Relationships

Dunbar Lonely Hearts Research Female's Preferences - Support for sexual selection and mate preference (AO3)

Female Preferences 1. Commitment 2. Social Skills 3. Resources 4. Attractiveness 5. Sexiness Females prefer commitment because females want males who will stay and provide for their offspring. Females prefer resources because they want partner who will be able to provide for them and their offspring. Females want male with social skills because of Scheherazade effect. Tactic by ancestral women to appeal to man's social skills to keep him around.

Females Determine Genes Passed on?

Female choice determines what genes/characteristics are passed on. E.g. if females find height more attractive, male population will become taller because females will mate with taller males - producing taller offspring.

What is the sexy son hypothesis?

Female wants son who will attract mates to carry on genes, so want attractive male to make attractive son.

Define Inter-Sexual Selection

Females exercise choice and select the best male available

What is the definition of filter theory?

Filter theory Kerckhoff and Davis (1962): When we first meet somebody in a relationship we use filters that narrow down the field of available people to us.

What are the two types of personal information and when are they likely to be disclosed?

'low risk' information is superficial information that is disclosed at the beginning of a relationship. As the relationship develops, self disclosure becomes deeper, encompasssing a wide range of topics until eventually 'high risk' information can be revealed. If too much is revealed too soon, the other person may feel uncomfortable, possibly threatening the relationship.

Explain the 2 components of the adsorption-addiction model.

- Absorption - the individual seeks fulfillment in celebrity worship which then motivates the individual to focus as much of their attention on the celebrity as possible, leading them to become preoccupied with their existence and to identify with them. - Addiction - the individual is compelled to sustain their commitment to the relationship by feeling a stronger and closer involvement with the celebrity. This can lead to more extreme behaviours and delusional thinking, e.g. they may stalk the celebrity as they believe the celebrity wishes to reciprocate their feelings, but someone is stopping them.

Female facial preference?

- Large jaw and prominent cheek bones (Grammer and Thornhill). Due to high testosterone (which is a handicap because it lowers immune system). High testosterone shows male is strong because has overcome weak immune system. (Thornhill and Gangstead 1999)

What are male's facial preferences for females?

- Prefer females to have baby like features - big eyes, small nose, full lips. This indicates youth and fertility, which is more attractive as it indicates that the female is more fertile and therefore the male is more likely to have offspring by mating with and impregnating the female. (Thornhill and Gangstead 1993)

What's all this about Peacock tails and the Handicap Hypothesis?

- Should've been eliminated through natural selection because it's a cost - Peachen's tail (female peacock) much more effective 0 easier to run and hide from predators. - Darwin explains this by suggesting that the force of sexual selection complements the force of natural selection. Individuals possess features that make then attractive to members of the opposite sex or help them compete with members of the same sex. This leads to dimorphism (when male and females of species differ in colour/size). - Good genes and the handicap hypothesis - Peacocks tail result of female choice - Survival of the sexiest, not the fittest

What are the 3 progressional stages of Filter theory?

- Social demography e.g. gender, age, ethnic group etc. these are the people we feel similar to and so more at ease with. Find more attractive as we have more in common with them - Similarity in attitudes e.g. both are vegetarians/ both socialists/ both feminists. central importance at the start of the relationship and best predicator of the relationship becoming stable. Not similar = filtered out - Complementarity of needs e.g. you like making people laugh they like being made to laugh like each other as provide for each other's different needs. E.g. One is poor other is richer so one can provide for the other

Summarise the role of self disclosure in Altman and Taylor's social penetration theory.

- relationships = gradual and is a process of revealing your inner self to someone. - involves the reciprocal exchange of information between partners leading to a deep understanding of each other. -when one person reveals info about themselves it indicates trust in the other person and to go further the other person must also reveal sensitive information - as each person reveals more, the romantic partners 'penetrate' more deeply into each others' lives gaining a greater understanding of one another a deeper connection - as more disclosure occurs, the depth of disclosure increases

Maltby et al. 2006 Identified 3 levels of parasocial relationship, what are they in order of depth?

-Entertainment social - celebrities = sources of entertainment and fuel for social interaction. Giles 2002 found that parasocial relationships were a fruitful source of gossip in offices -Intense-personal - reflects greater personal involvement e.g. a fan may have frequent obsessive thoughts about the celebrity and intense feelings, maybe considering them a 'soul mate' -Borderline pathological - uncontrollable fantasies and extreme behaviours, may include spending a large sum of money on a related object, or being willing to commit a crime for the celebrity

Briefly explain reduced cues theory

-Formed by Sproul and Kiesler 1986 - online lack cues to emotional states such as expression and tone of voice - leads to de-individuation as reduces people's sense of individual identity thereby encouraging disinhibition relating to others -leading to more blunt and possibly aggressive communication -so a reluctance to self disclose as they are unlikely to want to initiate a relationship with someone who is impersonal, or want to disclose feelings to them

Briefly explain the Hyperpersonal model

-created by Walther (1996, 2011) -online relationships can be more personal than face to face (FTF) due to being anonymous online -> feel less accountable as people don't know the individual's real identity --> so disclose more to a stranger online. POinted out by Bargh et al. 2002 - when we're aware people don't know our identity we feel less accountable for behaviour (strangers on a train efffect) -Communications online develop more quickly as self disclosure happens earlier -Once a relationship is established they are more intense and intimate -End more quickly than FTF as the level of trust doesn't match the level of excitement. -Chance of 'selective self presentation' - messenger has more time online to manipulate self image.

Define Adaption

A feature of an organism that has been shaped by natural selection to enhance its chances of survival or reproductive success of an organism.

Define a parasocial relationship. AO1

A one-sided, unreciprocated relationship, usually with a celebrity, on which the fan puts in a lot of emotional energy, commitment and time. One of the two is usually completely unaware of the relationship.

What is a weakness of the role of attachment types in forming PSRs?

A study by McCutcheon et al. 2006 measured attachment types + celeb related attitudes in 299 ppts. Insecure attachments = no more likely to form PSRs than secure. Shows a possible severe lack of validity as fails to support a central prediction of this theory. *additional point: BUT, an issue with all of this evidence is that attachment types are harder to identify as adults as the main measure = stranger situation as a toddler. Adult relies on recollection of childhood therefore all of these studies may lack internal validity.

Can virtual relationships be as strong as offline relationships?

Acc. Putnam (2000) no. suggested online communications cannot compare with the richness of face to face relationships BUT, Rosenfeld and thomas (2012) found no evidence to support Putnam's claim. Their research showed that there is no difference between the quality or fragility of online or offline relationships.

Changes Made to the Model to Improve Duck's Model (AO3)

According to Rollie and Duck (2006) Model is outdated. It is limited because it does not account for the dynamic nature of break-ups with all their inherent uncertainty and complexity. 2006 added resurrection phase after grave dressing phase. Ex-partners turn their attention to future relationships using the experiences gained from their recently-ended one. Tashiro and Frazier (2003) surveyed 92 undergraduates who has recently broken up with a romantic partner. Respondents typically reported that they had not only experienced emotional distress, but also personal growth, as Rollie and Duck's new Resurrection Phase predicted. Rollie and Duck also make it clear that continual progression from one stage to the next is not always inevitable, possible to return to earlier process at any phase. New model also emphasizes processes that occur in relationship breakdown (e.g. role of gossip in social phase) rather than linear movement from one phase to the next..

Is physical attractiveness always an import factor in attraction and why?

According to research carried out by Towhey 1979, physical attractiveness might not be an important factor for all people in relationships. Towhey asked male and female participants to rate how much they would like a target individual based on their photograph and some biological information. The participants also completed a questionnaire - the MACHO scale - designed to measure sexist attitudes and behaviours. Towhey found that the participants who scored highly on the scale were more influenced by the physical attractiveness of the target when making their judgements of likeability. Low scorers were less sensitive to this influence. This demonstrates that the effects of physical attractiveness can be moderated by other factors, and so this research challenges the notion that it is a significant consideration in relationship formation for all potential partners. This suggests that the matching hypothesis cannot be correct for all people as not everyone sees physical attractiveness as an important factor in relationship formation.

What is the limitation of using Social penetration theory in relationship breakdown explanations?

According to the onion metaphor, relationship break down is accompanied by the lack of self-disclosures, leading to a reduced level of satisfaction and intimacy, but theories of relationship break down including Duck's 1982 model ofeten recognise that couples do discuss and negotiate the state of their deteriorating relationship in order to try and return it to an earlier level of satisfaction. This discussions will frequently involve deep self-disclosures but that may not be enough to save the relationship, and may even contribute to its breakdown. This is a weakness of the theory as despite the couples self-disclosing they no longer gain in satisfaction or intimacy which means it may not be very important in strong relationships.,

What is the onion metaphor of self disclosure?

According to the theory, here are two elements: breadth and depth. As the two partners self disclose more, the breadth of disclosure increases until it is time to move into a greater depth of self disclosure. The levels move from 'superficial' to ' intimate' to 'personal' and eventually to the person's 'core'. As oth breadth and depth increases, romantic partners become more committed to one another.

What is self-disclosure a main concept of?

Altman and Taylor's Social Penetration theory (1973)

Define Sexual Selection

An evolutionary explanation of partner preference. Attributes or behaviors that increase reproductive success are passed on and may become exaggerated over succeeding generations of off spring.

What is a 'gate' in relationships? AO1

Any obstacle in the formation of a relationship, e.g. physical unnattractiveness, a stammer and social anxiety.

Grave Dressing Processes (Duck)

As a relationship dies, we must create an account of how it came into being, what it was like, and why it died - like creating inscription on a tombstone for a dead relative. Ex-partners must begin to organise their post relationship lives and begin to publicise their own accounts of breakdown. What might be communicated as part of this process could be stories of betrayal (by the other partner) or perhaps of two people who tried very hard but were unable to save the relationship. It is likely that different stories are offered to different listeners rather than one version for all.

Satisfaction in Investment Theory

As with social exchange theory, satisfaction is the product of the outcomes of the relationship (reward minus cost). The outcomes are compared to a personal standard of what constitutes acceptable outcomes (the comparison level). If the outcomes surpass the comparison level then the individual is satisfied.

Why is the adsorption-addiction model a better description of PSRs not an explanation?

Attachment theory explains how PSR characteristics develop whereas the absorption addiction model is a better description of PSRs rather than an explanation. For instance, the model is capable of describing the characteristics of people who are absorbed by and addicted to the celebrity, not why people form them.

Cultural Research (Against Evolution Theory Sexual Selection/Mate Preference) (AO3)

BERNSTEIN (2015) Difference in partner preference due to cultural factors, not evolutionary. For example, in some cultures women have less economic and political power and therefore rely more on men for economic resources. KASER and SHARMA (1999) Cultures where females had less (economic) power, they preferred males with more (economic) power. This suggests that despite Buss' cultural findings, psychologists should not underestimate the influence of socio-economic factors on partner preference. This determines how much females prefer partners with lots of resource.

Research on evolution theory invalid (Against Evolution Theory Sexual Selection/Mate Preference) (AO3)

BULLER (2005) There is not a universal female preference for males with high status. Most research in this area done on uni undergraduate students, who expect males to have generally higher status (high income, similar university education, job needing degree etc.)

What does neotenous mean and how is it relevant to physical attractiveness?

Baby face. Retaining baby like features into adulthood. These features may include widely separated and large eyes, a delicate chin, and a small nose. These features trigger a caring or protective instinct, which may be a valuable resource for females to reproduce.

Research to Support Intra-Sexual Selection (AO3)

Barker and Bellis (1995) support the view that humans are promiscuous rather than monogamous (several over one long term partner). Suggested worldwide median rate for misatributed fatherhood of 9% partners. This supports Intra-Sexual selection, because it suggests that though there is a long term male partner, other males may have been more successful fetitlising the female. Sneaky Copulation The fact that males compete for dominance is supported by non-human animal hierarchies, which show less dominant males engage in secretive copulation (sex) when the dominant (alpha male) isn't looking. Some male elephants pretend to be females so they can join the harem.

Equity Theory Supporting Evidence from Non-human Primates (AO3)

Brosnan and de Waal (2003) found that female Capuchin monkeys became very angry if they were denied a highly prized reward of grapes in return for playing a game. If another monkey (who had no part in playing the game) received the grapes instead, the monkey grew angry and through food at the experimenter. This supports equity theory's claim that individuals become frustrated at lack of equity. Brosanan et al (2005) found that chimpanzees were more upset by injustice in causal relationships than close intimate relationships. This supports equity theory because it suggests that if there is inequity in intimate relationships, the individual will lower their standards and accept the lower standard of behavior as the norm.

Cross Cultural research Supporting Sexual Selection (AO3)

Buss (1989) survey over 10,000 adults, 33 countries. Asked questions relating to what sexual selection predicts males and females want in a partner. Female Preference - Females placed greater value on resource related characteristics, such as good financial prospects, ambition and industriousness. Supports sexual selection theory because shows females prefer males who can provide for her and her offspring. Male Preference - Males placed greater value on reproductive capacity, such as good looks, chastity and younger mates. Supports sex selection theory because shows males prefer females who are more fertile. Research can be applied vastly across different cultures, reflecting fundamental human preference not primarily dependent on cultural influences.

Intrapsychic Processes (Duck)

Characterised by social withdrawal and resentment. The dissatisfied partner focuses on their partners faults and a sense of being under benefited (getting little satisfaction from the relationship). Research suggests when people are depressed (e.g. as result of unhappy relationship) they tend to withdraw from social interaction with others (Segrin 2000). Result of these processes may cause them to re evaluate the relationship and consider alternatives.

Research supporting female choosiness (AO3)

Clark and Hatfield (1989 )research findings supported female choosiness. Male and female psychology students were sent out across uni campus and approached students individually with the question 'I have been noticing you around campus. I find you to be very attractive. Would you go to bed with me tonight?'. Not a single female agreed, but 75% of males did. This supports evolutionary theory, because it proves that females are more choosy than males when needing to pick sexual partners, and males have chosen a 'quantity over quality' strategy. HOWEVER It could be argued this is due to cultural expectations, rather than sexual selection. For example, males are encouraged to have lots of sex, whereas females are negatively labelled if they are known to have multiple sexual partners.

Type of Relationship and Equity Theory (AO3)

Clark and Mills (2011) analysed research supporting equity theory as an important feature in relationships. Their conclusion was that the relevance of equity theory depends on the type of relationship. they found that equity played an important role in casual friendships, business/work relationships and acquaintanceship. However, a lot of research questioned the link between equity and satisfaction in romantic relationships.

Why was Pavolv's hair so soft?

Classcal Conditioning #psychologylols

How does a person's attachment style affect their likelihood to form a PSR?

Cole and Leets (1999) researched and found that a person's willingness to form a PSR is linked to their attachment beliefs. An insecure-resistant type is most likely to form PSRs as a means of satisfying their unrealistic and often unmet relational needs. This is because they have concerns that others will not reciprocate their desire for intimacy. They found that avoidant types were the least likely to form PSRs as they find it difficult to develop intimate relationships and so they avoid relational intimacy as well as imagined intimacy (PSRs). This is supported by Ainsworth (1979) who identified that insecure resistant attachment types are most likely to form PSRs as they need to have unfulfilled needs met as well as enjoy a rejection free relationship. Insecure avoidant types prefer to avoid the pain and rejection of relationships altogether, incl. parasocial or social.

Define Natural Selection

Darwin's idea of natural selection was that animals should end up with physical and behavioural characteristics that allow them to perform well in competition with their rivals

Gender Differences in importance of Equity (AO3)

DeMaris et al (2010) point out that men and women are not equally affected by inequity in romantic relationships. Women tend to see themselves as more under benefited and less over benefited in relationships compared to men. Women are also more disturbed with being under benefited than men are. Sprecher (1992) women feel more guilt than men if they are over benefited. DeMaris et al suggest several reasons for gender difference in importance of inequity. Women's greater relationship focus may make them more sensitive to injustices and more likely to react negatively after being exploited. An increased emphasis on gender equality in modern marriage may lead women to be more vigilant about, and reactive to, relationship inequity.

Define Variation

Differences within the same sex

Support for evolutionary influences on facial preferences (AO3)

Differential interest in attractive adult female faces emerges early in the first year of infancy; this implies that the preference for attractive faces is more likely to be an evolved response than a learned behavior (Langlois et al 1987). There is also a significant degree of cross-cultural agreement in ratings of facial attractiveness (Perret et al. 1994). This evidence disproves that there are different cultural preferences for facial attractiveness - the theory is nomothetic.

Duck Acknowledges Impact of Social Phase varies on Relationship Type (2005) (AO3)

Duck (2005) suggested nature and impact of social phase in break up depends on sort of relationship involved. E.g. teenagers and young adults relationships = testing ground/unstable, older adults relationships = long term. As a result, younger people will not be encouraged as much to reconcile with partner but be told 'there are plenty more fish in the sea'. Older people have lower expectations at finding replacement partner, therefore are more reluctant to break up with partner (Dickinson 1995). Consequences of break up with older adults much more significant, therefore social processes phase friends/family may be more motivated to help reconcile the two partners.

Duck's Theory Description rather than Explanation & What theory/researcher is better at explaining? (AO3)

Duck's theory less successful at explaining why relationship breakdowns occur, mostly describes what happens. In contrast Flemlee's 1995 fatal attraction hypothesis argues attractive qualities that brought partners together can also be the reason why they break up. For example, an 'amazing sense of humour' can become 'they never take anything seriously'. Essentially, partners get too much of what they asked for. This theory suggests why partners may be unhappy in a relationship, rather than describing what stages towards a relationship breakdown incur.

Research Criticising intra-Sexual Selection (AO3)

E-Poll (2003) found that 29% of those interviewed reported having an affair. HOWEVER the majority of interviewees did know who the father of their child was and were not adulterous. This challenges the concept of humans being promiscuous.

Define Equity Theory

Economic theory of how relationships develop. Acknowledges impact of rewards and costs on relationships satisfaction. Criticses SET for ignoring central role of equity - perception partners have that the distribution of rewards and costs is fair.

Equity and Equality

Equity theory believes the ratio of cost and reward is more important than the size of cost and reward. So if partner puts a lot into relationship, but also gets a lot out of the relationship, they will see the relationship as fair (state of equity). Satisfying relationships are characterised by negotiations to ensure equity, that rewards are distributed fairly (not necessarily equally) between the partners.

Cultural Influences and Equity Theory (AO3)

Equity theory suggests Equity is a universal feature of romantic relationships, because it is a fundamental human feature. However, Aumer-Ryan et al (2007) compared couples in collectivist cultures vs individualist cultures. Couples from individualist cultures considered their relationships to be most satisfying when they were equitable whereas couples in collectivist cultures were more satisfied when they were benefiting. This was true for both men and women. this suggests that equity theory's claim that equity is a universal need in relationships has low reliability. Therefore the theory is limited, because it cannot account for cultural differences suggesting inequity is more beneficial to relationships.

Research support for males preferring female body shape that signals fertility (hourglass)? (AO3)

Evolutionary theory claims predictions about partner preference, such as male preference for female body signalling fertility, can be tested empirically. Singh (1993, 2002) studied this in terms of waist-hip ratio (WHR).Size of body does not matter as such, bit WHR does. Usually males find any WHR attractive as long as about 0.7. Wider hip and narrower waist attractive because it is 'honest signal' that a woman is fertile but not currently pregnant. This research supports the aspect of evolutionary theory that evolution has caused males prefer fertile partners.

Support Sperm Competition (AO3)

Harvey and May (1989) suggested that ethnic differences in testicle size may reflect adaptive differences in mating strategies within different ancestral populations. Measurements made during autopsy showed that testicle size in two Chinese samples was approximately half the size of testicles in a Danish sample, whereas differences in body size was only a small contribution in these factors. This supports sperm competition as an influence in variation of penis size, because it suggests that differences in sizes were due to the promiscuity of the different ethnic groups ancestors.

What is complex matching and what does it suggest about the matching hypothesis?

Hatfield and Sprecher 2009 suggested that the matching hypothesis is too basic and instead proposed the idea of complex matching. Complex matching is the theory that people come into a relationship offering many desirable characteristics, one of which could be physical attractiveness. People may therefore compensate for a lack of physical attractiveness with characteristics such as a charming personality, kindness, status, money etc. Complex matching better explains why certain people are able to attract far more physically attractive people than themselves, e.g. an older wealthy man may attract a younger attractive woman. This research could explain why there is a lack of research evidence for the matching hypothesis.

How did Maltby form these levels of parasocial relationships?

He conducted a large scale survey using McCutcheon et al. (2002)'s celebrity attitude scale. the results led to the levels of parasocial relationships.

Define Social Exchange Theory

Likelihood of person staying in relationship determined by assessment of what they put into a relationship vs what they get put of the relationship, and how this measures to their expectations.

Quality of Alternatives in Investment theory

If an individual perceives that an attractive alternative exists, they may be led towards that relationship and away from the current relationship. If no such alternatives exist, the individual may persist in a relationship due to lack of better options.

Define Evolution

In biological terms is the process by which new species arise as a result of gradual changes to the genetic make-up of existing species over a long period of time.

What is meant by sperm competition?

In many species, females mate with more than one male (breeding season). Sperm competition is important because it determines which male fertilises the female, which is what males compete for. Sperm competition has resulted in males evolving larger penises, testicles, ejaculations and faster swimming sperm. This is because these characteristics made the some successful males at fertilising the female, therefore these genetics were passed on to their offspring.

Duck's (1982) Theory of Relationship Breakdown List of Stages

Intrapsychic Processes Dyadic Processes Social Processes Grave Dressing Processes

Investment Theory Evaluation of SET (AO3)

Investment theory suggests that Social Exchange Theory is not detailed enough in explaining maintenance of romantic relationships. This is because Rusbult's research showed that investment as well as satisfaction contribute to how committed an individual will stay to a relationship . Therefore, social exchange theory is not detailed enough by just accounting relationship maintenance as due to only satisfaction.

How did the computer dance study lack ecological validity?

It also lacked ecological validity as it is ungeneralisable. In real life there is a fear of rejection but because the students had been told they already match, it took away their fear and so they may have felt more confident than they actually would've in real life.

How is filter theory too nomothetic?

It assumes that everyone aims to have the 3 main filters fulfilled in their relationships, for instance, all people must have complementarity of needs in their relationships. This may not be true as some people may find that they want someone with a similar, for example, cooking skill so that they do not have to cook all of the time, but they are unconcerned if the other dislikes cooking more than them. People are individuals and so some of the filters are much less important to some than others.

How may the benefits absence of gating be too nomothetic?

It assumes that gates are beneficial to anxious people when there is a chance that there may be some lonely or anxious people who get more anxious and nervous due to the lack of barriers. This means to see the absence of gating wholly as a positive thing would be wrong as it is unlikely to be true in real life and so perhaps a slightly more idiographic approach would be more beneficial.

How is attachment theory reductionist?

It claims that attachment type is most important in explaining the formation of PSRs whereas the role of cultural and social factors and the individual's personal circumstances (e.g. going through a lonely period) may be as important in forming PSRs.

How may attachment theory be deterministic?

It ignores people's choices when forming a PSR instead claiming that their attachment type will make them more susceptible.

Evolutionary Theory and the Nomothetic/Idiographic Approahc (AO3)

It is generalisable to the whole population. Additionally, most relationships (long term or aiming to be long term) have the purpose of mating and having offspring. However, idiogrpahic approach (e.g. case studies) may be sued to check validity of findings. For example gay relationships or relationships where partners stay together even though one is infertile.

What is a limitation of parasocial research? AO3

It is typically conducted using self report methods such as online questionaires. This may cause the data to be unrelaible due to social desirability bias

How may social penetration theory be reductionist?

It maintains that self-disclosure is the most important aspect of strong relationships, however other factors are clearly also important and so relationships cannot be reduced only to communication. Other important factors such as physical attractiveness are very relevant to the survival of a relationship. If one partner becomes less attracted to the other, despite frequent self-disclosures they may lose interest in the relationship. Therefore intimate relationships have many other important factors.

What is the research support for the hyperpersonal model?

It predicts that people are motivated to self disclose 'hyperhonestly' or 'hyperdishonestly'. Whitty and Joinson (2009) found that this is indeed the case by summarising a large amount of evidence. This would suggest that self-disclosure does occur more quickly. Questions online tend to be very direct, probing and intimate. therefore there is less/no small talk. This supports the idea that we disclose online to represent ourselves in an exaggeratedly positive light which aids relationship formation ---> counter: no control over variables only reviewed.

How is social exchange theory too deterministic?

It suggests that if people have more costs in a relationship than rewards the relationship will break down. This ignores the partner's free will in choosing to stay despite a sacrifice. This is particularly key in abusive relationships where the costs definitely out weigh the rewards and yet despite the deterministic nature of this theory, the relationship continues, therefore free will is more likely to play an important role in relationship maintenance..

How is SET reductionist?

It suggests that the most important role in relationship maintenance is that of costs and rewards, whereas relationships may also be maintained due to cultural or social pressures where divorce is looked poorly upon. This means that a person may remain in a relationship due to these pressures despite the costs. This suggests that claiming overall profit in a relationship is not hollistic enough to account for the importance of these other factors.

How are the explanations of PSRs too deterministic?

It suggests that you must be more susceptible to PSRs if you have an insecure attachment type, which is determined by your upbringing. This suggests that there is no free will involved in forming PSRs which is unlikely to be the case. In addition, the adsorption addiction model is too deterministic as it suggests that if you have a predetermined mental health disorder you must be m.ore likely to form a PSR which may not be true as there is choice involved when obsessing over a celebrity

What other evidence is there for supporting increased self-disclosure online rather than face to face?

Joinson (2001) Undergraduate students participated in a lab study where they were placed in same sex pairs to discuss an abstract dilemma. they were rated on their levels of self-disclosure. In 1st experiment half of the pairs discussed the issue face to face and the other half discussed it using a computer chat room. In experiment 1 the computer condition showed more self disclosure. In experiment 2 all of the pairs used the chat program, but half could see one another via a video. Experiment 2 found that the video condition had significantly lower levels of self disclosure. This suggests that people do display more self disclosure virtually, but only when the other person is not visible. As this was a lab experiment all of the variables had a high level of control lending it a high internal validity. In addition this study may be replicated which increases its relaibity. However, the participants were almost all in same-sex pairs, so the results can't be generalised to communication between people who arent the same sex.

What is the key study for filter theory?

Kerckhoff and Davis (1962) Carried out a longitudinal study of 94 dating student couples in the US. Each partner completed 2 questionnaires assessing extent to which they shared attitudes and values (index of value consensus test) with each other and also the degree of need complementarity (the fundamental interpersonal relations orientation or FIRO-B test) 7 months after initial testing, couples completed a further questionnaire assessing how close they felt to their partner compared to at the start of the study. Researchers believed that this would indicate progress toward permanence in the relationship. When the results were analysed only similarity appeared to be related to partner closeness. However, when they were divided into short term (<18 months) and long term relationships a difference emerged - in the short term similarity of attitudes and values was the most significant predicator of how close they felt to their partner, but in the long term couples only complementarity of needs was predicative of how close each individual felt to their partner Supports filter theory, as earlier stage similarity was less applicable (been filtered out) in the long term.

Who are more susceptible to forming PSRs according to Lange et al.? Briefly explain the progression through the levels of PSR as a result of this.

Lange et al. suggest that for some who are introverted, adolescents, lacking a real relationship, or in an especially difficult set of social circumstances, may be more susceptible to becoming increasingly 'absorbed' by the lives of their 'parasocial friends'. Fans believe they have a special connection with that celebrity as it is effortless to focus their attention on them. This motivates them to learn more about the object of their attention. Level of absorption = high enough --> higher levels of parasocial interaction --> motivational driving forces eventually become more addictive --> more extreme and delusional behaviours in order to sustain satisfaction. At the borderline-pathological level, the PSR becomes addictive because of the progressively stronger involvement that is now required to remain connected.

Le and Agnew Investment Theory Research (AO3)

Le and Agnew (2003) conducted a meta analysis of research into Rustbult's investment model. They analysed 52 studies, including 11 000 participants from 5 different countries, and involved both heterosexual and homosexual relationships. Result showed that across all studies, satisfaction level, quality of alternatives and investment were highly positively correlated with commitment. But the strongest correlation was between satisfaction and commitment. Commitment was also found to be a significant predictor of behavior indicating if a person was to leave a relationship. These findings suggest external influences such as alternatives and investments, are individually less predictive of commitment to a relationship, than internal factors such as satisfaction. However, the research also demonstrates the important roles of these influences because both alternatives and investment in conjunction with satisfaction predict commitment better than satisfaction alone. A strength of a meta analysis is that it relies on several studies rather than one study alone. This increases it's reliability. However, it relies on published studies only, which means bias may affect the overall study because published studies are more likely to find a positive result than ones that are not published.

How did filter theory fail to be replicated later on?

Levinger (1974) pointed out that many studies failed to replicate the original findings that formed the basis of filter theory. May be due to social changes over time and also the difficulties in defining the depth of a relationship in terms of length. Kerckhoff and Davis chose an 18 month cut off point between long term and short term relationships assuming that partners who had been together longer than this had a deeper and more committed relationship. This highlights the problems in applying filter theory even to other heterosexual couples in the individualist culture let alone homosexual couples or relationships in other cultures. Beta biased.

'Good sense' (looking for male who can provide) and inter-sexual selection?

Male provisioning is useful for females because it increases their resource budget and so eases the burden (in terms of nutrition and energy expenditure). Females want a mate who has lots of resources, because females invest a lot in their offspring (e.g. pregnancy, breastfeeding) and want a partner who will protect their offspring and be good at looking after them.

Dunbar Lonely Hearts Research Male's Preferences - Support for sexual selection and mate preference (AO3)

Males Preferences: 1. Attractiveness 2. Commitment 3. Social Skills 4. Resources 5. Sexiness Prefer attractiveness because it is a rough indicator of age - younger more fertile. After 20s female's fertility declines. males prefer women with commitment to look after their offspring. Males prefer women with social skills such as humor because females laughing at male's jokes makes them feel female likes them.

Define Intra- Sexual Selection

Males compete with other males for the right to fertilise females (male chosen by female).

Intra Sexual selection Psychological Consequences

Males may benefit from behaving aggressively because they are required to fertilise females and protect them from other competing males.

Why did mate choice evolve? (before intra/inter sexual)

Males produce sperm in thousands at relatively low psychological cost. Therefore their best strategy is to mate with many different females, because this would result in maximum number of their offspring to perpetuate their genetic line. The consequence of ansigomy and the fact that it is the mother who bares the majority of the huge biological cost of producing offspring is intra-sexual and inter-sexual selection.

How is the feature of PSRs being formed by those with poor mental health (adsorption-addiction model) supported by research?

Maltby et al 2003 supports the idea of poorer mental health by using the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ) to assess how personality affects the level of parasocial relationship. Found that the intense-personal level was associated with neuroticism (related to anxiety and depression). This strengthens the link between poorer mental health and PSRs as anxiety and depression are both serious disorders where the individual may - especially in depression's case - feel empty. Therefore, this increases the likelihood of McCutcheon being correct. *counter argument: However, Maltby's study is correlational they found people with PSRs were associated with mental disorders at certain levels there is no clear evidence to suggest that the mental adjustment was the cause and so this explanation's support is questionable

Is there additional research support for the role of poorer mental health in forming PSRs?

Maltby et al. 2005 investigated the link between celeb worship and body image in males + females 14 -16yrs. Female adolescents who had an intense PSR with a female celeb whose body shape they admired, also tended to have a poorer body image. This may support the theory's prediction of a correlation between the level of PSR and poor psychological functioning.

Mate Choice Ancestors vs Modern (before intra/inter sexual)

Mate choice formed in EEA. Ancestors evolved neural adaptions that favored mating with individuals possessing certain characteristics (such as large hip to small waist ratio). Fundamental principle of mate choice is one needs to be choosy because the genetic quality of your mate will determine half the genetic quality of your offspring. By forming a joint genetic venture with a high quality partner, one's genes are much more likely to be passed on. (Miller 1998)

Inter-Sexual Selection Detail

Mating strategy of the female - quality over quantity. Ova are rarer than sperm and require greater energy to produce. Trivers (1972) females invest more time, commitment & other resources before during and after birth. Buss & Schmitt (1993) males find females less attractive after sexual reproduction, so don't stay to ensure lots of short term partners rather than one long term partner. Female loses most if she picks substandard partner, because she invests the most, therefore has to be choosy. Females must choose fit genetic partner who is able to provide resources.

Further support for the absence of gating.

McKenna and Bargh (2000) looked at CMC use by lonely and socially anxious people. They found that such people were able to express who they were more online than in FTF situations. Of the romantic relationships formed initailly online, 70% survived more than 2 years. This is a higher proportion than for relationships formed in the offline world.

Criticism Sexual Selection: Preferences vs Real Life Choices (AO3)

Much of research documenting sex difference in mate choice has focused in preferences rather than real-life choices. For example, people may express preference for an ideal partner (intelligent, rich, kind) but have to settle for less. However study of marriages by Buss (1989) has confirmed many sexual selection predictions. E.g. men do choose younger women, and when they divorce and remarry they marry women who are increasingly younger than they are. This suggests individuals do apply their ideals for a partner to real life.

Evolutionary factors are overemphasized (Against Evolution Theory Sexual Selection/Mate Preference) (AO3)

NICOLSON (1999) Evolutionary factors are overemphasized. Evolutionary influences in human reproductive behaviour are lost in today's social context. Individuals choose sexual partners on range of other influences, such as personality, location and beliefs.

Preferred Mental characteristics preferences?

Neophilla (New/origional). Ancestors decided it was important for entertainment to be new/original. This is because partner would have to be entertaining as less to do. This is why music, art and humour are highly valued. (Miller 1998). Humans have evolved with these same desires.

Criticism Evolutionary Psychology (Over emphasis) (AO3)

Nicolson (1999) argues the relevance of evolutionary factors on mate preference is overemphasized. She argues that males are not really this promiscuous, and not all females want to have children. People choose partners on different grounds, such as how similar potential mate's views are to their own.

What are the cultural differences in self disclosure?

Not all cultures have found that increasing breadth and depth of self diclosure leads to a more intimate and satisfying relationship. Tang et al. 2013 reviewed research regarding sexual self-disclosure and concluded that men and women in the USA disclose significantly more than men and women in China. This suggests that filter theory is ethnocentric, this means that more research needs to be done before the theory can be applied to other cultures. However, this is a review of research, which means that the psychologists who made this conclusion had no control over the variables in the studies they reviewed, therefore the conclusion may lack reliabilty.

Individual Differences and Equity Theory (AO3)

Not all partners in romantic relationships are concerned with achieving equity. Huseman at al (1987) suggests some people are less sensitive to equity than others. They describe some partners as benevolent who are prepared to contribute more to the relationship than they get out of it. Others are entitleds who believe they deserve to be overbenefitted and accept it without feeling stressed or guilty. This shows that equity is not necessarily a global feature of all romantic relationships, because not ll individuals value equity.

Dyadic Processes (Duck)

Occur when partners start talking to each other about perceived inequalities that at least one of them is unhappy with. This may result in reconciliation, as the other partner accepts the validity of the dissatisfied partner's views. The ability to speak about these problems in a constructive way (problem solving) rather than in a destructive way (scapegoating) is critical if the relationship is to be saved. Partners may make promises to change/form an agreement to try make things work. Dyadic processes may bring up reasons for staying in the relationship (e.g. for good of children) or reasons to go (e.g. belief things cannot change)

Research Against Sexual Selection and Mate Preference (AO3)

PENTON-VOAK ET AL (1999) Female mate choice varies across menstrual cycle. When searching for long term relationship, find more feminine face attractive - suggests more able to care for offspring. When seeking short term sexual relationship, find more masculine face attractive (this is during high conception phase of menstrual cycle) - create more genetically fit off spring/sexy son hypothesis. Face preference depends on menstural cycle, not completely on evolutionary needs.

What evidence is there for the halo effect?

Palmer and Peterson (2012) found support for the halo effect. They found that physically attractive people were rated as more politically knowledgeable and competent than unattractive people. The halo effect was so persistent that even when the participants knew that the attractive people had no political expertise, the participants still found them more knowledgeable than unattractive people. This has negative implications on the political process, as there could be a danger to democracy if politicians are judged as suitable based on many voters believing they are physically attractive people. The existence of the halo effect has been found to apply in many areas of everyday life, confirming that physical attractiveness is an important factor in the initial formation of relationships, romantic or platonic. This agrees with the matching hypothesis as it would suggest that when we find someone more physically attractive then they become appealing in other ways too and so we will always want the most attractive option. However, the halo effect doesn't take into account the fact that the most attractive option isn't always available which is why the matching hypothesis suggests we make realistic choices.

Consequences of Inequality

Problems in relationships arise when one partner puts a great deal into the relationship and gets little from it. The greater the perceived inequity, the greater the dissatisfaction. Equity theory predicts a strong correlation between the two. this applies to how both overbenefitted and underbenefitted partners perceive inequity in the relationship.

Is the evolutionary approach ignorant to cultural influences? (AO3)

Partner preferences over the past century have been influenced by changing social norms of sexual behaviour. Changes in sexual behaviour have come due to cultural factors rather than evolutionary (changes are happening quicker than evolutionary processes can happen). Foe example, women have greater role in the workplace and therefore do not need to be so dependent on males for resources. Bereckei et al (1997) suggests this means female mate choices aren't so resource-orientated anymore. Chang at el (2011) compared partner preferences in China over 25 years. Found that preferences changes or stayed the same depending on huge social changes happening at the time. Research may be more valid than Buss because more recent, however it was not on such a large scale. therefore, mate preference is a combination of evolutionary and cultural influences.

What is another possible consequence of the absence of gating?

People are free to create online identities that they could never manage FTF. A man could become a woman, introvert to extrovert, plain person into a gorgeous one.

According to the adsorption-addiction model, why may some people be more likely to from Parsocial relationships (PSRs)?

People may form parasocial relationships due to a lack of a real relationship in their own life. Shyness and loneliness can create a void in a person's life that can be filled with a PSR. These may be particularly appealing to some as there are few demands in this type of relationship, and there is no risk of rejection like in a real relationship (acc. Ashe and McCutcheon 2001). PSRs are more likely to form with characters who are considered attractive by the viewer (the perception of attractiveness) and are viewed as similar to the viewer (perception of homophily) McCutcheon et al. 2002, explains people tend to form PSRs due to a deficiency they have in their own lives. E.g. there is a lack of fulfillment in their everyday relationships and they have a weak sense of self fulfillment. They may also be poorly adjusted psychologically. PSRs allow them to escape from reality or to fulfill what they can't in real relationships. Someone who initially has an entertainment social orientation to a certain celebrity can be triggered into a more intense PSR by some personal crisis or stressful event.

What is the issue of both theories viewing social disclosure online as a blanket term?

People self disclose on many different types of websites online so social disclosure online is subset. People self disclose more on facebook than when completing an e-commerce webform where the information is more private (Paine et al. 2006). Online dating sites are also different as neither person knows each other so self disclosure is reduced as both people consider that they will be meeting offline as well. Neither theory accounts for this so they therefore both lack ecological validity.

What are the three theories of attraction?

Physical attraction - the matching hypothesis Self disclosure - social penetration theory Filter theory

Define EEA (Environment of Evolutionary Adaptedness)

Physical features and behaviour adaptive in evolutionary past (helped us to survive and reproduce) have been passed on through the generations and drives our reproductive behaviour now

What research supports the idea in reduced cues theory that online relationships are superficial?

Putnam 2000, 'the nature of internet communication is that they can only lead to superficial relationships' this cannot compare with the richness of face to face relationships. this leads to the belief that online relationships are of lower quality and more temporary than face to face ones. This may help to explain why relationships end quickly online and it supports the superficial understanding of virtual relationships in reduced cues theory.

What are the two theories of self disclosure in virtual relationships?

Reduced Cues theory + the hyperpersonal model

Intra-Sexual selection Detail

Refers to the competition between males to be able to mate with the female. The winner of the competition reproduces and passes on his characteristics which contributed to his victory. This competition leads to dimorphism (difference between males and females). For example in competition between males, larger males have the advantage and therefore are more likely to mate. However females do not compete for reproductive rights, and therefore there is no evolutionary drive towards favouring larger females. Ansigomy dictates that males reproductive strategy is to mate with as many fertile females as possible. This is because of the minimal energy required to produce enough sperm to theoretically fertilise every female on Earth and the lack of post-coital responsibility the male carries.

What did Reis and Shaver (1988) suggest about the reciprocity of self disclosure?

Relationships need to have a reciprocal element of self disclosure where when one partner reveals intimate information, the other should too. this means there needs to be a balance of self disclosure in a successful romantic relationship. This increases feelings of intimacy, and deepens the relationship.

Investment Theory and Abusive Relationships Support (AO3)

Rusbult and Martz (1995) applied the investment model to abusive relationships. They asked women staying in refuges why they had stayed with their abusive partners instead of leaving as soon as the abuse began. As predicted by the model, women had felt the greatest commitment to their relationship when their economic alternatives were poor and their investment was great. This is a strength of Investment Theory, because it is one of the only theories suggesting why there individuals sometimes stay in abusive relationships.

Define Investment Theory

Rusbult predicted that the level of investment contributed to the stability of the relationship. Investment is 'anything a person puts into a relationship that will be lost if they leave the relationship'. Investments can be those things that are put directly into the relationship, such as tie or emotional energy, or those things that are indirectly related to it such as shared friends, material possessions or children.

How does research support attitudinal similarity in filter theory?

Research has generally supported the importance of attitudinal similarity in attraction (i.e. having common attitudes). Byrne et al. 1970 suggested that individuals are more likely to become attracted to someone who shares many common attitudes to themselves rather than someone who share only a few. In addition, the findings of some researchers have corroborated Kerckhoff and Davis's assumptions in the second stage of filtering that perceived similarity predicts attraction much better than actual similarity (according to Hoyle, 1993) Tidwell et al. (2013) tested this claim in the context of a speed dating event, where decisions of attraction must be made in a much shorter time span. After measuring actual and perceived similarity using a questionnaire, the researchers found that perceived but not actual similarity predicted romantic liking for these couples. This corresponds to the idea that similarity and attitudes are important in the filter process, however, only in a way that is perceived by the couples themselves, therefore the model may not have been specific enough in predicting the strength of perceived attitudinal alignment. Furthermore, an issue with Tidwell et al. (2013) supporting this study is that Tidwell only allowed a short amount of time for the attraction to take place so there may not have been time to allow the couples to find out their actual similarities or to move far through the filtering process. Overall, similarity in attitudes has been supported as a strength of filter theory, however, it is unclear whether perceived similarity is more important than actual similarity.

What are the real life applications of self-disclosure?

Research into it can help people improve communication in their relationships. Couples who do self-disclose deliberately and skillfully occasionally increase the intimacy and strength of their bond. It may even be used in couple's counselling.

Cultural Bias in Duck research (AO3)

Research supporting theory mostly focused on Western relationships, especially USA (location most research done). According to Moghaddam et al (1993) relationships in individualist cultures are generally voluntary and frequently come to an end (e.g. divorce). Relationships in collectivist cultures are more likely to be obligatory (arranged marriage) with little involvement of either partner. Therefore unlikely that relationship breakdown will be the same in every culture. For example arranged engagements may breakdown because a partner suddenly loses status because a loss of money.

Benefits of Grave Dressing Approach (AO3)

Research to support importance of grave dressing in dealing with after-effects of relationship breakdown. End of romantic relationship can be very stressful event. For example Monroe et al (1999) found that students who experienced the end of a romantic relationship in the previous year had greater risk of developing major depressive disorder for the first time. However, Tahiro and Frazier (2003) found that individuals are able to feel better about ending a relationship when they focus on how the situation, rather than their own flaws, are responsible for the break up. Therefore, the benefit of grave dressing is that the individual is able to create stories that play down their role in the break up so they do not threaten their emotional well being.

Methodological Issues with Duck's theory (AO3)

Research unreliable, because research based on individuals recalling stories of past breakups. This means individuals may recall with inaccuracy, or forget early stages of relationship break down. Researchers reluctant to do research studying first stages of relationship because involvement could hasten the end of a relationship which could have been saved otherwise. However, this does mean that part of the model is based on research that ignores the first parts of the model, so it is an incomplete description of relationship breakdown (first stages lack evidence).

Ethical Issues in Breakdown Research (AO3)

Researching romantic relationship breakdown raises particular issues of distress (from vulnerability about reasons for past break ups), privacy (many issues are very personal) and confidentiality (particularly for victims of abusive relationship). Key factor of psychological research is that any damage cause must be outweighed by the positive impacts of research, especially for those involved. Debatable whether getting people to go through emotional distress is worth knowing how relationship breakdown happened.

What research supports the hyperpersonal model that there is increased self disclosure online?

Rubin 1975 'strangers on a train'. Rubin found people are more likely to disclose personal information to strangers who we'll not see again and have no access to our social circle. Bargh et al. 2002 applied this to virtual relationships by saying that anonymity leads to more self-disclosure as we are aware that others don't know our identity so we feel less accountable for our behaviour. This means we disclose quicker online due to deindividuation, as the hyperpersonal model suggests.

Rusbult (1983) Investment Theory research

Rusbult tested the investment model of relationships by asking university students in heterosexual relationships to complete questionnaires over a month period. They kept notes about how satisfactory their relationships were, how they compared with possible alternatives and how much they had invested in the relationship. Student also noted how committed they felt to the relationship. Satisfaction, comparison and investment each contributed to commitment and to break up. High satisfaction and investment seemed to be important in committed relationships. The existence of an attractive alternative appears to be a large feature in deciding to end a relationship.

Social Exchange Theory as an Economic Theory

SET takes the view that social relationships are run in a similar way to a business - people are haggling and negotiating in order to get the best deal. SET is based on the principles of operant conditioning, which suggests we form and maintain relationships because they are rewarding. (relationships must be profitable because the rewards we receive from the relationship outweigh the costs incurred. This means that if the relationship stops being profitable because the costs outweigh the rewards, the relationship will end. Additionally quality of alternatives was also a factor which affected an individual's commitment to a relationship.

Economic Theories of Relationship Maintenance (Social Exchange Theory, Equity Theory, Investment theory Equations)

SOCIAL EXCHANGE THEORY Satisfaction = Reward - Cost EQUITY THEORY Satisfaction = Reward - Cost + Equity (fairness) INVESTMENT THEORY Satisfaction (Reward - Cost) + Investment + Quality of Altenraitves

What evidence is there to suggest the ecological validity of PSRs?

Schiappa et al. 2007 carried out a meta-analysis of studies exploring the factors that led to PSRs. They found support for the idea that the individuals with a deeper level of PSR watched more television. There was also a positive relationship between the degree to which a person percieves the television characters as real and their tendency to form PSRs. Lastly, they found evidence to support the claim that the likelihood of forming a PSR with a TV character was linked to the character's percieved attractiveness and similarity to the viewer. This means that there are people who have PSRs in real life with some more involved than others suggesting deeper levels. so a moderate amount of TV may increase the number of PSRs but they'd be weak, but a higher ab=mount of TV may lead to more stronger PSRs.

Define Gamete

Sex cells contain the same amount of genetic information: males produce small motile games called sperm (produced in very large numbers - 100 million per day) and females produce large immobile gametes called eggs which have to store energy to assist embryo development (make fewer in a lifetime - 450 eggs).

Short term mating preferences (Clark and Hatfeild 1989) (AO3)

Sexual selection has lead to different mating strategies, including short term mating (casual sex). Consequences of this are greater for a female than a male (less eggs need to be more picky for offspring) Clark and Hatfield (1989) research Clark and Hatfield (1989 )research findings supported female choosiness. Male and female psychology students were sent out across uni campus and approached students individually with the question 'I have been noticing you around campus. I find you to be very attractive. Would you go to bed with me tonight?'. Not a single female agreed, but 75% of males did. This supports male short term mating preferences, because it proves that males aim to fertilise as many females as possible, whereas females do not because there is more at stake. Buss & Schmitt (1993) males find females less attractive after sexual reproduction, so don't stay to ensure lots of short term partners rather than one long term partner.

According to Shackelford and Larsen (1997), why is facial symmetry importantin physical attractiveness?

Shackelford and Larsen 1997 found that people with symmetrical faces are rated as more attractive. This may be an honest signal of genetic fitness. This is a part of evolutionary theory. This relates to the matching hypothesis as if we match based on similar features this may be flawed in terms of evolution as it would suggest that they had flawed genes and so it would be bad to reproduce with that partner. However, the matching hypothesis accounts for realistic choices explaining that the evolutionary best match may not always be possible.

How does subsequent research dispute the idea that complentarity is more important than similarity in relationships?

Some research has challenged the claim of filter theory that complementarity is more important than similarity later in relationships, one such critiquing study was done by Anderson et al. 2003 who found that similarity increases over time which suggests that complementarity is not necessarily a common feature of longer term relationships. However, filter theory is an attraction theory so it may be important in the early stages of the relationship for a while, but over time it may have changed. In addition, Gruber-Baldini et al. 1995 carried out a longitudinal study of married couples. They found that similarities between spouses in terms of intellectual abilities and attitudinal flexibility increased over a 14-year period. This corroborates Anderson et al. 2003.

Research Criticising Equity Theory (AO3)

Some research studies o not support predictions made by equity theory. For example, the theory suggests that satisfying romantic relationships should become more equitable overtime. But Berg and McQuinn (1986) found that equity did not increase in their longitudinal study of dating couples. Equity theory also did not distinguish between relationships which ended and relationships which continued. Other variables such as self-disclosure were much more important in difference between failed and successful romantic relationships. Suggesting that self disclosure is a more successful theory than equity theory.

What research support does Social Penetration theory have? AO3

Sprecher and Hendrick 2004 studied heterosexual couples and found strong correlations between several measures of relationship satisfaction and self disclosure in both partners. This means there's a strong link between having high levels of self-disclosure and happiness in a relationship. However this research is biased towards heterosexual couples, which means it cannot be extrapolated and applied to homosexual couples. In addition this research is correlational and so it is unclear as to whether self-disclosure actually does cause relationship satisfaction.

What other support is there for the matching hypothesis?

Studies allowing for rejection have provided support for the matching hypothesis. Huston (1973) asked male participants to choose a date from a selection of women judged as high medium or low attractiveness. Men preferred to date highly physically attractive women, but this was especially so when they were guaranteed acceptance from them. The men who weren't guaranteed tended to believe the better looking women would be more likely to reject them. This followed the matching hypothesis as men were assessing their own attractiveness to make a realistic choice

What support from research evidence does filter theory have? AO3

Support from research evidence: assumes key factors change over time. Agrees with most people's experience of romantic relationships and so the theory has face validity. Benefits from support such as Winch (1958) who found evidence that similarities of personality and attitudes between partners are typical at the earliest stages of a relationship Echoes the matching hypothesis, however it's not just in terms of physical attractiveness. According to Winch complementarity of needs is more important than similarity between happily married couples over several years. More extent than matching hypothesis in the way it has a greater acceptance

What is the biological support for increased self disclosure in virtual relationships?

Tamir and Mitchell 2012 found evidence of a biological basis for the motivation to self-disclose on social media. They found increased MRI activity in two brain regions associated with reward (the nucleus accumbens and the ventral tegmental area). These areas were strongly activated when people are talking about themselves and not someone else. They also found that ppts experienced a greater sensation of pleasure when sharing their thoughts with friends/family members, and less pleasure when they were told their thoughts would be kept private. These findings suggest the human tendency to share personal experiences with others over social media may arise from the rewarding nature of self disclosure.

Social Processes (Duck)

The break up is made public (e.g. friends and family). Advice and support are sought from people outside the relationship and alliances are created. Processes often include denigration of partner ('I never like him anyway' 'You could do so much better') and scapegoating ('It's all her fault). It is also where social implications (e.g. care of children) are negotiated. Break up becomes increasingly inevitable. For young adults relationships might be expected to form and end quite frequently as they 'test the market', but with older adults they are likely to have lower expectations of finding (or even desire to find) a replacement partner.

How did the computer dance study lack population validity? AO3

The computer dance study lacked population validity as the participants were all students and so do not represent people from other stages of life e.g. different ages might not date their matches.

What is the cultural evidence for/against the matching hypothesis?

The cultural findings for the matching hypothesis were that what is considered physically attractive is remarkably consistent across cultures. Cunningham et al. 1995 found that female features of large eyes, prominent cheek bones, small nose and high eyebrows were rated as physically attractive by white, Hispanic and Asian males. Wheeler and Kim 1997 found that Korean and American students judged physically attractive people to be more trustworthy, concerned for other people, mature and friendly. It appears that the stereotype is just as strong in collectivist cultures as well as in individualist ones. This is significant as most cultures agree on the most physically attractive people and most cultures appear to experience the halo effect. This means that if the idea of what is physically attractive is almost universal that would suggest that across the world everyone could be comparing their own attractiveness to that ideal. This raises the ecological validity of the matching hypothesis slightly as it appears that different cultures ideas of physical attraction are similar. However, the cultural research by Cunningham et al. 1995 is gender beta biased as females are assumed to have the same ideal of physical attractiveness.

Define Ansigomy

The difference in size and mobility between gametes (sex cells) of different sexes.

Define Sexual Dimorphism

The differnt physical characteristics of females and males of the same sepcies e.g. males 20% taller than females.

What is the halo effect?

The halo effect is the idea that one distinguishing feature (in this case physical attractiveness) tends to have a disproportionate influence on our judgement of a person's other attributes e.g. their personality. Here the more attractive a person appears the better we believe their personality to be, as there is an almost universally positive opinion of the personality traits attractive people must have. Dion et al. 1972 found that physically attractive people are consistently rated as kind, strong, sociable, and successful, compared to unattractive people.

Dealing with Inequity

The partner who gives more than they receive will may work hard to make relationship more equitable as long as they beleieve it is possible to do so and the relationship is savable. The more unfair a relationship feels, the more they will work to restore the equity. On the otherhand, they may revise their perception of rewards and costs so that the relationship feels more equitable to them, even if nothing actually changes. For example lower standards. what was seen before as a definite cost in the relationship (untidiness, thoughtlessness, actual abuse) is now accepted as the norm.

What is the definition of self disclosure? AO1

The personal element of who you are and how much of this you share. the more you share, the more vulnerable you become. In a relationship you reveal more about yourself over time.

What issues in causality does filter theory have?

The theory suggests that people are initially attracted to each other because they are similar (demographically and in other ways) but there is evidence that similarity doesn't cause the depth of relationships instead it may be that the strength of the relationship causes a similarity in couples. Anderson et al. 2003 found in a longitudinal study that cohabiting partners became more similar in their emotional responses over time, a phenomenon they called emotional convergence. In addition, Davis and Rusbult 2001 discovered an attitude alignment effect in long term relationships. Romantic partners over time bring their attitudes in line with each other's, which suggests that similarity is an effect of initial attraction, no the cause.

Real Life applications Duck's Theory Positive (AO3)

Theory suggests ways relationship breakdown can be prevented as well as describing relationship breakdown. Especially because it acknowledges that different strategies should be used at different stages of the relationship breakdown. For example Duck (1994) suggests that at psychiatric stage may prevent further relationship breakdown by focusing on positive aspects of partner. Dyadic process communication is key, so fostering communication skills surrounding problem solving rather than scapegoating could be useful to help restore relationship form this stage. Useful real life application for relationship counselling.

Why may complementarity of needs might not actually be important?

There is a lack of support for the importance of complementarity of needs. Research by Dijkstra and Barelds (2008) studied 760 vollege educated singles on a dating site looking for a long term partner. they measured the participants own personalities and then the ppts were asked to rate the personality characteristics they valued in an ideal mate. Initially ppts indicated they wanted a complementary partner, not a similar one (supporting complementarity), but there were strong correlations between the individual's own personality and their ideal partners personality, instead supporting the similarity-attraction hypothesis. *counter argument, lacks population validity: not all singles are college educated and those that aren't may value complementarity.

How does filter theory lack temporal validity?

There is a lack of temporal validity for filter theory and, potentially, all of the 3 attraction theories. Since these theories were formed the internet has been created, and so has online dating. Internet dating has changed the process of relationship formation almost beyond recognition. The main issues with this is that online information is available all at the same time, so the information may be filtered out but in any random order which means there aren't really any stages of attraction online. This means that theories hence forth need to be formulated to include internet dating.

What did Feingold (1988) and Taylor et al. (2011) do to evaluate the matching hypothesis?

There is very little support for the original form of the matching hypothesis - even Walster and Walster's own study showed the hypothesis is a weaker light - however, Feingold 1988 carried out a meta-analysis of 17 studies and found a significant correlation in ratings of attractiveness between romantic partners. This study is more generalisable as it used real couples thereby having a realistic approach. However, a limitation of the original study was found by Taylor et al. 2011 who studied the activity logs of a popular online dating site. another real life test of the matching hypothesis because it measured actual date choices and not just preferences online daters sought meetings with potential partners who were more physically attractive than them. It seems they did not consider their own levels of attractiveness when making decisions about who to date.

How may virtual relationships be helpful for shy people?

This is argued by Baker and Oswald (2010). through social media sites such as facebook, shy people can overcome the barriers they face when they try to form relationships in real life. They tested this using a survey of 207 males and females about their shyness, Facebook usage and the quality of their friendships. For students who had scored high in shyness, greater Facebook usage was associated with higher perceptions of friendship quality. For non-shy individuals, Facebook usage was not associated with perception of friendship quality. This shows that shy individuals find in particular value in virtual relationships.

Why is the absence of gating an advantage in computer mediated communication?

This is argued by McKenna and Bargh 1999. this means that a relationship can develop to the point where self disclosure becomes more frequent and deeper allowing an unlikely FTF relationship to occur and function well online.

Define Inclusive Fitness

Total number of an animal's genes present in subsequent generations.These genes will be present in direct offspring and in the offspring of close relatives such as brothers or sisters.

Mary Utne et al (1984) Research Supporting Equity Theory (AO3)

Utne et al (1984) carried out survey of 118 recently married couples, measuring equity within two self-report scales. husbands and wives were aged between 16 and 45, and had been together for 2+ years before marrying. Research found that relationships with more perceived equity were more satisfied than those who saw themselves as benefiting or under benefiting. This research confirms that equity is a key part of successful relationships, which increases it's validity as an explanation of maintenance of relationships.

Describe the Matching Hypothesis (AO1)

Walster and Walster (1969) suggested the matching hypothesis which is that individuals seek out partners with a similar level of social desirability (e.g. wealth, physical attractiveness, status etc.) as themselves. Individuals first assess their own 'value' in the eyes of a potential romantic partner and then they select who would be attracted to them Originally was just physical attractiveness but was then expanded to social desirability after the computer dance study

The Role of Equity

Walster argues what matters most with equity is that BOTH partner's profit is roughly the same. Lack of equity = one partner overbenefits from relationship, and the other partner underbenefits from the relationship. Both overbeenfit and underbenefit is an example of lack of equity, but underbenefited partner is most likely to be dissatisfied with relationship in the form of anger, resentment, humiliation and hostility. the overbenefited partner is likely to feel guilt., discomfort and shame. Satisfaction is about perceived equity (fairness)

Describe the computer dance study

Walster et al. (1966) 177 male and 170 female students told they had been matched for a date at a dance, student accomplices rated them on their attractiveness. Ppts filled out a long questionnaire about their personality traits and intelligence then told they'd been matched to their best suited partner but the pairing was actually done randomly. Questionnaire straight after the date and check-up questionnaire 6 months after about their date. Findings didn't match the hypothesis. Once the participants had met their dates (regardless of their own physical attractiveness) they always responded more positively to physically attractive dates and they then always tried to arrange further dates with them. Other factors such as personality and intelligence did not affect liking their dates or any subsequent attempts to date them. The study took out fear of rejection therefore not as valid. Decided we all have preferences (the best people) but make realistic choices as we fear rejection. Therefore, despite not supporting, it means we can't discard it properly. Issues with the research therefore we still have confidence with the matching hypothesis.

How're relationships multimodel and how is this a criticism of both?

Walther (2011) argues any theory trying to explain CMC (computer mediated communication) including self disclosure needs to account for the fact many online relationships are conducted offline too (multimodel). What we chose to discuss online may be inevitably influenced by offline interactions and vice versa. Neither theory accounts for this.

Why is there a lack of research support for reduced cues theory? (AO3)

Walther and Tidwell 1995 suggested that online is not devoid of non-verbal cues they are just different, such as timing of messages (too long = snub etc.). Emoticons and emojis are effective substitutes for expressions and tone of voice therefore the success of such communication online cannot be explained by reduced cues theory. It is possible to express emotional states in virtual relationships, contrary to the belief of reduced cues theory. Online relationships can be as personal as FTF.

Changes in Perceived Equity (Relating to inequity)

What makes partners so dissatisfied is a change in level of perceived equity throughout relationship. E.g. at start of relationship may feel expected to contribute more than you receive. However, as relationship develops partner may be more reluctant to give more than they receive.

How may both theories of online self disclosure be ignoring the role of gender?

When revealing information on line, traditionally girls are warned more than boys to be careful with their self-disclosure, neither theory allows for any variation of self disclosure between the genders online as they view everyone as having the same tendency of self-disclosing more or less. This may not be the case and so more research is needed before either one can be properly generalised.

Criticsm mate choice and the menstrual cycle (AO3)

Women's preferences for attractive faces change according to position in the menstrual cycle. Penton-Voak et al (1999) found evidence that women are attracted to more masculine-looking men during the most fertile time of the menstrual cycle, and showed preference for more feminine looking faces during less fertile times. This may indicate that a less masculine-looking man may make a better long-term partner (being seen as kinder and more cooperative), but that women benefit from being unfaithful in order to produce the strongest, healthiest children as a result of a quick copulation with a more masculine looking man. This criticizes the idea in sexual selection that females only ever prefer 'masculine' faces.

Is there research that supports the validity of the theory?

Yes - Laurenceau 2005 used a method involving writing daily diary entries. They found self disclosure in a partner were linked to higher levels of intimacy in long-term married couples. In addition they found that less intimate couples self-disclose less often. This increases the validity of the theory that self-disclosure leads to a more satisfying relationship. However, this research is again correlational, the intimacy was not necessarily caused by the self-disclosure, only that they self-disclose more often. In addition, this self report method is highly susceptible to social desirability bias as the partners may have wished to seem happier than they actually were.

Is there cultural support for the levels of parasocial relationships?

Yes - Schmid and Kilmmt 2011 investigated whether there would be a difference in the PSRs formed with Harry Potter in 2 contrasting cultures, Germany (individualist) and Mexico (collectivist) despite the differences between these cultures, they found that both cultures showed similar patterns of PSRs. Their online survey found that both groups admired the character and found commonalities between their own lives and relationships to those shown in the films/books, showing the influence of mainstream media characters. This shows that the concept of PSR is widespread and the levels are consistent despite culture therefore it is more reliable.

Has there been research in homosexual relationships in relation to self disclosure?

Yes and that increases its validity. Hass and Stafford found that 57% of gay men and women said that open and honest self-disclosure was the main way they maintained their relationships. However, 57% is not an overwhelming majority therefore there may be other important factors in causing intimacy and maintenance of relationships. Therefore, this area needs further investigation.

Is the idea of being neotenous biased? If so, how?

Yes, it is alpha biased as it exaggerates diferences between men and women as it assumes that men always look for neotenous features which they themselves do not possess, in order to reproduce successfuly.

What is a benefit of the absence of gating? (AO3)

Zhao et al 2008 suggests that relationships formed online have consequences for people's offline lives, for example by bypassing the gating obstacles the persons real overall self image can be enhanced and as a result this may increase their chances to connect to others in the offline world.

What makes filter theory particularly useful?

according to Duck (1973) the real value of filtering before a relationship is that it allows people to make predictions about future interactions thereby enabling them to avoid investing in a doomed relationship. Each person explores the prospect of the relationship by disclosing about themselves and making enquiries about the other person. He claims that people use a variety of of different strategies to gather information about each other including questioning to encourage the other person's self disclosure and provoking disagreement about a topic to cut through their polite front. These exchanges help the individual decide whether a relationship is worth pursuing before they become too deeply involved with the other person. This is a strength of filter theory as it allows people to follow their attractions whilst not making the wrong choice.

How is the protest at disruption component of attachment theory in PSRs culturally supported? AO3

in Israel Cohen (2004) supported that viewers would show the same neg response to the loss of PSR as a real relationship. Sample of 381 adults using questionnaires about favourite TV characters show that viewers expected negative reactions similar to losing a real relationship as they would a PSR. This was also linked to attachment type with insecure-resistant attached ppts anticipating the most negative responses. This shows it is attachment type causing PSR, and it increases attachment theory's ecological validity. *counter argument: they used questionnaires which are highly acceptable to social desirability bias so other attachment types may have hidden what they really felt so that they would appear how they perceive as normal.

What are the two explanations of parasocial relationships? AO1

the Adsorption-Addiction Model and the Attachment Theory explanation.

How is the matching hypothesis too nomothetic?

the matching hypothesis assumes that all people go for a partner of similar social desirability, however this isn't the case as when observed idiographically, there are notable cases where some people choose a partner of a higher or lower social desirability. For instance, a 20 year old model doesn't have the same social desirability as a 60 year old man. This means that now all humans conform to this rule that the hypothesis suggests and individuals may choose their partners based on other factors such as a higher wealth or better looks or a higher status. Therefore the matching hypothesis is too nomothetic.

According to attachment theory's explanation of PSRs, what are the three fundamental properties of adult attachment (identified by Weiss 1991) that TV personalities exhibit to some degree, which allows parasocial relationships to function similarly to ordinary ones?

• Proximity seeking - individuals attempt to reduce the distance between themselves and their attachment figure. Fans exhibit these behaviours in their parasocial relationships (PSR). E.g. Leets et al. (1995): people like to stay informed about their favourite celebrity by collecting trivia, rearranging schedules to see them on tv, or contact via fan letters or in person. • Secure base - presence provides sense of security for PSR individual. There is little or no chance of rejection in a PSR, so individual can create a secure base with them to explore other relationships in a safe way • Protest at disruption - there is prolonged distress at the separation or loss of an attachment figure. E.g. Jeremy Clarkson was axed from top gear in 2015 which lead to a petition website where one fan wrote they 'want to cry'.