SAQs

Scientific revolution

For the long centuries of the Middle Ages (500-1350 AD) the canon of scientific knowledge had experienced little change, and the Catholic Church had preserved acceptance of a system of beliefs based on the teachings of the ancient Greeks and Romans which it had incorporated into religious doctrine. During this period there was little scientific inquiry and experimentation. Rather, students of the sciences simply read the works of the alleged authorities and accepted their word as truth. However, during the Renaissance this doctrinal passivity began to change. The quest to understand the natural world led to the revival of botany and anatomy by thinkers such as Andreas Vesalius during the later sixteenth century. These scientific observers were surprised to find that their conclusions did not always match up with the accepted truths, and this finding inspired others to delve further into the study of the world around them. Scientific study quickly extended from the earth to the heavens, and Nicolas Copernicus, upon examining the records of the motions of heavenly bodies, soon discarded the old geocentric theory that placed the Earth at the center of the solar system and replaced it with a heliocentric theory in which the Earth was simply one of a number of planets orbiting the sun. Though this scheme seemed to comply better with the astronomical records of the time, Copernicus had little direct evidence to support his claims. Not ready to abandon traditional beliefs, the forces of tradition, in the form of the Church and the mass of Europeans, kept the heliocentric theory from achieving full acceptance. The theory awaited the advancement of mathematics and physics to support its claims. Ads by ZINC The wait was not very long. During the early seventeenth century, mathematics experienced a great deal of progress in the form of the development of algebra, trigonometry, the advance of geometry, and the linkage of form and motion with quantifiable numeric values undertaken by Rene Descartes. Armed with these tools, the science of physics began to advance rapidly. During the late sixteenth century Galileo Galilei demonstrated that gravity accelerated all objects toward the Earth at the same rate, and further explored the laws of motion. Other physicists explored the nature of matter, with the greatest advances coming in the understanding of the properties of gases, leading to the invention of the barometer, thermometer, and air pump. Physicists even strove (largely unsuccessfully) to discover the structure of matter on the atomic scale. One of the first applications of the knowledge gained from the advance of physics was in the realm of biology. The physiology of the human body could now be understood in terms of its mechanical properties, and during the seventeenth century many of the mysteries of the human body disappeared. However, the most notable application of the laws of physics was in the field of astronomy. Johannes Kepler proved the orbits of the planets were elliptical, but was unable to come up with an effective model of the solar system. That was left to Galileo, who in 1630 published his Dialogue on the Two Chief Systems of the World, in which he supported the Copernican, or heliocentric theory of the universe, and denounced the Aristotelian system, which maintained the geocentric theory. Galileo supported his claims with elaborate evidence derived from the study of physics. Sir Isaac Newton's work was the capstone of this evolving chain of science. He integrated Kepler's laws of planetary motion and Galileo's forays into the laws of gravity into a comprehensive understanding of the organization of the universe according to the law of universal gravitation. Newton's Principia, in which he lays out this comprehensive system of organization and develops the mathematical field of calculus, is seen as the key which unlocked the mysteries of the universe, the climax of the strivings of all of the Scientists of the Scientific Revolution.

New Monarchs

I. "New" Monarchs: c.1460-1520 A. Consolidated power and created the foundation for Europe's first modern nation-states in France, England and Spain. 1. This evolution had begun in the Middle Ages. • Meanwhile, monarchies had grown weaker in eastern Europe during the Middle Ages. 2. However, New Monarchies never achieved absolute power; absolutism did not emerge effectively until the 17th century (e.g. Louis XIV in France). 3. New Monarchies also were not nation-states (in the modern sense) since populations did not necessarily feel that they belonged to a "nation" a. Identity tended to be much more local or regional. b. The modern notion of nationalism did not emerge until the late 18th and early 19th centuries. B. Characteristics of New Monarchies a. Reduced the power of the nobility through taxation, confiscation of lands (from uncooperative nobles), and the hiring of mercenary armies or the creation of standing armies • The advent of gunpowder (that resulted in the production of muskets and cannon) increased the vulnerability of noble armies and their knights • However, many nobles in return for their support of the king gained titles and offices and served in the royal court or as royal officials b. Reduced the political power of the clergy • The medieval notion of the Church being supreme to the state was replaced in belief and practice c. Created more efficient bureaucracies • Enabled the "New Monarchs" to begin centralizing control of their realms d. Increased the political influence of the bourgeoisie (at the expense of the nobility) • In return, the bourgeoisie brought in much needed revenues to the Crown. • This was more so in France than in Spain. e. Increased the public (national) debt by taking out loans from merchant-bankers. Use space below for notes HistorySage.com AP Euro Lecture Notes Page 2 Unit 1.3 New Monarchs, 16th Century Society & Expansion © HistorySage.com 2008 All Rights Reserved C. Opposition to monarchial power 1. Nobles resented the decline of political influence 2. Clergy members saw the pope as their leader, not the monarch 3. Independent towns resisted more centralized monarchial control D. France 1. Political and economic recovery began after the Hundred Years' War. a. England was expelled from France. b. Defeat of the duchy of Burgundy in 1477 removed the threat of a new state in the eastern part of France. 2. Rise of the Valois line of monarchs a. Louis XI "Spider King" (r. 1461-83): • Created a large royal army • Dealt ruthlessly with nobles, individually, and within the Estates General • Increased taxes • Exerted power over the clergy • Actively encouraged economic growth o Promoted new industries such as silk weaving o Encouraged foreign merchants and craftsmen to immigrate to France o Entered into commercial treaties with England, Portugal and the Hanseatic League b. Francis I (r. 1515-1547): • Condordat of Bologna (1516): The king of France now had power to appoint bishops to the Gallican (French) Church. o Represented a major blow to papal influence in France o Yet, French control over these appointments was one reason why France did not become Protestant during the Reformation • taille: Francis instituted a direct head tax on all land and property o Enabled the French gov't to expand its budget on such things as a larger army Use space below for notes: HistorySage.com AP Euro Lecture Notes Page 3 Unit 1.3 New Monarchs, 16th Century Society & Expansion © HistorySage.com 2008 All Rights Reserved E. England: after 100 Years' War 1. War of the Roses (between 1455-1477) a. Two noble families, the House of York and the House of Lancaster fought a civil war to gain the crown. b. Yorkists were victorious and gave rise to the Tudor dynasty (which would rule England until 1603). 2. Henry VII (r. 1489-1509): a. Reduced the influence of the nobility, in part, through the Star Chamber (secret trials) • Nobles were tried without a jury, could not confront witnesses, and were often tortured b. Nobles were not allowed to have private armies with their own insignias c. However, the English parliament continued to gain power in its struggle with the crown. • Standard governmental procedures of law and taxation were developed. • Thus, the Tudors did not have the power over taxation that the Valois' enjoyed in France F. Spain 1. Marriage of Ferdinand of Aragon (r. 1478-1516) & Isabella of Castile (r. 1474-1504): unified Spain 2. 1492, Reconquista a. Goal was to remove the last of the Moors and the Jews and Christianize Spain • Last Muslim stronghold of Grenada surrendered b. Loss of Jews and Moors resulted in a significant decline in the Spanish middle-class • Between 30,000 to 60,000 Jews expelled 3. hermandades: alliances of cities to oppose nobles • Helped bring cities in line with royal authority 4. Spanish Inquisition: (conceived by Isabella) a. Monarchy enforced the authority of the national (Catholic) church b. Tomás de Torquemada, a Dominican monk, oversaw the Inquisition. c. The Inquisition targeted conversos: Jews who had converted to Christianity but were now suspected of backsliding into Judaism • Thus began a wave of anti-Semitism in certain parts of Europe • In Portugal, 4,000 Jews who refused to leave were massacred in 1506. • Germany began systematically persecuting Jews in 1509.

New Renaissance Culture (Individualism Humanism)

It was not only a cultural movement associated with the arts, but a movement also associated with the study of ancient Greek and Latin works. However, it was not above all a literary as the author,Frankforter, suggests. Although the scholars of the age did search out old and forgotten works. the artists, sculptors and architects of the age also looked back to old works of art. They invented new techniques and new ways of representing old ideas and classical works, as well as creating new ones. According to the author the Humanists were the intellectual leaders of the Renaissance. During the Renaissance people were focused on the individual and life. The Renaissance was full of new ideas. People were able to break away from the church with the invention of the printing press and the translation of major works, particularly the translation of the Bible, into the vernacular. The printing press allowed for greater access to literature and understanding of the Bible. The Renaissance was very tolerable of religion, and a break from the traditional form of the church did not mean that people seperated themselves from religious teachings and ideas. In fact, during the Renaissance there was a large number of religious paintings a scultures. The humanists also valued a normal life and thought that people should get married, and have families, anf focus on life and enjoy its pleasures. Example of humanism As a time of renewal of ancient works and innovation of new ideas the Renaissance became of time in which poets, writers, artists, sculptors, and architects where widely recognized and valued as important contributors to society. In earlier years this had not been the case. It seemed as if people did not appreciate literature as they did in the Renaissance. One reason may have been that before the Renaissance many books had not been printed in the vernacular. Most books had been printed in Latin or Greek, and had to be interpreted to the common people by means of the church, or other highly educated scholars. Writers such as Dante Alighieri, Petrarch, and Boccaccio wrote in Latin when producing a scholarly work, but they were recognized for what they wrote in Italian. They believed that people should also write inthe language that was familiar to the people. Dante and Petrarch are two of the Renaissance's most recognized writers. Dante's ideas and thoughts were similar to those of the Middle Ages, but he lived and wrote like a Renaissance man. His most famous works include, De Vulgari Eloquentia - a work that was a treatise , La Vita Nouva - The New Life, and his most famous work The Divine Comedy. His treatise urged scholars to break away from tradition and write in the vernacular. His other two works were poems and prose which had ideas of passion and dreams rooted in them. His works theology were medieval, but their links to human nature and love were clues of the growing Renaissance. Petrarch was more of a Renaissance writer than Dante. he is recognized for beginning the Renaissance's interest in classical works. He is known as "the father of Humanism". He advocated for progress based on educational reform. his most ambitious work was Africa. It showed his passion for ancient works and its incorporation into the age of the Renaissance. The printing press was a major invention of the Renaissance age that allowed more people to study and aford books. Books and writings could also be printed in masses which made them more accessible, and when printed in the vernacular more widely read and understood. With the invention of the printing press common people no longer had to rely on the church and the scholars to translate books for them and telling them their opinions. The vernacular literature helped the Renaissance to spread beyond the humanists. Artists and architects also helped the Renaissance idea spread. They really allowed of the spirit and ideas of the Renaissance to be displayed in everyday life. The Renaissance was greatly focused on the individual and the classics. Sculptors, artists, and architects combined classical ideas with the humanists idea of emphasis on the individual. Renaissance sculptors focused on creating their subjects as they would be in a particular moment. Two major sculptors of the age were Donatello and Michelangelo. Florentine scultor Donatello carved statues that were meant to stand alone, and be viewed from every angle. michelangelo might be most well knoown for his painting on the ceiling of the Sistene Chapel, but he thought of himself first as a sculptor and not a painter. His most famous sculpture is likely his gigantic David created to stand in front of Florence's town hall. The sculture has the form of the idealistic human body shows the focus on the individual. Michelangelo's David Architects of the Renaissance age began to move away from the Gothic style that had originated in France and turned to more older Roman styles. Many arthitects drew their inspiration and even some material from Italy's ruins. Filippo Brunelleschi ones one of the first great architects if the Renaissance. The great dome he desiigned for Florence's cathedral was the largest in the world at the time. See full size image Brunellesci's Dome Many architects of the time focused on proprtions, symmetry. and perspective. The most ambitious Renaissance architectual project was the remodeling of Europe's largest church St. Peter's. The architects included Donato Bromante, Gianlorenzo Bernini, and, yes, Michelangelo. Michelangelo was the true embodiment of the perfect Renaissance man a sculptor, painter, architect, and a poet. The reconstruction of St. Peter's took two centuries but was finally completed inthe 1600's. For painters of the Renaissance age it was harder for them to look back at ancient artwork because their was not many works to study. So instead of being inspired by classical artwork they got their inpiration from classical sculptures. While earlier paintings had been of two-dimensional figures against blank backgrounds and combined many scenes in one painting, Renaissance paintings focused on one particular scene or moment in time in a three-dimensional realistic view. Painters of the Renaissance researched perspective and creating the illusion of a three-dimensional area. Most earlier painters would work on wooden boards or walls with wet plaster with tempera a medium that dried quickly and did not blend well. Northern european painters resolved this issue by mixing their colors with oils. They were also some of the first artists to practice and experimant landscape painting. The Northern artists also invented the use of the canvas as their surface for painting. Italy was intruduced to oil painting and painting on canvas in the late fifteenth century. This greatly expanded the market for artwork as the costs for art was reduced and transporting pictures became easy. The church used to dominate as the main commissioners of artwork but as the urban classes began to prosper and art became cheaper more people could afford to commission works of art. The Renaissance was alos an era where people had a craving for luxury. Some of the most recognized artists of the time were Cimabue, Giotto, Masaccio, Raphael, and of course the most famous Leonardo da Vinci. Mona Lisa

Philosophes

Johann Sebastian Bach (1685-1750) An enormously influential German composer who rose to prominence in the early 1700s. Best known by his contemporaries as an organist, Bach also wrote an enormous body of both sacred and secular music that synthesized a variety of styles and in turn influenced countless later composers. Francis Bacon (1561-1626) An English philosopher and statesman who developed the inductive method or Baconian method of scientific investigation, which stresses observation and reasoning as a means for coming to general conclusions. Bacon's work influenced his later contemporary René Descartes. Cesare Beccaria (1738-1794) An Italian politician who ventured into philosophy to protest the horrible injustices that he observed in various European judicial systems. Beccaria's book On Crimes and Punishments (1764) exposed these practices and led to the abolition of many. John Comenius (1592-1670) A Czech educational and social reformer who, in response to the Thirty Years' War, made the bold move of challenging the necessity of war in the first place. Comenius stressed tolerance and education as alternatives for war, which were revolutionary concepts at the time. René Descartes (1596-1650) A French philosopher and scientist who revolutionized algebra and geometry and made the famous philosophical statement "I think, therefore I am." Descartes developed a deductive approach to philosophy using math and logic that still remains a standard for problem solving. Denis Diderot (1713-1784) A French scholar who was the primary editor of the Encyclopédie, a massive thirty-five-volume compilation of human knowledge in the arts and sciences, along with commentary from a number of Enlightenment thinkers. The Encyclopédie became a prominent symbol of the Enlightenment and helped spread the movement throughout Europe. Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790) American thinker, diplomat, and inventor who traveled frequently between the American colonies and Europe during the Enlightenment and facilitated an exchange of ideas between them. Franklin exerted profound influence on the formation of the new government of the United States, with a hand in both the Declaration of Independence and the U.S. Constitution. Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1749-1832) A German author who wrote near the end of the Aufklärung, the German Enlightenment. Goethe's morose The Sorrows of Young Werther (1774) helped fuel the Sturm und Drang movement, and his two-part Faust (1808, 1832) is seen as one of the landmarks of Western literature. Olympe de Gouges (1748-1793) A French feminist and reformer in the waning years of the Enlightenment who articulated the rights of women with her Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Female Citizen (1791). Hugo Grotius (1583-1645) A Dutch scholar who, like Czech John Comenius, lived during the Thirty Years' War and felt compelled to write in response to it. The result, a treatise on war and international relations titled On the Law of War and Peace (1625), eventually became accepted as the basis for the rules of modern warfare. George Frideric Handel (1685-1759) A German-English composer of the late Baroque period whose Messiah remains one of the best-known pieces of music in the world. Handel was an active court composer, receiving commissions from such notables as King George I of England, for whom his Water Music suite was written and performed. Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) A philosopher and political theorist whose 1651 treatise Leviathan effectively kicked off the English Enlightenment. The controversial Leviathan detailed Hobbes's theory that all humans are inherently self-driven and evil and that the best form of government is thus a single, all-powerful monarch to keep everything in order. David Hume (1711-1776) A Scottish philosopher and one of the most prominent figures in the field of skepticism during the Enlightenment. Hume took religion to task, asking why a perfect God would ever create an imperfect world, and even suggested that our own senses are fallible, bringing all observations and truths into question. Hume's skepticism proved very influential to others, such as Immanuel Kant, and was instrumental in the shift away from rationalist thought that ended the Enlightenment. Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826) American thinker and politician who penned the Declaration of Independence (1776), which was inspired directly by Enlightenment thought. Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) A German skeptic philosopher who built on David Hume's theories and brought the school of thought to an even higher level. Kant theorized that all humans are born with innate "experiences" that then reflect onto the world, giving them a perspective. Thus, since no one actually knows what other people see, the idea of "reasoning" is not valid. Kant's philosophies applied the brakes to the Enlightenment, effectively denouncing reason as an invalid approach to thought. Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646-1716) Generally considered the founder of the Aufklärung, or German Enlightenment, who injected a bit of spirituality into the Enlightenment with writings regarding God and his perfect, harmonious world. Also a scientist who shared credit for the discovery of calculus, Leibniz hated the idea of relying on empirical evidence in the world. Instead, he developed a theory that the universe consists of metaphysical building blocks he called monads. John Locke (1632-1704) An English political theorist who focused on the structure of governments. Locke believed that men are all rational and capable people but must compromise some of their beliefs in the interest of forming a government for the people. In his famous Two Treatises of Government (1690), he championed the idea of a representative government that would best serve all constituents. Baron de Montesquieu (1689-1755) The foremost French political thinker of the Enlightenment, whose most influential book, The Spirit of Laws, expanded John Locke's political study and incorporated the ideas of a division of state and separation of powers. Montesquieu's work also ventured into sociology: he spent a considerable amount of time researching various cultures and their climates, ultimately deducing that climate is a major factor in determining the type of government a given country should have. Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1756-1791) A genius Austrian composer who began his career as a child prodigy and authored some of the most renowned operas and symphonies in history. Mozart's music has never been surpassed in its blend of technique and emotional breadth, and his musical genius places him in a category with a select few other composers. Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727) An English scholar and mathematician regarded as the father of physical science. Newton's discoveries anchored the Scientific Revolution and set the stage for everything that followed in mathematics and physics. He shared credit for the creation of calculus, and his Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica introduced the world to gravity and fundamental laws of motion. Thomas Paine (1737-1809) English-American political writer whose pamphlet Common Sense (1776) argued that the British colonies in America should rebel against the Crown. Paine's work had profound influence on public sentiment during the American Revolution, which had begun just months earlier. François Quesnay (1694-1774) A French economist whose Tableau Économique (1758) argued against government intervention in the economy and inspired Scottish economist Adam Smith's seminal Wealth of Nations (1776). Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) An eclectic Swiss-French thinker who brought his own approach to the Enlightenment, believing that man was at his best when unshackled by the conventions of society. Rousseau's epic The Social Contract (1762) conceived of a system of direct democracy in which all citizens contribute to an overarching "general will" that serves everyone at once. Later in his life, Rousseau released Confessions (1789), which brought a previously unheard-of degree of personal disclosure to the genre of autobiography. The frank personal revelations and emotional discussions were a major cause for the shift toward Romanticism. Adam Smith (1723-1790) An influential Scottish economist who objected to the stifling mercantilist systems that were in place during the late eighteenth century. In response, Smith wrote the seminal Wealth of Nations (1776), a dissertation criticizing mercantilism and describing the many merits of a free trade system. Baruch Spinoza (1632-1677) A Dutch-Jewish lens grinder who questioned tenets of Judaism and Christianity, which helped undermine religious authority in Europe. Although Spinoza personally believed in God, he rejected the concept of miracles, the religious supernatural, and the idea that the Bible was divinely inspired. Rather, he believed that ethics determined by rational thought were more important as a guide to conduct than was religion. Voltaire (1694-1778) A French writer and the primary satirist of the Enlightenment, who criticized religion and leading philosophies of the time. Voltaire's numerous plays and essays frequently advocated freedom from the ploys of religion, while Candide (1759), the most notable of his works, conveyed his criticisms of optimism and superstition into a neat package. Terms Aufklärung Another name for the German Enlightenment. Deism A system of faith to which many of the French philosophes and other Enlightenment thinkers subscribed. Deists believed in an all-powerful God but viewed him as a "cosmic watchmaker" who created the universe and set it in autonomous motion and then never again tampered with it. Deists also shunned organized religion, especially Church doctrines about eternal damnation and a "natural" hierarchy of existence. Enlightened Absolutism A trend in European governments during the later part of the Enlightenment, in which a number of absolute monarchs adopted Enlightenment-inspired reforms yet retained a firm grip on power. Frederick the Great of Prussia, Maria-Theresa and Joseph II of Austria, Charles III of Spain, and Catherine the Great of Russia are often counted among these "enlightened despots." French Revolution A revolution in France that overthrew the monarchy and is often cited as the end of the Enlightenment. The French Revolution began in 1789 when King Louis XVI convened the legislature in an attempt to solve France's monumental financial woes. Instead, the massive middle class revolted and set up its own government. Although this new government was effective for a few years, internal dissent grew and power switched hands repeatedly, until France plunged into the brutally violent Reign of Terror of 1793-1794.Critics saw this violence as a direct result of Enlightenment thought and as evidence that the masses were not fit to govern themselves. Glorious Revolution The name given to the bloodless coup d'état in England in 1688, which saw the Catholic monarch, King James II, removed from the throne and replaced by the Protestants William and Mary. The new monarchs not only changed the religious course of England and the idea of divine right but also allowed the additional personal liberties necessary for the Enlightenment to truly flourish. Individualism One of the cornerstones of the Enlightenment, a philosophy stressing the recognition of every person as a valuable individual with inalienable, inborn rights. Mercantilism The economic belief that a favorable balance of trade—that is, more exports than imports—would yield more gold and silver, and thus overall wealth and power, for a country. Governments tended to monitor and meddle with their mercantilist systems closely, which Scottish economist Adam Smith denounced as bad economic practice in his Wealth of Nations. Philosophes The general term for those academics and intellectuals who became the leading voices of the French Enlightenment during the eighteenth century. Notable philosophes included Voltaire, the Baron de Montesquieu, and Denis Diderot. Rationalism Arguably the foundation of the Enlightenment, the belief that, by using the power of reason, humans could arrive at truth and improve human life. Relativism Another fundamental philosophy of the Enlightenment, which declared that different ideas, cultures, and beliefs had equal merit. Relativism developed in reaction to the age of exploration, which increased European exposure to a variety of peoples and cultures across the world. Romanticism A movement that surfaced near the end of the Enlightenment that placed emphasis on innate emotions and instincts rather than reason, as well as on the virtues of existing in a natural state. Writers such as Jean-Jacques Rousseau and Johann Wolfgang von Goethe both contributed greatly to the development of Romanticism. Salons Gathering places for wealthy, intellectually minded elites during the years during and prior to the Enlightenment. The salons typically held weekly meetings where upper-class citizens gathered to discuss the political and social theories of the day. Scientific Revolution A gradual development of thought and approaches to the study of the universe that took place from approximately 1500 to 1700 and paved the way for the Enlightenment. Coming from humble beginnings with basic observations, the Scientific Revolution grew to a fever pitch when scientists such as Galileo Galilei, René Descartes, and Johannes Kepler entered the scene and essentially rewrote history, disproving Church doctrines, explaining religious "miracles," and setting the world straight on all sorts of scientific principles. The result was not only new human knowledge but also a new perspective on the acquisition of knowledge, such as the scientific method. Separation of Power A political idea, developed by John Locke and the Baron de Montesquieu, that power in government should be divided into separate branches—typically legislative, judicial, and executive—in order to ensure that no one branch of a governing body can gain too much authority. Skepticism A philosophical movement that emerged in response to rationalism and maintained that human perception is too relative to be considered credible. David Hume brought skepticism into the spotlight by suggesting that human perceptions cannot be trusted, and then Immanuel Kant elevated the field when he proposed that humans are born with innate "experiences" that give shape to their own, individual worlds. Social Contract An idea in political philosophy, generally associated with John Locke and Jean-Jacques Rousseau, stating that a government and its subjects enter into an implicit contract when that government takes power. In exchange for ceding some freedoms to the government and its established laws, the subjects expect and demand mutual protection. The government's authority, meanwhile, lies only in the consent of the governed. Sturm und Drang Literally meaning "storm and stress," the name given to an undercurrent of the German Enlightenment during which German youths expressed their angst by rebelling against the pleasant optimism of the time. Influenced partly by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe's The Sorrows of Young Werther, participants in the Sturm und Drang movement harbored a depressed, more archaic idealism. Though it revealed a decided one-sidedness of the German Enlightenment, the movement did not sustain itself for very long. Thirty Years' War A brutal, destructive conflict in Germany between 1618 and 1648. The Thirty Years' War began when Bohemian Protestants revolted out of a refusal to be ruled by a Catholic king. The battle would eventually spread throughout Germany and involve many other countries on both sides, resulting in the death of nearly a third of the German population and unfathomable destruction. Enlightenment thinkers such as John Comenius and Hugo Grotius reacted against the war with treatises about education, international relations, and the nature of war itself.

Relationship of the church and state for the different religions

Protestant approaches to church-state relations evolved over the course of the 16th century, varying according to local and national political and social conditions, denominational beliefs and practices, and the influence of new sources of authority. Lutherans, dependent on protection by the nobility of the Holy Roman Empire, took an approach that supported obedience to the state as a primary obligation of good Christians. Calvinists (including the Huguenots, Presbyterians, and others) rejected traditional state primacy and attempted to establish theocratic societies ruled by the elect, first in Geneva, then spreading to Scotland, Scandinavia, England and elsewhere. Zwingli, an early supporter who left Luther's movement over religious differences and established Protestantism in Zurich, eventually took the approach that governments were God's agents on earth and should generally be obeyed, a decision that deeply divided his followers. Henry VIII of England melded elements of Catholic practice and theology with the growing popularity of Protestantism in England. His purposes, both political and practical, led to the establishment of a statist Protestant religion which replaced the authority of the Pope with that of the English monarch as head of the Anglican Church. Anabaptism, sometimes referred to as the Radical Reformation, originally separated from other Protestant denominations by rejecting the practice of infant baptism. Their approach to the state was seen as virtually anarchist because they disavowed practices that supported temporal authority, including oath-taking and military service. Nevertheless, Anabaptists also maintained strict theocratic control over virtually all facets of life in their stronghold of Munster. Later groups that grew out of Anabaptism took the path of parallel existence rather than continued resistance to the state. • Protestant challenges to state authority brought political repression and war, notably with the French Wars of Religion (1562-1598), a bloody and prolonged civil war that demonstrated the complex nature of such conflicts, combining dynastic, class, economic, and political factors with the passion and determination of aroused religious fervor. The eventual settlement near the end of the century, following nearly four decades of war, included limited tolerance for the Protestant minority, the right of Protestant towns to fortify and protect themselves against their monarch (Edict of Nantes), and the religious conversion of the very monarch who had previously led the Huguenot forces. The ironic twist is memorably captured in words attributed to the triumphant rebel-turned-legitimate-monarch, Henry IV: "Paris is well worth a mass.

Three major causes of the French revolution were:

Resentment of royal absolutism. There was an absolute monarchy in place at the time, where the king could act entirely on his own power. The people wanted a voice and a balanced form of government. An unmanageable national debt, caused by a very inequitable system of taxation where the burden on the French people was too great. Food shortage due to crop failures and high prices in the years immediately before the revolution.

THE IDEAS OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION

The French Revolution was motivated and shaped by distinct ideas. Three well known revolutionary ideas were encapsulated in the revolutionary slogan "Liberty! Equality! Fraternity!". The ideology of the French Revolution was broader and more complex than mere slogans, however. French revolutionary ideas drew heavily on the political philosophy of the Enlightenment and the writings of the philosophes. They also borrowed from other political systems. Many French revolutionaries had studied British government and society. They came to admire its constitutional basis, its separation of powers and its tolerance for individual rights and freedoms. The American Revolution (1775-89) provided French reformers with a working example of revolution and a successfully implemented constitution. The ideas of the French Revolution were also shaped by grievances that were specific to 18th century France. Some of the key ideas of the French Revolution are summarised below. Liberty. In the context of the 18th century, liberty was freedom from oppression, particularly oppression by the state or government. The most visible instruments of oppression in the Ancien Régime were lettres de cachet, or sealed orders signed by the king. These lettres had several functions but their most common use was to detain and imprison individuals without trial or due process. Several notable figures were imprisoned by lettres de cachet, including Honore Mirabeau (for disgracing his family) and Voltaire (for defamatory writings). Another example of state oppression was the censorship of publications containing criticisms of the king, the aristocracy or the church. The Ancien Régime also used torture to deal with its opponents, though this declined in the late 1700s and was formally abolished in May 1788. Equality. Equality also underpinned the ideas of the French Revolution. The social structure of the Ancien Régime was uneven and unfair, particularly with regard to taxation. The citizens of the Third Estate wanted equality, though some wanted greater levels of equality than others. The rising bourgeoisie wanted political and social equality with the nobility of the Second Estate. They favoured a meritocracy: a society where rank and status were defined by ability and achievement, rather than birthright and privilege. For this they looked to the newly formed United States, where a revolution had transferred government to men of talent and ability. But the bourgeoisie were more reluctant about sharing political equality with the lower ranks of the Third Estate. They did not support universal voting rights, believing voting to be a privilege of the propertied classes. "The discussion of liberty equality and fraternity has been a major influence on political thought since the time of the French Revolution... The revolution marked the triumph of 'the people'. It pronounced, in 1789, the 'Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen'. In theoretical terms, many of the ideas were ill worked out. For example, the revolutionaries proclaimed the rights of man but women were largely excluded from the process. In practical terms, revolutionary zeal turned to fanaticism and the Revolution turned on itself." Paul Spicker, historian Fraternity. The revolutionary slogan fraternité is best translated as 'brotherhood'. Fraternity suggested that the nation's citizens were bound together in solidarity. It combined nationalism with love and concern for one's fellow citizens. Fraternity was the most abstract, idealistic and unachievable of all revolutionary ideals. It was more prevalent in the early phase of the revolution, when the new government was churning out positive reforms like the August Decrees and the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen. Many visual sources from 1789-90 show the Three Estates cooperating and working together to improve the nation. As the revolution progressed and political divisions emerged, this focus on unity and brotherhood quickly evaporated. Popular sovereignty. Until the modern era, most kings and governments claimed their authority came from God, a concept called divine right monarchy. This idea was challenged in the Enlightenment by the emergence of popular sovereignty. Popular sovereignty is the idea that governments derive their authority from the consent and support of the people, not from God. It was based in part on the idea of a 'social contract' between individuals and their government, a concept advanced by writers like John Locke and Jean-Jacques Rousseau. A corollary of popular sovereignty is that if a government fails or mistreats its people, the people have the right to replace it. This principle was used to justify the American and French revolutions. Popular sovereignty underpinned Emmanuel Sieyès' What is the Third Estate?. Because the Third Estate formed the vast majority of the nation, Sieyès argued, it was entitled to representation in the national government. Constitutionalism. When the Third Estate separated from the Estates General in June 1789, they met in a nearby tennis court and pledged to remain in assembly until France had a constitution. This desire for a constitution - a written framework that defines the structures and powers of government - was a feature of the American and French revolutions. Frustrated with the failures and broken promises of kings and ministers, most revolutionaries wanted a government underpinned by a constitutional document. They believed a constitutional government would spell the end of absolutism and arbitrary decision making. It would prevent abuses of power and create a government that worked for the benefit of all. For a working example the French revolutionaries looked to the United States Constitution, which was drafted in 1787 and enacted the following year. The American constitution created a democratically elected republic, with the branches of government and their powers clearly articulated. It also embodied Enlightenment political concepts like popular sovereignty, natural rights and the separation of powers. Natural rights. Also emerging from the Enlightenment, particularly in the writings of John Locke, was the concept of natural rights. As the name suggests, natural rights are rights and freedoms bestowed on all people, regardless of whatever laws or governments they live under. The American writer Thomas Jefferson described natural rights as "inalienable rights" because they cannot be taken away. According to John Locke there were three natural rights: life, liberty and property. All individuals were entitled to live in safety, to be free from oppression, to acquire property and have it safe from theft or seizure. It is the responsibility and the duty of government, Locke wrote, to uphold and protect the natural rights of individuals. The first phase of the French Revolution was dominated by the liberal bourgeoisie, who were keen on protecting natural rights. The culmination of this was the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen, passed by the National Constituent Assembly in August 1789. Anti-clericalism. The role of the Catholic church in society and government was a divisive issue of the French Revolution. Many philosophes and French revolutionaries were vocal critics of the Catholic clergy. They condemned the wealth and profiteering of the Catholic church, its exemption from taxation, its political influence, its suppression of new ideas and its neglect of the French people. This dissatisfaction could also be found among the lower clergy, men like Emmanuel Sieyès, who were frustrated by corruption, venality and lack of accountability within the church. Most of those who criticised the church and its higher clergy were not atheists, nor were they opposed to religion. They were anti-clericalists who wanted to reform the clergy and limit its social and political power. Anti-clericalism shaped several revolutionary policies including the seizure of church lands, the Civil Constitution of the Clergy (July 1790) and attempts to create a state religion.

Enlightened Despots

Enlightened absolutism, also known as enlightened despotism and benevolent absolutism, is a form of absolute monarchy or despotism inspired by the Enlightenment. Enlightened monarchs embrace rationality. Most enlightened monarchs fostered education and allowed religious tolerance, freedom of speech, and the right to hold private property. Throughout the late 1700s, several European monarchs were considered enlightened despots. Despite ruling absolutely, these rulers incorporated qualities from the Enlightenment to their rule. Rulers like Ernest the truly amazing, Catherine the truly amazing, Maria Theresa use logic and reasoning when ruling their states. By doing this, most enlightened despots were not the same as their unenlightened alternatives since the generally permitted religious toleration, freedom of speech, and freedom of press, while marketing art, science, and education. These liberties, generally not loved underneath the rule of unenlightened despots, enhanced the lives of numerous average people. Because of this, enlightened monarchs, do deserve the title enlightened, because ruled inside a more "modern" way than their alternatives. Probably the most well-known enlightened despots was Ernest the truly amazing of Prussia. Ernest permitted his subjects to think the things they wanted in religious and Philosophical matters. It was especially enlightened, because Ernest had mastered the Austrian condition of Silesia, basically doubling Prussia's population. Earlier European monarchs might have faced issues with this type of large inclusion of individuals to their territory. It had been a well known thought that multiple religions couldn't exist together within one condition. Through his enlightened policy of spiritual toleration, Ernest prevented possible confrontation with he new subjects. Additionally to non secular toleration, Ernest the truly amazing marketed learning by enhancing Prussia's schools and permitting students to write their findings. Also, he attempted to directly enhance the lives of his people by enhancing the legislation of Prussia to by fast and just. Another well know enlightened monarch was Catherine the truly amazing of Russia. Catherine westernized Russia by posting western designers, sculptors, music artists, and philosophers. Catherine also done domestic reforms, beginning having a commission to reform Russian laws and regulations. Catherine restricted torture and permitted limited religious toleration. There is additionally a strong push to enhance the Russian education system and strengthen local government authorities. As seen through the efforts of Catherine and Ernest the truly amazing, Enlightened despots made an effort to rule with using the qualities from the enlightenment. By doing this the enlightened despots enhanced the lives of people of social classes. Consequently of the good intentions, these rulers do deserve the title of enlightened.

Napoleons reforms

Reforms in Law: In 1804, Napoleon took on the legal system of France. The system of laws was in a state of chaos. Laws were not codified and were based on Roman law, ancient custom or monarchial paternalism. During the revolution, many laws were changed. It was difficult to determine what law applied in any given situation, and laws were not equally applied to everyone. The mishmash of laws were codified and written clearly so that the people could determine what law applied. It incorporated much of the Roman law. For the first time in history, the law was based on reason and founded on the notion that all men were equal before the law. It guaranteed individual rights (except for women and blacks) and the security of property. In short it codified many of the ideals of the revolution. The Napoleonic Code became profoundly influential to other European countries in the 19th century. Reforms in Government: Napoleon centralized the government, putting control firmly in the hands of the national government. It became more efficient. Advancement in the civil service and the military was based on merit rather than rank. The tax system was applied equally to all. Reforms in Education: Napoleon built many new lycees, schools for boys age 10 to 16. He recognized the importance of education in producing citizens capable of filling positions in his bureaucracy and military. Although he did not create a system of mass education, education was more available to the middle class than it ever had been before. At a meeting in 1807 he declared: Of all our institutions public education is the most important. Everything depends on it, the present and the future. It is essential that the morals and political ideas of the generation which is now growing up should no longer be dependent upon the news of the day or the circumstances of the moment. Above all we must secure unity: we must be able to cast a whole generation in the same mould. He saw education as a way of indoctrinating "right-thinking" citizens from an early age. He didn't see the need to educate girls, since they could learn everything they needed from their mothers. They were not to be active citizens.

Effects of the Scientific Revolution

Sometimes small events can have a big impact in unexpected places. For example, when the Scottish scientist Alexander Fleming began working on the chemistry of bread molds in the 1920s, he certainly did not set out to discover penicillin. Regardless, his 1928 discovery sparked the growth and use of antibiotics throughout the 20th century, likely saving millions of lives as a result. Similarly, the scientists and philosophers of the Scientific Revolution did not set out to change the world; individually, they worked on their own problems in their own fields. However, all challenged traditional views of the world and fostered a new way of thinking that relied on empiricism and skepticism rather than accepted, fundamental truths - a development which changed the world forever.

Columbian Exchange

The Columbian Exchange took place as a result of the European colonization of the Americas. The transfer of culture and biology between the Old and New World that characterizes the exchange began when Christopher Columbus arrived in the Caribbean Islands in 1492 The Columbian Exchange refers to a period of cultural and biological exchanges between the New and Old Worlds. Exchanges of plants, animals, diseases and technology transformed European and Native American ways of life. Beginning after Columbus' discovery in 1492 the exchange lasted throughout the years of expansion and discovery. The Columbian Exchange impacted the social and cultural makeup of both sides of the Atlantic. Advancements in agricultural production, evolution of warfare, increased mortality rates and education are a few examples of the effect of the Columbian Exchange on both Europeans and Native Americans.

Changes caused by the Protestant religions

he Protestant position, however, would come to incorporate doctrinal changes such as sola scriptura and sola fide. The core motivation behind these changes was theological, though many other factors played a part, including the rise of nationalism, the Western Schism that eroded faith in the Papacy, the perceived corruption of the Roman Curia, the impact of humanism, and the new learning of the Renaissance that questioned much traditional thought. The initial movement within Germany diversified, and other reform impulses arose independently of Luther. The spread of Gutenberg's printing press provided the means for the rapid dissemination of religious materials in the vernacular. The largest groups were the Lutherans and Calvinists. Lutheran churches were founded mostly in Germany, the Baltics and Scandinavia, while the Reformed ones were founded in Switzerland, Hungary, France, the Netherlands and Scotland. The new movement influenced the Church of England decisively after 1547 under Edward VI and Elizabeth I, although the Church of England had been made independent under Henry VIII in the early 1530s for political rather than religious reasons. There were also reformation movements throughout continental Europe known as the Radical Reformation, which gave rise to the Anabaptist, Moravian and other Pietistic movements. Radical Reformers, besides forming communities outside state sanction, often employed more extreme doctrinal change, such as the rejection of the tenets of the late antique councils of Nicaea and Chalcedon.