Self Determination Theory

Organismic-dialectic meta-theory Four Key Elements

Active vs. passive nature Sources of energy Direction of behavior Tendency toward unity vs. fragmentation

Five Mini-Theories of SDT Goal Content Theory (GCT)

The development and correlates of life goals (or aspirations) - Starting point is we can experience motivation for a particular behavior, we have individual differences and general motivational styles and psychological needs are unifying principle throughout SDT. It is also the case that people use goals to organize and direct their lives over prolonged periods of time. Our goals are used to give motivation to our lives and to give energy direction and purpose over extended periods of time. However, some goals are not created equally. Some goals when attained are likely to detract from our health and wellbeing. The question is: How do we develop different constellations of goals? How is is that some focus on money, fame, etc while others focus on close relationships, meaning, etc? Is one better off than the other?

Clark Hull's drive theory -

(1943) What is naturally reinforced? What elements, what factors inside the organism are naturally reinforcing and therefore naturally motivating? All motivation is a function of four basic physiological drives: Hunger, thirst, sex and the avoidance of pain. With Hunger, Thirst and sex. Over time we feel the need to satisfy one of these drives and we do something to reduce that drive and the reduction of that drive reinforces our action. These basic physiological drives organize and direct our behavior. Their rising pushes us into action and through process of consumption we reduce drives and whatever behavior reduces the drive gets reinforced and therefore is likely to recur in the future.

Organismic Psychologies White: Effectance motivation

- all organisms have a natural motivation to explore and to master the environment. We and all other organisms are not passive creatures. We are naturally active, we naturally go out into the world to explore, to test out our capabilities and to master optimal challenges. In doing so we develop sense of competence.

Tendency toward unity vs. fragmentation

- humans have a basic tendency towards psychological coherence and adaptation to the social and physical world. However we don't always move towards that experience of unity. Humans are vulnerable to an experience of psychological fragmentation and to an experience of alienation from oneself.

Cognitive evaluation theory

Cognitive evaluation theory examines how external events facilitate or undermine intrinsic motivation - intrinsic motivation is really good for us. It is the prototype of autonomous motivation, action and it is necessary for healthy development and for learning.

SDT and human potential

Human potential - all living things are oriented towards growth, integration and differentiation. However, the meta theory that SDT supports is not a straight forward organismic meta theory. It have its own unique meta theory. There is potential but there is also vulnerability, not everyone is always moving towards self actualization. Our sources of energy can work in a complementary way but they also can be antagonistic. We may move toward unity but we can also move to fragmentation. This is the nature of a dialectic, opposing trends in the human experience.

Organismic Psychologies Jung: Individuation -

Organismic theorist. Living well involves individuation. With individuation we move towards balance and unity within the psyche. Idea is that psychic energy is of a limited supply. Where and how we devote that psychic energy is a choice. To live well and to function well involves diverting energy among all aspects of the self, all aspects of experience in order to achieve balance and unity within the psyche.

Sources of energy

- the ways in which our behaviors are energized. Three sources of energy for human behavior: Physiological drives (hunger, thirst, sleep, etc), Emotions -orient you towards particular actions, and Psychological needs (three of them) - autonomy, competence, and relatedness. The dialectic here is the following: These three sources of energy can function in an complimentary way, and they often do. However they also may be antagonistic to one another. Ex) take someone who suffers from anorexia. Idea is I must restrict the amount of calories I put in or I must take those calories out of my body, I can only feel confident, be loved, feel competent if I look a certain away.

Robert White - Effectance motivation

Effectance motivation - argued that all animals have a natural tendency to explore and manipulate their environment. This natural tendency is a motivated experience which is termed, Effectance motivation. Effectance motivation confers an adaptive advantage. By going out into the world and by exploring and manipulating ones environment, by testing ones capacities and by testing ones skills organisms are better off for it because they develop a sense of competence.

Macro Theories -

Grand theories in psychology that attempt to explain a large and wide array of human experience while remaining parsimonious. Some macro theories have mini theories - developed to explain a particular phenomenon, like psychosexual development. Self determination theory is a macro theory. It has its own unique Meta Theory. It has five mini theories.

Five Mini-Theories of SDT 3. Causality Orientations Theory (COT)

Individual differences in general motivational styles - We can look at motivation from the perspective of personality psychology. Over time as a function of our socialization history we begin to regulate our lives in different motivational ways. We have different motivational styles. One person might be relatively autonomous in his/her personality. Second may be controlled in his/her personality. Third might be a motivated (impersonal causality) in his/her personality.

The self in motivational terms

- Actions that emanate from the self are experienced as autonomous. To the extent that our action is autonomous we perceive our action to be choiceful, self initiated and self directed, to be volitional and if we were to take a step back from what we are doing in our life and ask ourselves: Do I endorse what it is I am doing right now the answer would be yes. In contrast, actions that do not emanate from the self are experienced as control. Controlled motivation involves an experience of pressure, coercion, and obligation to think, feel, behave in a particular way. When we are controlled we have the experience of I am doing this to satisfy someone else's demands for me, whether those experiences are real or interjected from the world around us.

Organismic Psychologies Loevinger: Ego development

- People move through nine stages of ego development. As they move through the stages we develop more complex and refined ways of interacting with the world around us.

Active vs. passive nature

- by nature, humans are not only active but proactive organisms. When we are proactive, in our best moments: We seek out opportunities for choice. We have a basic need to self initiate and self direct our behavior. We seek out opportunities for mastering (optimal challenges). We function really well psychologically when we feel competent. We seek out opportunities for connection - very few people prefer to be isolated at all times. We are naturally oriented toward others. We seek to integrate ongoing experiences. We don't simply add on new experiences onto experiences we've already had. Rather, we try to make sense of our new experiences, form a synthesis for our lives. We are vulnerable to passivity and control. We are not always in a state of flourishing. ( we tell ourselves: I don't really want to make a choice for myself tell me what to do). People are most vulnerable to passivity and control when social contexts do not support our basic proactive nature. When social contexts are not structured in a way that we can experience choice, master and connection we tend to rely on the external world to guide our lives.

Mechanistic view

- humans are nothing more than machines. Just as with machines we can explain human behavior with respect to material causes and efficient causes. Humans, just like machines, are wholly controlled by environmental forces (contingencies of reinforcement). Our behavior and experience is completely controlled by environmental contingencies of reinforcement so awareness and any other inner phenomenon do not matter at all in the cause of behavior. Mechanistic View became organized within psychology around the S-R model - idea is that the environment is filled with contingencies of reinforcement, stimuli. Stimuli come to our experience and they prompt behavioral responses in a completely Mechanistic way.

Organismic Psychologies Werner:Orthogenetic principle

- idea is that development moves towards differentiation and integration. Take new experiences and psychologically break them up into smaller parts, more manageable pieces of information. Next step is to take those differentiated aspects of experience and form them into a consistent, coherent and unified whole. Make sense of the experience itself and also as a whole, how it fits into the rest of your life, values and beliefs and previous experiences. This is the nature of development.

Reductionist view

- is an approach to understanding the nature of complex things. We can reduce complex things to the interactions among their component parts. As a result of this belief, Complex things, people are nothing more than the sum of their parts. There is nothing mysterious about humans, about the mind. Reductionist views are very popular within psychology. Ex) we can explain complex phenomenon. We can explain personality, psychopathology, addiction with appeal to genetics, biology and neuroscience. Psychological experience no matter how complex can be reduced to biology, biology can be reduced to chemistry and chemistry to physics, etc.

Motivation, broadly defined

- means to be moved, to be activated. Within psychology motivation began as a unitary concept. The idea was motivation is a concept that differs in amount only. Some people are highly motivated and some people have a low level of motivation. As teachers, parents, bosses, significant others, we want the people around us to be highly motivated. All we need to focus on is on promoting as much motivation as possible. Gradually psychologists began to realize that motivation is not a unitary concept. Motivation fluctuates within an individual and among people. However, a much more interesting distinction within motivation is the type of motivation. Some people when they are motivated experience a sense of psychological freedom, enjoyment, satisfaction. Some experience it with a sense of duty, control, and obligation. Intrinsic motivation vs. extrinsic motivation.

Intrinsic motivation - Kay Montgomery

- noticed that rats seem to be motivated to explore novel spaces in their environment. There is no food, water, in the novel space. They would even cross electrified bridges simply to explore. Furthermore, the opportunity to explore spaces could be used as a primary reinforcement. This theory stood in contrast to Skinner and Hull's theory. Not all behavior reduce drives. Rats explore spaces when there is no food, water available and will even endure pain in order to do so. Some behaviors seem to involve induction rather then reduction. Some behaviors occur in the absence of having been reinforced in the past. Some behaviors are intrinsically motivated. Not all behaviors need to have been reinforced to occur. Some behaviors are motivated by their own properties. They occur spontaneously and are inherently satisfying and this class of behaviors can be referred to as intrinsic motivation.

Organismic Psychologies Rogers: Actualization

- organismic theorist. In his specification of actualization as the sole motive of life, he argued that humans are naturally oriented toward unity and coherence, maintaining and enhancing the self, self actualization. This tendency is not not unique to humans. The behaviors of an organism can be counted on to be in the direction of maintaining, enhancing, and reproducing the self.. This is the very nature of the process we call life. "...the behaviors of an organism can be counted on to be in the direction of maintaining, enhancing, and reproducing itself. This is the very nature of the process we call life." (Rogers, 1963)

Organismic Psychologies Gottlieb: Self-organization

- organisms are capable of reorganization to promote adaptive experience. Adversity evolves us all the time. It is in the nature of life itself to reorganize.

Meta Theory

- set of philosophical assumptions that is used to organize the development of subsequent theories. An umbrella under which psychological theories exist.

Organismic view

- stands in stark contrast to the mechanistic view. a) Living things differ from non-living things - As a result it is not enough to explain human experience with respect to chemistry, physics and biology alone. There are important ways in which living things differ from non living things. b) As living things, we have tendencies toward assimilation, accommodation, and integration - idea is we are bombarded with new experiences all the time. Life is about encountering and dealing with new experiences. We are constantly trying to assimilate new information into ourselves. We also try to accommodate ourselves to new information. Assimilation and accommodation promote our tendency towards integration. We can integrate new experiences with preexisting aspects of the self and in doing so we can form a more consistent, coherent and unified sense of self. Seen also in organismic biology - life is a process of self organization. "All free-living cells and organisms are clearly autonomous agents" -Kauffman

Organismic Psychologies Piaget: Organization, assimilation, and accommodation

- the nature of life involves organization, assimilation, and accommodation. Humans naturally organize their experiences to form a coherent whole. We do this because doing so makes cognitive processes function more effectively. It is much easier to deal with the world if we have a unified sense of self, we can make sense of our experiences. a) Assimilation - humans fit new information with preexisting cognitive schema. Idea is when we encounter something new we change it, modify it a bit. That modification is intentional, it is intended to allow that new information to reside with other aspects of the self. We rarely encounter new experiences in an unbiased way. b) Accommodation - we modify our cognitive schemas to fit new information. When we are operating well (psychologically), when we feel most mature, we take information and look at it rather truthfully. Ex) with a breakup with assimilation we say she's to blame he's a jerk etc. But with accommodation we say I am to blame to. It is not just about how the partner treats me.

Organismic Psychologies Freud: Synthetic function of the ego

- was a reductionist and organismic thinker. The main organismic contribution that Freud made was in his specification of the Synthetic function of the ego. Idea is the task with which the ego is charged is to bring synthesis and unity to the psyche. The ego is a weak servant to three masters.

Direction of behavior

- we are energized. We also regulate our behavior (give direction). We can regulate our behavior with an experience of choice, self determination, autonomy, volition, etc. Or we can regulate our behavior with an experience of pressure, control, coercion, etc. At times we feel like we can stand behind and endorse what we do. But sometimes there is some source outside of the self that is pressuring you to be a certain way. That source that is outside the self may exist in the world but it may also exist inside of you, outside of the phenomenological self. (interjections)

Intrinsic motivation - Harry Harlow

- worked with monkeys. Observed lab animals performing actions that were not reinforced. These behaviors simply occurred for their own sake. Conclusion - intrinsic motivation is not only real but it can be defined as behavior that is motivated by its own properties.

The Self is characterized by Integration at three levels:

1) Within -The self involves integration within the psyche. When we are operating from the Self, our thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are internally coherent and consistent. 2) Without -There is integration between ourselves and the external world. We do not feel alienated from the world around us. To the extent that we are operating from the self, We feel at one with the physical world. 3) With others - the self involves integration with the social surrounding, with people. To the extent that we are operating from the self we feel connected to and in harmony with important others.

What is SDT?

An empirically based approach to human motivation, emotion and personality and social contexts. What is the basis for healthy functioning within SDT? The basis for healthy functioning within SDT is satisfaction of the basic psychological needs for autonomy, relatedness, and competence.

Organismic Psychologies Angyal: Autonomy and homonomy -

Autonomy - Integration within the psyche. When we are functioning autonomously our thoughts, actions, feelings are internally consistent. We do not think one way and act in its opposite. We do not feel one way and communicate to others its opposite. Homonomy - Sense of integration at an interpersonal level. It is not enough to be integrated within oneself. To really live well, We must also live well with others, in relationships with others.

B. F. Skinner's operant theory

B. F. Skinner's operant theory - all motivated behavior is a function of environmental contingencies of reinforcement. Rewards, punishment, etc. For both theories - No behavior is reinforced by its own properties. No behaviors are inherently satisfying, no behaviors occur spontaneously, and no behaviors are intrinsically motivated. Over the development of psychology, psychologists began to realize that not all behaviors are motivated external contingencies of reinforcement or by drives that rise and fall within the organism. Some behaviors seem to be motivated, energized and directed by there own properties. Some behaviors seem to be spontaneous, inherently satisfying and enjoyable (exploration, play- no one needs to tell a child to play, they just do it naturally, they are intrinsically motivated)

Fritz Heider Developed naïve psychology Intentionality attributed when one perceives ability and effort Impersonal vs. personal causation

Developed naïve psychology - to understand another persons behavior it is critical to understand how that person perceives the world around them. When we observe another's behavior part of that task is to determine whether that persons behavior is intentional or non intentional. We assign intentionality to another's behavior when two conditions are met: a) Perceived ability - We assign Intentionality to another persons behavior when we perceive the ability to do the behavior b) Perceived effort - We assign Intentionality to another persons behavior when we perceive that person as putting effort into the behavior Impersonal vs. personal causation - is behavior impersonally caused or personally caused? Personal Causation - we perceive the person as intentional. We perceive effort and ability in that persons actions Impersonal Causation- When we do not perceive the persons behavior as intentional, if we do not perceive ability and effort

Five Mini-Theories of SDT 2. Organismic Integration Theory (OIT) -

Extrinsic motivation is not wholly controlled. Some forms of extrinsic motivation involve pressure and coercion. However other forms involve autonomy and self determination. The question is to what extent is the extrinsic motivation experienced as relatively autonomous versus relatively controlled? Relative autonomy of extrinsic motivation - Internalization. To what extent has the behavior been internalized into the self and as a social psychological perspective on motivation: What conditions (inside and outside the person) facilitate internalization of extrinsic motivation.

Self Determination Theory

Facilitation and undermining of intrinsic motivation, internalization, and psychological and physical health. Within self Determination theory we take interest in human motivation, in emotional experiences and in personality in social contexts. We want to apply these basic principles to a wide variety of life domains. SDT not only explains behaviors in a wide variety of domains across the lifespan but indeed this theory is not limited to white western middle class men. They do research worldwide, in many different SES, etc. The universal that SDT uses to explain human experience are basic psychological needs. The idea is all people no matter age, gender, SES, etc requires support for basic psychological needs: Autonomy, competence and relatedness

Intrinsic motivation -

Inherent satisfaction, no separable outcomes - behavior that is performed for the inherent satisfaction of the activity. When we are intrinsically motivated there are no separable outcomes from the behavior. Ex) A person goes on a run just for the fun of it. A person goes on a run but because they are trying to loose weight and need to burn calories (separable outcomes). Occurs spontaneously - behavior occurs spontaneously. Intrinsic motivation often manifests as exploration and play. Children's entire lives are revolved around intrinsic motivation, they love to explore and play. Phenomenological, attributional, and affective perspectives - Phenomenological perspective - intrinsic motivation is inherently satisfying. We do not engage in intrinsically motivated activities for some other outcome. All the satisfaction necessary is contained in the activity itself. Attributional perspective - intrinsic motivation has an internal perceived locus of causality. Intrinsically motivated behaviors emanate from the self, rather then emanating from sources outside of the self. Necessary for healthy development and learning Affective perspective - the emotions that are most often associated with intrinsic motivation are feelings such as fun, excitement, interest, and enjoyment.

The "Discovery" of Intrinsic Motivation

Motivation has been an important topic in psychology almost since the origins of psychology. 1940's - 1960's motivation was a strong focus in psychology. At the time, psychology was dominated by two theories

Cognitive Evaluation Theory

On the facilitation and undermining of intrinsic motivation

Richard deCharms Personal Causation (1968) Internal vs. external perceived locus of causality (PLOC) deCharms' hypothesis

Personal Causation (1968) - agreed with Heider's distinction between personal and impersonal causation. However, he argued that Heider did not go far enough with the distinction. Internal vs. external perceived locus of causality (PLOC) - Internal perceived locus of causality - We experience the behavior as personally chosen, as reflectively self endorsed, as volitional, and autonomous. Promotes personal responsibility for action. External perceived locus of causality - describes behavior that's done with an experience of pressure, coercion, control, duty and obligation. Does not promote personal responsibility. deCharms' hypothesis - If you take a behavior that is regulated with an IPLOC and you then reward that behavior. Doing so will promote a shift in the PLOC from internal to external. That shift is likely to undermine intrinsic motivation. Ex) Cody is seven and loves to play baseball. And his dad wants to live vicariously through his son. Cody is intrinsically motivated to play baseball. Dad I bet I can get Cody to hit the ball out of the park if I promise him rewards for every home run he hits. The enjoyment that Cody first had playing starts to deteriorate because every time he goes up to bat. Someone else wants me to be a certain way, someone has their own agenda around my behavior. That experience of being rewarded for an intrinsically motivated behavior over time takes a toll. The sense of personal responsibly, autonomy, self determination begins to shift to a sense of pressure, control, and observation. As a result, even though the behavior may still be motivated intrinsic motivation

Five Mini-Theories of SDT 4. Basic Psychological Needs Theory (BPNT)

Strong Relation of psychological needs to wellness - each one of us has psychological needs. We require support for satisfaction of autonomy, competence and relatedness. To the extent that we perceive those three needs as satisfied in our lives we tend to experience psychological health, physical health and social wellness. Universality of needs - Some people argue that the notion of psychological needs, particularly autonomy seems to be one of those western male middle class concepts. Women, working class, don't need autonomy. Maybe it is not the case that these psychological needs are culture specific. Maybe it is the case that support for satisfaction of psychological needs confers functional benefits around the world regardless of age, culture, SES, etc. Across development and across cultures - some others argue that in late teens and twenties is when one needs autonomy. Psychological needs confer adaptive advantage across the lifespan. There has been evidence collected on One year olds and among those nursing homes that having these needs satisfied predicts longevity. You die earlier if your needs are not satisfied.

The Self in SDT

The Self in SDT is Not a concept or representation - The self is not a view of oneself, it is not the beliefs that we have about our self. The self is not how we think about ourselves in the past or how we hope to be in the future. The self is a synthetic process - The idea is the self is the wellspring of autonomous motivation. The self is the energetic core of our being by which we move towards coherence, consistency and psychological unity at the level of the psyche.

Five Mini-Theories of SDT 1. Cognitive Evaluation Theory (CET) -

The starting point for this theory is the experience of intrinsic motivation. The empirical focus is on how events both in the person and in the world can facilitate or undermine intrinsic motivation. It would be great to live a life with only intrinsic motivation only, doing things for their own sake because they are fun and satisfying. But no ones life is only regulated by intrinsic motivation. Most of our lives after the age of one involve extrinsic motivation. We do things not because they are inherently satisfying but because they are important. Even though we do things in life that are not inherently satisfying it does not stand to reason that all extrinsic motivation is experienced as control. Ex) A father changes his daughters diaper which is not fun. But he experiences a sense of autonomy while doing so because he understands how it effects his daughters wellbeing.