville, but his final surrender was given at Appomattox Court House to Ulysses S. Grant. For 10 points, name this general of the Confederate Army.

Anthony, Susan Brownwell

1820-1906, leader of the women's suffrage movement. Co-founded the National Woman's Suffrage Association (1896), and served as president of the National American Woman's Suffrage Association (1892-1900). _ was featured on a short-lived US Dollar coin. Senator Pomeroy gave the opening speech at a Washington conference organized by this figure, which unsuccessfully sought expansion of the Fifteenth Amendment. Parker Pilsbury worked under this publisher of the influential Revolution newspaper. Carrie Chapman Catt succeeded this (*) Quaker in one post, and after this figure was barred from speaking at an Albany temperance meeting, she formed the Woman's New York State Temperance Society. This activist also refused to pay a fine imposed for voting in the 1872 Presidential Election and despite not attending the Senecca Falls Convention, publicly affirmed her support for the efforts of Lucretia Mott and Elizabeth Cady Stanton.

Washington, Booker T.

1856-1915, African-American educator and organizer of the Tuskegee Institute for African Americans (1881). His "Atlanta Compromise" advocated slow accommodation, in that blacks should instead of concentrating on civil rights should concentrate instead on education and gaining wealth, in opposition to DuBois' beliefs. Author of autobiography Up From Slavery (1901). This man secretly funded and helped organize the plaintiff's case in Giles v. Harris. In one speech, he mentioned the possibility of being "as separate as the fingers, yet one as the hand" and instructed his audience to "cast down your bucket where you are." The Niagara Movement condemned this man's speech in Piedmont Park as the "Atlanta Compromise," and called this author of Up From Slavery the "Great Accommodator" because he was willing to allow whites to continue to dominate politics. For 10 points, name this founder of the Tuskegee Institute and rival of W. E. B. Dubois.

Gandhi, Mahatma

1869-1948, Indian spiritual and political leader. Called the "_" meaning "great-souled," _ is considered a father of independent India. A proponent of passive resistance, he worked for Indian independence from Great Britain and for the rights of the untouchables in India's caste system. Mahatma Gandhi was shot by a Hindu extremist in 1948. This man translated John Ruskin's book Unto This Last into his native language to explain his social views. He started a farm with a Jewish architect named Hermann Kallenbach. This man controversially wrote an "Appeal for Enlistment" during World War I and organized ambulance drivers during a previous foreign war. This person's autobiography is titled The Story of My Experiments with Truth. He established Tolstoy Farm while in (*) South Africa, a country where he faced discrimination on public transit. This man was killed at a prayer meeting by Nathuram Godse. He used his principle of satyagraha to challenge the British with the 1930 Salt March. For 10 points, name this man who used civil disobedience to fight for Indian independence. This man founded the Phoenix settlement and Tolstoy Farm. He announced one illegal act with an open letter to Lord Irwin, and his philosophy established a hierarchy in which non-cooperation is better than civil disobedience, which is better than passive resistance. This man spent his youth as a lawyer in South Africa. His ideology literally means "the way of truth," and he argued for an economy based on homespun cotton cloth. This leader of the Salt March gained a nickname meaning "Great Soul" while opposing the British.

Lenin, Vladimir Ilyich

1870-1924, Russian revolutionary. The founder of Bolshevism and a leading figure in the founding of the USSR, he led the Bolsheviks in overthrowing Kerensky's provisional government in 1917. He became virtual dictator, and his associates included Trotsky and Stalin. Lenin's died in 1924 precipitating a power struggle eventually won by Stalin. This ruler responded to the Kronstadt rebellion by taxing farmers instead of requisitioning their crops in his New Economic Policy. He wrote the April Theses on a train from Switzerland as he returned from exile in 1917, after Alexander (*) Kerensky's provisional government was forced out by this man's Bolshevik forces. For 10 points, name this leader in the Russian Revolution, the first premier of the Soviet Union, preceding Joseph Stalin. Shots of agricultural machinery and of a crowd weeping over the open casket of this man are included in Dziga Vertov's silent film Three Songs about [him]. This man provided every delegate of the Second Congress a copy of his polemical pamphlet characterizing the "infantile disorder" of fringe elements of his party. He proclaimed the need for a revolutionary "vanguard party" in a pamphlet borrowing its title from a novel by (*) Nikolai Chernyshevsky. This man led a community of expatriates in Zurich and wrote his "April Theses" on his train journey back to his homeland before landing at Finland Station. As leader, he established the Cheka and promulgated the New Economic Policy.

Santa Anna, Antonio Lopez de - 1794

1876, Mexican general and dictator most of 1824-55, losing power once when he was captured at San Jacinto (1836) and again after defeats in the Mexican war forced his exile. Along with Mariano Arista, this man disguised his forces as bellringing monks to fortify a convent. A business partnership between Thomas Adams and this man sought to develop a cheap rubber substitute, but instead introduced chewing gum to the United States. In one campaign, this man besieged the expedition of Isidro Barradas in Tampico. He sparked a series of rebellions by instituting the Seven Laws, and he was placed in charge of military forces in response to a French invasion in the Pastry War. His army unsuccessfully assaulted forces under Zachary Taylor at the Battle of Buena Vista. On a different front, he ordered the execution of enemy prisoners held in Fort Defiance in the Goliad Massacre before losing to Sam Houston's surprise attack at the Battle of San Jacinto. For 10 points, name this Mexican general and president who commanded the army that captured the Alamo.

Trotsky, Leon

1879-1940, Russian Revolutionary, born Lev Bronstein. One of the founding leaders of the USSR, he helped organize the Bolshevik seizure of power in 1917. He resigned in 1918 due to differences between himself and Lenin primarily over the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (1918). He organized the Red Army in the civil war (1918-20). Upon Lenin's death in 1924 he and Stalin were the two chief rivals for succession. Stalin proved victorious, ousting _ from the USSR in 1929. _ was assassinated in Mexico by Ramon Mercador in 1940. An "American Committee of Defense" for this man was headed by the philosopher John Dewey. While in prison, he formulated the concept of "permanent revolution" which stated that socialist revolutions in other countries would follow the one in his own nation. This one-time chairman of the Petrograd Soviet founded the Fourth International and wrote The Revolution Betrayed in 1937. This man was offered sanctuary by Lazaro Cardenas, but was assassinated by Ramon Mercador. Karl Radek wrote a controversial article calling this man the "Organizer of Victory." In October 1917, he told a political group that they should "go where you belong from now oninto the dustbin of history!" He was criticized as a hypocrite by Emma Goldman for calling in the army as War Commissioner to put down the 1921 Kronstadt Rebellion. This husband of Natalia Sedova replaced Adolph Joffe in leading a delegation of a country that pulled out of a war in the Treaty of (*) Brest-Litovsk. This author of The Revolution Betrayed reportedly had an affair with Frida Kahlo while living in Diego Rivera's home. He was slain in 1940 by Ramon Mercader, who used an ice axe. One of this man's essays says that abusive language and swearing are legacies of slavery; that is The Struggle for Cultured Speech. George Breitman edited a 14-volume collection of his works. This man attacked Karl Kautsky in a work sometimes published as Democracy and Dictatorship. This man called a particular ideology "Bonapartism" and criticized that ideology's "zigzags" in policy in one work. This man applied the word "degenerated" to (*) states in which the bureaucracy has taken over, a condition he called his country's "Thermidor". In one work he advocated creating a vanguard party to perpetuate the worldwide "permanent revolution", and he argued heavily against "socialism in one country". For 10 points, name this author of The Revolution Betrayed who was purged and exiled to Mexico, where he was killed on orders from his rival, Stalin.

Churchill, Winston - 1874

1965, British Statesman. In 1940, seven months into WWII, he replaced Neville Chamberlain as British prime minister. Perhaps the greatest British statesman of 20th Prize in Literature and coined term "Iron Curtain." This politician proposed forcibly sterilizing 120,000 of his country's mentally disabled as Home Secretary. He resigned as First Lord of the Admiralty after the disastrous Gallipoli campaign in Turkey, and his terms were interrupted by Clement Attlee of the Labor Party. He took office two years after his predecessor declared "Peace for our time," and met at Yalta with FDR and Stalin.

Nehru, Jawaharlal

1889-1964, Indian statesman and the first prime minister of India (1947-1964); he was also the father of Indira Gandhi. This leader set up the Sunderlal Committee to investigate a police action called Operation Polo. This man famously told Homi Bhabha to take care of physics while he took care of international relations. This man appointed Faizal Ali to head up the States Reorganization Commission, and he sacked VK Menon and set up 43 forts along a disputed territory as part of his Forward Policy. This man, whose birthday is celebrated as "Children's' Day", famously opined that (*) "the light has gone out of our lives" after the assassination of one of his allies, and began another speech by stating that his nation would "redeem our pledge" after making a "tryst with destiny". This leader lost favor over a 1962 war with China and failed to reach a compromise with Muhammad Ali Jinnah, leading to the 1947 Partition. This leader oversaw his country's States Reorganization Act, which attempted to draw boundaries to increase linguistic unity. The smallest state in this leader's country was controlled by Portugal until, soon after the Portuguese fired on the Sabarmati, his country launched Operation Vijay. His daughter and grandson also became prime ministers, but both were assassinated. This prime minister lost a border war with China in 1962, and he was unable to stabilize his country's border with Pakistan.

Gandhi, Indira

1917-1984, prime minister of India (1966-77, 1980-84). The daughter of Jawaharlal Nehru, she became prime minister on the death of Shri Shastri. She was assassinated in 1984 by Sikh members of her bodyguard unit. Her son Rajiv Gandhi succeeded her as prime minister. He was assassinated in 1991 by Tamil separatists. This world leader suppressed a railroad strike organized by George Fernandes, then made up charges that he had smuggled dynamite into government buildings in order to put him on trial and jail him; that incident is called the Baroda Dynamite Case. This leader ordered the rebombing of the indigenous village of Aizawl to suppress the Mizo people and won reelection under the slogan "Abolish Poverty." An information network utilizing children was known as the Monkey Brigade under this leader, who banned newspaper editorials, leading The Financial Express to protest by publishing the poem "Where the mind is without fear." This leader's son started a forced sterilization campaign against indigenous peoples and the poor before dying in a plane crash. This leader was killed by several dozen bullets from a Sten gun aˆer ordering Operation Blue Star against the Sikhs. To deter this leader's armies, the United States deployed Task Force 74. The nationalization of fourteen banks began the fourth Five-Year Plan in a country run by this leader, who first won reelection by using the slogan "eradicate poverty." Operation Woodrose suppressed protests in the wake of a military action ordered by this leader, whose country became a net food exporter thanks to the Green Revolution during her tenure. She used "president's rule" to rule by decree for two years after declaring a state of national emergency and was killed after ordering Operation Blue Star. This leader was responsible for the organization of a large group of children spies called the Monkey Brigade. This politician served as the Minister of Information and Broadcasting under Lal Bahadur Shastri, whose death led to this person's first term as prime minister. As prime minister, this ruler authorized a test at Pokhran of a nuclear device called Smiling Buddha. This leader also ordered Operation Blue Star, which was an attack on the Sikh Golden Temple in Amritsar.

Villa, Pancho - 1877

1923, Mexican revolutionary and national hero; he evaded capture by a US army force for 11 months after his forces killed several American citizens in Columbus, New Mexico (1916). This man was assassinated after going into town without his bodyguards called the "Dorados," upon which he apocryphally said "Don't let it end like this. Tell them I said something." Alvaro Obregon was victorious at the Battle of Celaya over this man's Division of the North. This man served as Governor of (*) Chihuahua for two years, and along with Emiliano Zapata, this man opposed Venustiano Carranza. While accompanying this man's army, Ambrose Bierce disappeared. After this man led the raid of Columbus, an expedition was led by General "Black Jack" Pershing to capture him. For 10 points, name this Mexican revolutionary and bandit.

Malcolm X

1925-65, African-American political leader. Born Malcolm Little, he adopted the Black Muslim faith while in prison, and became a Muslim minister upon his release. He converted to orthodox Islam in 1964 after a pilgrimage to Mecca. In 1964 he was assassinated in Harlem. The Autobiography of _ (1964) is a classic of the black power movement. This man led Temple Number Seven in Harlem and led a mob in New York City to protest the arrest of Johnson Hinton. This man encouraged blacks both to use their right to vote and to take up arms against the government in "The Ballot and the Bullet" speech. This founder of Muslim Mosque, Inc. and the Organization of Afro-American Unity was assassinated at the Audubon Ballroom. After this man claimed that Kennedy's assassination was an example of "chickens coming home to roost," he was forced into a ninety-day silence by Elijah Muhammad.

King, Martin Luther, Jr.

1929-68, African-American civil rights leader. A Baptist minister, he first gained prominence by advocating passive resistance to segregation and leading a boycott against the segregated bus lines in Montgomery, AL. He later founded the Southern Christian Leadership Conference and was awarded the 1964 Nobel Peace Prize. _ was assassinated by James Earl Ray in 1964 while in Memphis, TN. In the wake of this event, Corky Gonzalez helped set up a system of shantytowns known as "Resurrection City" in a last-ditch effort to secure an "Economic Bill of Rights," the culmination of the "Poor People's Campaign" effectively scuttled by this event. Walter Washington rose to prominence by tempering the aftermath of this event, which also prompted a speech quoting Aeschylus to be delivered in Indianapolis by a presidential candidate. This action led to the swift resolution of a sanitation workers' strike and prevented the delivery of the (*) speech "Why America May Go to Hell," while prior to it, the central figure predicted "difficult days ahead" and noted "I may not get there with you." This action was perpetrated by a man later arrested at Heathrow Airport a day after the delivery of the "I've Been to the Mountaintop" speech, and occurred on the balcony of the Lorraine Hotel in Memphis.

Hitler, Adolf- 1889

1945, German dictator. While imprisoned in 1923, he wrote Mein Kampf (which means "my struggle"), the "Nazi bible" which put forth his anti-Semitic beliefs and his plans for world domination. Hitler's rise to power began in earnest when President Paul von Hindenburg named him chancellor in 1933, and the Reichstag gave him dictatorial powers. With the help of Himmler, Goebbels, Goering, and others he quickly took control of all facets of German life. He established concentration camps and made anti-Semitism the law of the land. His aggressive foreign policy and the appeasement policy of Chamberlain led to the Munich Pact of 1938. He allied himself with Italy's Mussolini and Spain's Franco and prepared Germany for war. With his invasion of Poland in 1939, World War II began. Hitler's plans ultimately failed, and the Third Reich collapsed. He married his longtime mistress on April 29, 1945, and the two committed suicide the very next day. This man established the Twenty-Five Point Plan for his party at the Bamberg Conference. In one incident, this man and his forces tried to overthrow Gustav von Kahr. He gave the codename "Operation Hummingbird" to his forces' execution of Ernst Rohm ("Rome"), the leader of the SA, during the Night of the Long Knives. After this leader of the Beer Hall Putsch became head of state upon Paul von Hindenburg's death, he established the Third Reich. The author of Mein Kampf, for 10 points, name this Fuhrer of Nazi Germany. This man was granted extra power through the "Enabling Act" after a Dutch Communist was blamed for arson, and he was earlier imprisoned for actions with Ludendorff which were inspired by the March on Rome. This participant of the (*) "Beer Hall Putsch" wrote about taking "living space" from the Sudetenland before invading Poland on September 1, 1939. The author of Mein Kampf, name this Fuhrer and Chancellor of Nazi Germany.

Mussolini, Benito - 1883

1945, Italian Fascist dictator. In 1919 he organized his nationalistic "black shirt" terrorist followers, and founded the National Fascist party in 1921. Called "Il Duce," he gradually created a dictatorship and ended the parliamentary government in 1928. _ signed an alliance with Nazi Germany in 1939 during WWII. In 1945, _ was captured, tried, and executed. This man's forces were nearly encircled by the Christmas Offensive, and he passed the Acerbo Law to gain control of his country's legislature. He served as the editor of the newspaper Avanti and conquered Albania, forcing King Zog into exile. His opponents left the Chamber of Deputies in the Aventine Secession, and he was later overthrown by Pietro Badoglio. This man seized control of his country after the March on Rome, during which he overthrew Victor Emmanuel III. For 10 points, name this Italian leader of the Blackshirts nicknamed "Il Duce," the fascist leader of Italy during World War II.

Stalin, Joseph - 1879

1953, Russian revolutionary and head of the USSR (1924-53). He sided with Lenin in 1903 Menshevism and Bolshevism party split, and rose through Bolshevik party ranks. After Lenin's death in 1924, a power struggle ensued. _ eventually won the struggle for power even against the wishes of Lenin. In 1929, he had Leon Trotsky, his chief rival for succession, exiled from the country. On his death in 1953, his body was placed respectfully next to Lenin's. This man's predecessor and successor both labeled him as excessively rude, the latter through a supposedly secret speech delivered three years after this man died that, among other things, accused him of using fake embezzlement charges to have war heroes executed. This leader had earlier weakened his army by having Lavrenty Beria use the NKVD to arrest and execute several military officers. One of the many executions he ordered was carried out by Ramon Mercader. This leader tried to modernize his economy by ordering massive production increases over five year periods and by collectivizing farms starting in 1928. Name the first General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, who ruled from 1922 until his death in 1953.

Khrushchev, Nikita - 1894

1971, Soviet premier and party leader (1957-64). He replaced Bulganin as premier in 1957 and saw the USSR through the cold war. _ was removed from power in 1964. This leader launched a campaign to use the steppe to cultivate grain which was known as the Virgin Lands project. This man worked to have Lavrenty Beria executed and took power from Georgy Malenkov. This leader decried the use of secret police, poor economic policies, and a cult of personality in his Secret Speech. In another speech, this man told the West, "We will bury you." He allegedly banged his shoe on a desk during a UN meeting. This leader started a foreign policy of peaceful coexistence and a domestic period known as his "thaw." For 10 points, name this Soviet leader during the Cuban Missile Crisis who oversaw a period of de-Stalinization.

Hoover, J. Edgar- 1895

1972, US director of the FBI (1924-72).

Kenyatta, Jomo - 1893

1978, 1 president of Kenya (1964-78). As president, this man wrote Suffering without Bitterness. A reward offered by Governor Evelyn Baring prompted Rawson Macharia to testify that this man had administered illegal oaths to revolutionaries. His "wife of his old age", Ngina, became fabulously wealthy during his rule. This man promoted nation-building with the slogan "Harambee" and in 1969 arrested his rival and one-time vice president, the (*) Luo chieftain Oginga Odinga. This member of the Kapenguria Six and predecessor of Daniel Arap Moi was arrested prior to 1954's Operation Anvil for supporting the Mau Mau Revolt. This Kikuyu wrote about his homeland in Facing Mount Kenya. For 10 points, name this man whose son Uhuru succeeded Mwai Kibaki in 2013, the first President of Kenya.

Duvalier, Francois - 1907

71, dictator of Haiti (1957-71). A physician, he was elected president in 1947, reelected in 1961, and in 1964 "Papa Doc" declared himself president for life. During this man's rule, Clinton Knox was kidnapped and held until this man released twelve prisoners. This ruler's successor had all the pigs in his country killed in the PEPPADEP project. This leader almost provoked an invasion by Juan Bosch in one incident and had opponents tortured in Fort Dimanche. One of this man's aides was known as "Vampire" for his massive exports of medical cadavers; that man was Luckner Cambrone. One propaganda piece depicts (*) Jesus saying "I HAVE CHOSEN HIM" while standing over this man. This dictator took power after the overthrow of Paul Magloire. After suffering a heart attack, this dictator turned on his ally Clement Barbot and tried to kill him by exterminating his nation's black dogs. For 10 points, name this President for Life who employed the Tonton Macoute while ruling Haiti.

Mazzini, Giuseppe - 1805

72, Italian revolutionary. A leading figure in the risorgimento, he formed "Young Italy." When a group of his fellow students took refuge from a failed revolution in Austria, this man declared that he would only wear black. The British government admitted to opening this man's mail after the execution of the Bandiera brothers. This man used the slogan "Thought and Action" and met opposition when he planned to use Charles Albert to lead an army against Radetzky in 1848. In 1865, he refused an appointment to the Turin Parliament because he would not take an oath of allegiance to the monarchy. Sentenced to death in absentia due to his part in an army coup and invasion in Savoy, this man was elected Triumvir of Rome after the assasination of Pellegrino Rossi. He said that "neither Pope nor king," but rather "God and the people" would lead to victory the movement he founded. For 10 points, name this leader of Young Italy, a democratic figure of the Risorgimento.

Maria Theresa - 1717

80, daughter of Charles VI. She succeeded (1740) to the Hapsburg lands by the Pragmatic Sanction of 1713, issued by her father Charles VI. This succession was contested in the War of the Austrian Succession. In this war, she lost a portion of her kingdom to Prussia, but secured the election of her husband, Francis I, as emperor. She ruled jointly with her son, Joseph II from 1765 until her death. Among her 16 children were Joseph II, Leopold II, and Marie Antoinette. One law issued by this ruler was authored by Josef Azzoni. Preceded by a monarch who died from eating death cap mushrooms, this ruler was convinced by Abraham Mendel-Theben to intervene on behalf of fifteen Jews accused of hanging a child in Orkuta. One minister of this ruler attacked belief in vampires in his Discourse on the Existence of Ghosts and made hospital autopsies mandatory; that man was Gerard van Swieten. During this monarch's reign, William Haugwitz created the Directorium and the Prince of (*) Haunitz negotiated an alliance with France. This monarch's successor repealed her Robot Patent tax and passed the Patent of Toleration, and this daughter of Charles VI fought Prussia for control of Silesia in two wars. For 10 points, name this Austrian empress whose succession was ensured by the Pragmatic Sanction.

Garibaldi, Giuseppe - 1807

82, Italian patriot. _ was a leading figure in the Risorgimento (a period of nationalism in the 19 century that led to the unification of Italy). In 1860 he led 1000 red shirts in a conquest of Sicily and Naples. He then relinquished his conquests to Sardinia, and Victor Emmanuel was proclaimed king of Italy (1861). This man was elected to the National Assembly of Dijon after his army defended Dijon during the Franco-Prussian War. In the War of the Ragamuffins, this man supplied helper forces at the Battle of Laguna. This man's forces landed at Marsala and fought against Ferdinando Lanza at the Battle of Calatafimi. This militant's efforts allowed for the succession of the Count of Cavour as Prime Minister. This man was known as the "Hero of the Two Worlds" due to his participation in the Uruguayan Civil War. He led the Expedition of the Thousand against the Kingdom of Two Sicilies in an effort that ended with the rise of Victor Emmanuel II. For 10 points, name this leader of the Redshirts, a hero of the Risorgimento.

Sherman, William Tecumseh - 1820

91, Union general in the US Civil War. After distinguishing himself in Vicksburg and Chattanooga, he was appointed commander in the West and began his march to the sea. He burned Atlanta (1864), captured Savanna, and continued through South Carolina. He is famous for the statement "war is hell." This man's capture of Fort Hindman restored his reputation after his defeat at Chickasaw Bluffs, and this man's adopted father, Thomas Ewing, was the first United States Secretary of the Interior. P.G.T. Beauregard and Braxton Bragg got him a job at the Louisiana military academy. He led the "Forlorn Hope" detachment at Vicksburg, and he lost to Joseph Johnston at (*) Kennesaw Mountain before embarking on a scorched-earth campaign through Georgia. For 10 points, name this Union Civil War general who led the March to the Sea after burning Atlanta.

Douglass, Frederick - 1817

95, American abolitionist. After escaping from slavery in 1838, he took the name _ from Sir Walter Scott's Lady of the Lake. In 1845 he published his Narrative of the Life of _, and two years later he established the North Star, and abolitionist paper. In his autobiography, this man described how he learned to read and write by watching ship workers and by tricking local boys into teaching him, and one of its chapters ends with a fight he had with Mr. Covey. This man was nominated for Vice President on the Equal Rights Party ticket as the running mate of Victoria Woodhull. He was taught the alphabet by (*) Hugh Auld, his master's wife, and later founded the newspaper The North Star. This man was the only African American in attendance at the Seneca Falls Convention. For ten points, name this abolitionist famous for his oratories and autobiographical narratives.

The 1783 Treaty of Paris

The _, signed in _ by representatives of King George III of Great Britain and representatives of the United States of America on September 3, 1783, ended the American Revolutionary War. One negotiator of this treaty had just been released from the Tower of London two years earlier with the help of Richard Oswald, and was named Henry Laurens. This treaty indirectly led to mass settlement of New Brunswick, and set one national boundary at the St. Croix River. Article 6 of this agreement was violated when one nation failed to vacate forts on the Great Lakes, leading to Jay's Treaty eleven years later. It set the American border at the Mississippi River to the west and Florida to the south, and this treaty was signed after a defeat for General Cornwallis at Yorktown. The ratification of this treaty was delayed by blizzards caused by the eruption of the Laki volcano. This treaty followed an informal agreement negotiated by Richard Oswald and was signed by David Hartley. Its eighth article guaranteed both sides free navigation of the (*) Mississippi River, and its fifth article provided for the return of seized property to Loyalists.

Treaties of Utrecht

also called Peace of _, (April 1713-September 1714), a series of treaties between France and other European powers (April 11, 1713 to Sept. 7, 1714) and another series between Spain and other powers (July 13, 1713 to June 26, 1714), concluding the War of the Spanish Succession (1701-14). John Robinson and Thomas Wentworth were the British representatives at the namesake congress of this agreement. Under this resolution Nice was restored to the holdings of Victor Amadeus II, who was also affirmed as the king of Savoy. This agreement failed to resolve matters between France and the Holy Roman Empire, which were only mended the following year through the treaties of Rastatt and (*) Baden. In this resolution, the Asiento gave Britain the sole right to the slave trade in Spanish America, and Britain would also receive St. Kitts and Newfoundland from France. Additionally, this agreement also saw Spain cede away Giblraltar to Britain. Although this peace would ensure Philip V's rule in Spain, it notably prevented any member of the House of Bourbon from ruling both France and Spain. One non-territorial concession of this agreement was the transfer of the Asiento to the power that also received undivided control over St. Kitts. Another power had its control over the land between the Amazon and Oyapock rivers recognized by the power that also returned to it Colonia del Sacramento, a territory in Uruguay. France agreed to destroy its fortifications at Dunkirk while Victor Amadeus II became king of Sicily and Nice. The host country was told by the French delegate that that negotiations would be held "about you, in your country, without you," and indeed the host nation received little more than the Barrier Treaties. Britain suzerainty over the Iroquois was recognized, and gained territories that increased the holdings of the Hudson Bay Company from France, who agreed to recognize the legitimacy of Queen Anne.

Jean-Claude Duvalier

er- Upon his father's death, 1951-, became president for life. "Baby Doc" was forced to flee the county in 1986. One person with this surname, Simone, was the original namesake of a commune now known as "Sun City" located in her country's capital. A leader with this surname followed the edicts of PEPPADEP and eradicated his country's pig population. Another man with this surname reportedly ordered all black dogs put to death after being told that the rebellious Clement Barbot had transformed into a dog. A later member of this family had an apology to his country rejected by President Rene (*) Preval and had earlier teased a political comeback after the ousting of Jean-Bertrand Aristide. This family formed a secret police called the Tontons Macoutes or "Bogeymen," and one member claimed to be a loa. The most famous members, Francois and , were nicknamed "Papa Doc" and "Baby Doc." For 10 points, name this family that ruled Haiti from 1957 to 1986.

The Treaty of Versailles

one of the peace treaties at the end of World War I. It ended the state of war between Germany and the Allied Powers. It was signed on 28 June 1919, exactly five years after the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand. The other Central Powers on the German side of World War I were dealt with in separate treaties.[7] Although the armistice, signed on 11 November 1918, ended the actual fighting, it took six months of negotiations at the Paris Peace Conference to conclude the peace treaty. The treaty was registered by the Secretariat of the League of Nations on 21 October 1919. Other Facts: Kurt Tucholsky attempted to publicize violations of this agreement; it never followed either in its military restriction or debt repayment clauses, yet is nonetheless blamed by Nazi apologists for somehow obliging Germany to start World War II; China refused to sign this treaty when Shandong was transferred to Japan. John Maynard Keynes criticized it in The Economic Consequences of the Peace, predicting hyperinflation that plagued the (*) Weimar Republic. Henry Cabot Lodge ensured that the US Senate did not ratify this treaty. Georges Clemenceau refused to accept many of Woodrow Wilson's Fourteen Points in; Some opponents of this agreement denounced the "November Criminals" and propagated the "Stab-in-the-back legend." Some of this treaty's terms were set by Lords Sumner and Cunliffe, nicknamed the "Heavenly Twins." An ally of one party involved in this treaty was subject to the Treaty of Trianon, which was signed in a nearby palace. It transferred control of the Saarland and created a "corridor" centered on the Free City of Danzig. One delegate here joked that he was "seated between Jesus Christ and Napoleon" at its negotiation, and that British Prime Minister was David Lloyd George;

The Battle of Kadesh

took place between the forces of the Egyptian Empire under Ramesses II and the Hittite Empire under Muwatalli II at the city of _ on the Orontes River, just upstream of Lake Homs near the modern Syrian-Lebanese border. A mercenary force called the N'earin made a crucial late arrival at this battle. Prior to it, one commander got helpful intelligence from two wandering Shashu, but decided to torture them horribly in case they were spies. They actually were, and informed him that only this battle's namesake city separated his advance force from the entire enemy army. A grandson of Suppiluliuma I repelled an invasion in this battle, whose two major (*) sources are known as the "Poem" and the "Bulletin." A stele at the Temple of Amun contains the peace treaty signed after this clash, which saw the Ra and Ptah divisions engage in a massive chariot battle. This battle's traditional chronology was made in 1903 by James Henry Breasted. "The Official Report or Bulletin" described this battle in which Sherden bodyguards protected a leader saved by the Nearin division's arrival. Before this battle, two fake Shoshu deserters lied to one side's leader that the enemy army was in Aleppo, when they were already by the namesake city on the (*) Orontes River. This battle was described in records at Hattusa and Karnak and involved one leader who only used chariots to attack the isolated Ra division. About sixteen years after Muwatallis II fought in this battle, his successors agreed to the oldest surviving written international treaty. Treaty after this oldest written.