Scientific Research test #1

certainty

certainty generally means a conviction that one is correct about a view or a real-world event; as such it is rarely used by scientists

antiseptic

chemical substances applied to utensils, surfaces, and living tissue to inhibit or destroy microbial growth and decrease likelihood of infection

_________________ is a process of reasoning that begins with a general principle, from which can be inferred specific instances or examples; and

deductive logic

during the ___________, the heart relaxes between contractions and fills with blood; during the systolic phase, the heart contracts to propel blood out through the body.

diastolic phase

infection

disease or pathology caused by microbes invading and colonizing a living organism

dominance

dominance is seen when a gene for a particular trait actually expresses itself in an individual, often by masking the presence and effect of a recessive gene for a different form of the same trait

empirical evidence

empirical evidence refers to information that comes from observations and experiments

evidence

evidence is information used to support an idea, opinion, concept, or statement; not all information used as evidence is inherently valid or true

scientific research involves empirical research that gathers and tests _______, seeks to produce _______ answers, and is __________

evidence, replicable, self-correcting

genome

for an organism; for example, the human genome includes all of the genes found in the human species

________ is the study of the activity of specific genes;

genetics

the __________ is the sum of all genetic information for an individual;

genome

Mendel's 1800s work in _________ reflected the era's _________ of understanding of the effect of chromosomes, which today we know play a _________ role in genetics and heredity.

heredity, lack, major

Mendel's experiments led to the principles of ________, which he labeled ___________, independent __________, and ___________;

heredity, segeration, assortment, dominance

Key historical figures in the formation of modern scientific research include ________ (empirical research), ______ (geometry),________ (logic), and __________ (experimental medicine);

hippocrates, euclid, asristotle, and avicenna

____________ was an early theory of medicine that believed the body ran on four fluid substances (blood, phlegm, yellow bile, and black bile) and that disease was a result of these four getting "out of balance";

humorism

hypotheses

hypotheses are statements about a phenomenon that asserts a belief that can be tested by scientific research

researchers' inquiries all begin with an ______ that becomes a question to be __________;

idea, answered

circulation

in this context, circulation refers to the movement of blood through the heart and blood vessels (cardiovascular system) and lymph fluid through the lymphatic vessels and lymph nodes

induction

induction is the process of deriving explanations or general principles from a set of particular observations, facts, or instances

____________ is reasoning that progresses from discrete examples to a generalization;

inductive logic

microbes

living organisms too small to see without a microscope

___________ application of the scientific method is reflected in choices he made for his experiments: to control breeding, use purebred plants, and focus on "either-or" traits that made it easy to observe and quantify results

mendel

scientific literacy

non-scientists possess scientific literacy to the degree that they understand the meaning and limitations of scientists' communication about their results, and can apply this understanding to larger questions of policy and culture

empirical research relies on _______ and __________; and

observation, testing

the peer _________ identifies whether scientific research is worthy of publication; peer reviewers consider whether the research is credible

peer review

the discovery of _________ was a product of Germ Theory, the understanding beginning in the nineteenth century that microbes are the cause of infection and infectious disease;

penicillin

the__________ that helps many people worldwide today was developed over a long period by several scientists, an example of the value of teamwork and the extended nature of scientific research; and

penicillin

penicillin

penicillin is an antibiotic derived from a naturally occurring fungus; it is especially effective against "gram-positive" bacteria

scientific research into real-world problems does not assert _______, only a level of probability or likelihood that something works as suggested by the ___________;

proof,research

a Punnett square is a table used to construct the probability of specific phenotypical results of crossing certain genotypes; and

punnett square

core rules of the scientific method are to pose _______ that can be investigated empirically, link ______ to theory, use _____that directly investigate the question, provide a coherent chain of rigorous_______, and __________ and generalize;

questions, research, methods, reasoning, replicate

big science

refers to a phenomenon of modern scientific research, in which work is often done by teams of researchers on projects that cost a lot to mount

peer-reviewed

refers to research reports that are published in journals that use outside experts as gatekeepers to determine their scientific merits

_____________ is the process of repeating a procedure or study in science to help determine its validity.

replication

________ is an ability to read and understand scientific information and to make decisions and judgments based on it; and

scientific literacy

the ____________ provides a system of checks and balances by allowing for transparency of methods and serious scholarly debate;

scientific method

scientific research

scientific research refers to investigation conducted in a formal, logical, reproducible way in an effort to better understand an observation

Scientific Revolution

the Scientific Revolution was a period in history when many world-changing discoveries were made; usually refers to events occurring in Eurhope from 1550 to 1770

Germ Theory of Disease

the now well-established theory developed in the late nineteenth century that states that some diseases are caused by microbes, supported by the research of numerous independent scientists

genetics

the study of inheritance in living organisms, and the structure, function, and behavior of genes

anatomy

the study of the structure of the body comes from the term "to cut up" or "dissect"

scientific method

this approach to investigating nature and the existential world relies on an algorithm that has been developed and refined over centuries. It is usually stated as developing a tentative idea, framed as a hypothesis, to explain an observation. Rules are used to conduct experiments designed to answer a testable question. Results are analyzed and repeated, and modifications are made until a theory of explanation emerges

deductive

this process of reasoning begins with a general principle, from which can be inferred specific instances or examples

induction

this process of reasoning extrapolates a general principle from a series of similar, specific instances or examples

replicate

to replicate a procedure or study in science means to repeat the steps of the original study to help determine its validity

scientists do not use the term "________" in their work, because the essential mode of science is to view results as "good enough" and "best so far";

truth

truth

truth is an unscientific term, and is rarely used by scientists; they prefer "confirmed" when referring to results, and "expected" when referring to the outcome of scientific laws and theories

scientific research enables us to ______ how the world works, so that we can _______ with some confidence what will happen next;

understands, predict

by observing a beating heart through _________, Harvey determined that the organ is a pump that transports blood throughout the body; this was the basis for the theory of blood circulation; and

vivisection

Vivisection

vivisection is the use of surgery and experimental procedures on living animals, usually to further medical research

theory

when the consensus of scientific results and opinion centers on an explanation, it becomes a theory, a provisionally "best" explanation that is accepted as fact until modified or rejected by new evidence to the contrary

____________ discovered the circulation of blood through a scientific and experimental approach, asking logical questions and testing them;

william harvey

Aristotle:

- apprenticed to his father - student of plato - believed that it was possible, necessary to explain the world - took complex subjects and broke them down - the heart governed the mind and emotion

__________ discovery of penicillin alone was not enough to help sick people around the world; Florey and Hunt's discoveries enabled the drug to be produced in mass quantities.

Flemmings

___________ laid the groundwork for modern-day genetics, recognizing that organisms inherited traits via two copies of each "discrete unit," known today as genes;

Mendel

the process of scientific research begins with observing phenomena, then formulating a hypothesis, testing the hypothesis, modifying and retesting the hypothesis if necessary, and finally establishing a theory based on validated test results;

SCIENTIFIC METHOD

humorism

a central tenet of Galenic medicine, humorism attributed health and disease to the balance in the body of four essential fluids, or humors: blood, phlegm, black bile, and yellow bile; this theory of medicine prevailed from ancient Greece until the scientific revolution in the seventeenth century

bacteria

a class of single-celled organism without nuclei, an ancient form of life that lives in all habitats; there are ten times more bacteria in a human body than there are human cells—most bacteria are beneficial and participate in recycling nutrients in the environment

Punnett square

a diagram used by geneticists to determine the probability of the occurrence of a specific phenotype based on specific traits of the parents

scientific law

a law in science states an aspect of behavior or a property that has gone beyond theory; under specific conditions, it has been found to be unvarying in all testing and observations, and is likely to continue to be so

thought experiment

a type of exploration that involves imagination and logic, where a situation is described, a question is posed, and logic is used to suggest possible answer outcomes

algorithm

algorithms provide a step-by-step procedure to complete a defined process or activity

experimental medicine

also known as biomedical research, the investigation of physiological phenomena to enhance our understanding of medicine using basic, applied, or translational research

selection bias

an error in the selection of individuals for a scientific study, or a statistical distortion in the study analysis caused by errors in the collection of samples

replication

an important step in the confirmation of a hypothesis is the repetition of its tests, with the same results, by a different scientist

antibiotics

antibiotics are pharmaceutical agents or natural substances that destroy or inhibit bacterial growth

as cultures developed and people had time to observe and speculate, the process of_______and __________ questions became more refined and precise;

asking, answering

_________, a type of microbe, is a class of single-celled organism without nuclei, that live in all habitats and are an ancient form of life; some types of bacteria are beneficial to humans and others are harmful;

bacteria

a theory is a provisionally "________" explanation, supported by consensus of _________ and __________, and subject to further evidence that may disprove it;

best, scientififc results, opinion

for centuries, medical treatment based on humorism employed ____________, where the patient was cut and allowed to bleed themselves back into balance;

bloodletting