Soc 144 Quiz 1

Figure 2.1: Problems in Estimating the Amount of VMIR: The VMIR Funnel

1. Actual rate of VMIR 2. Reported VMIR (to CPS, APS, or police) 3. Substantiated VMIR (authorities conclude abuse did in fact occur 4. Arrests 5. Convictions

Neglect: Intervention and Prevention Strategies

A common parent training/support approach are the many home visitation programs which attempt to achieve the goals of preserving families and preventing abuse by bringing community resources to at-risk families in their homes. Studies of a number of other home visiting programs have also found positive results, such as enhanced parenting knowledge and skills, developmental expectations, safer home environments, fewer child injuries, and less use of physical punishment.

Stalking

A form of teen dating violence that involves a pattern of unwanted, harassing, or threatening tactics that generate fear in the victim.

Scope of the Problem: Child Physical Abuse

According to National Child Abuse and Neglect Data System, approximately 3.2 million children were reported for abuse to CPS in 2014. This number has remained stable for the last several years. 17% of all substantiated maltreatment reports were instances of Child Physical Abuse in 2014 1,580 children died as a result of child abuse and neglect 41% of those deaths was result of physical abuse exclusively or physical abuse in combo with other type of maltreatment. 14% of youth and parents reported some experience of child maltreatment (i.e., physical abuse, psychological/emotional abuse, neglect, or sexual abuse) in previous year Nearly 26% reported experiencing child maltreatment at some point during their lifetime.

Maltreatment

Acts that may cause physical or other harm

Teen Dating Violence and Stalking: Intervention and Prevention Strategies

Adolescents are unlikely to seek help to address dating violence. In one study, 60% of victims and 79% of perpetrators did not seek help. Among adolescents who do seek help, most disclose to their friends or family members, rather than professionals such as teachers, school nurses, doctors, or clergy. The Expect Respect program is designed for at-risk teens and is composed of 24 sessions focusing on five themes: Developing group skills Choosing equality and respect for others Learning to recognize abusive relationships Developing healthy relationship skills Becoming active proponents for safe and healthy relationships.

Bullying

Aggressive or mean-spirited behavior that occurs repeatedly over time and has the underlying intent to harm or disturb the person or group at whom it is targeted. It is perpetrated by a person or group who is perceived as having more power (physical or psychological) than the weaker, less powerful individual or peer group that is targeted.

Legal Perspectives in Defining CSA

All U.S. states have laws prohibiting the sexual abuse of children, but the specifics of criminal statutes vary from state to state. Laws typically identify an age of consent, the age at which an individual is considered to be capable of consenting to sexual contact. The age of consent falls somewhere in the range from 14 to 18 years. Sexual contact between an adult and a minor who has not reached the age of consent is illegal. Criminal statutes also vary in how they define sexual contact between an adult and a minor. Some states define CSA in relatively broad terms. Most states, however, define incest as illegal regardless of the victim's age or consent. Sexual abuse includes child sexual assault and child sexual exploitation and both of these terms are explicitly defined. The California Penal Code also defines commercial sexual exploitation of children (CSEC) and includes child sex trafficking as a form of CSA.

Psychological Maltreatment

All parents treat their children in inappropriate ways at some time or another by saying or doing hurtful things they later regret. Such mistakes are a characteristic of most intimate relationships. Confusion related to the inconsistency of terms used to describe this form of child maltreatment. psychological vs. emotional. Confusion about whether this form of child maltreatment refers only to acts of commission vs. both acts of commission and omission Parental behaviors vs child outcomes

Online Peer Harassment

Almost all teens (95%) have an "online presence." The majority of teens using social media (69%) say that their peers are mostly kind to one another on these sites but 88% nevertheless reported having witnessed peers being mean or cruel and 15% said they themselves had been the target of negative, harassing, or cruel messages and posts. Such behavior is referred to as technology-facilitated peer harassment. Young people who experience technology-facilitated peer harassment are often advised to just turn off their devices, change their security settings, or block the harasser on their smartphones or social media sites. Victims of technology-facilitated harassment have been encouraged to preserve the offensive messages or posts, since these can be used as evidence in criminal prosecutions and civil litigation.

Risk Factors for Peer Harassment

Although bullying is distinct from sexual harassment in important ways, it is also a significant risk factor for sexual harassment. Bullying/sexual violence pathway, in which bullying of peers at a young age eventually changed to aggressive homophobia and sexual harassment in adolescence. Another risk factor is witnessing parents' intimate partner violence and abuse and/or experiencing child maltreatment. Hegemonic masculinity includes the notions that males are superior to females; males should have more power, status, and privileges than females; and masculinity and femininity are opposites.

Broad term: Child psychological maltreatment:

American Professional Society on the Abuse of Children: Definition of child psychological maltreatment: Primarily based on parent behaviors, a repeated pattern or extreme incident(s) of caretaker behavior that thwart the child's basic psychological development needs (e.g., safety, socialization, emotional and social support, cognitive stimulation, respect). Message sent is: child is worthless, defective, damaged, unloved, unwanted, primarily useful in meeting another's needs, and/or expendable. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) defines CPM as intentional caregiver behavior that conveys to a child that he or she is worthless, flawed, unloved, unwanted, endangered, or valued only in meeting another's needs.

Violence

An act carried out with the intention of, or an act perceived as having the intention of, physically hurting another person.

Neglect: Law and Policy

Another strategy in efforts to reduce or eliminate child neglect involves policy initiatives with the potential to impact the occurrence of child neglect. For instance, safe-haven laws, which allow biological mothers to give up their newborn infants anonymously at specific locations.

Examples of Physical Abuse

Behaviors include: Hitting a child with one's fist or an object such as a belt Kicking, biting, choking, shaking, or burning a child Throwing or knocking down a child Threatening a child with a weapon Leading cause of death among physically abused children is death associated with some type of injury to the head - i.e., abusive head trauma. Majority (81%) of these children are under age 4, with 46% under age 1 at time of death. Shaken baby syndrome or abusive head trauma are additional examples of child physical abuse. Shaken baby syndrome results when a caregiver violently shakes a child, causing the child's brain to move within the skull. Such shaking can result in severe injury, coma, or even death.

Risk Factors Associated With Rape and Sexual Assault Victimization

Being female is a risk factor Being adolescent or young adult is a risk factor That said, not all young women have an equal likelihood of being sexually assaulted. Young women of color—particularly, African American and Native American young women—face greater risk than other women. Poor women are nearly four times more likely to be sexually victimized than middle class women, and six times more likely to be sexually victimized than women in the highest income bracket.

CPM: Perpetrator Risk Factors

Biological parents are the primary perpetrators of child psychological maltreatment, accounting for 73% of reported emotional abuse cases and 90% of reported emotional neglect cases. Psychologically maltreating parents exhibit more difficulties with interpersonal and social interactions, problem solving, and psychiatric adjustment. Lower income families are significantly more likely than higher income families to psychologically mistreat their children. 4-5 times higher for low SES children than for high SES children. Risk is higher in cases of family dysfunction, including marital discord and domestic violence.

Perpetrator Risk Factors for Neglect

Birth parents account for 91% of reported cases, and the majority (87%) are identified as mothers. The higher proportion of females reported for neglect likely reflects the fact that mothers spend more time with children than fathers. Neglecting parents generally interact less with their children, and when they do interact, the interactions are less positive. Neglecting mothers also report more personal problems such as depressive symptoms, impulsivity, low self-esteem, low empathy, and chronic health problems. Substance abuse contributes to child neglect. Low SES is the most powerful predictor of neglect; it is more powerfully predictive of neglect than for any other form of child maltreatment. Other social factors

Endangerment Standard

Broadened its definition of child neglect from harm standard to include an endangerment standard. This new category allowed for the reporting of cases in which children demonstrated no actual harm (i.e., present evidence of injury) but in which it was reasonable to suspect potential harm (i.e., future risk of injury).

Child Protective Services

CPS agencies provide a number of different services to children who have been maltreated as well as to those at risk for abuse. Sometimes a child must be removed from the home. Removing a child from their home is often not the most desirable option. Keeping families together while simultaneously protecting children is the most desirable option.

An Operational Definition of CSA

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) definition: "any completed or attempted (non-completed) sexual act, sexual contact with, or exploitation of (i.e., noncontact sexual interaction) a child..." Acts include contact that involves some form of penetration between the mouth, penis, vulva, or anus of the child and another individual. Contact refers to intentional touching, by the caregiver on the child or by the child on the caregiver, of the genitalia, anus, groin, breast, inner thigh, or buttocks. Exploitation, or noncontact sexual abuse, includes exposing a child to activities such as pornography, voyeurism, exhibitionism; depicting a child in a sexual act either through photographs or film; sexual harassment of a child; and prostitution of a child.

Environemental Neglect

Characterized as a lack of environmental safety, opportunities, and resources associated with living in a neighborhood burdened by crime, lack of civility, and few resources for children and families.

Summary of Neglect

Child neglect is one of the most elusive forms of child maltreatment and, as a result, has received less attention than other forms. The vague nature of child neglect is evident in the fact that a significant proportion of the research devoted to this topic has focused on definitional issues. At present, no single definition of child neglect is universally accepted. Although experts generally agree on conceptual definitions of child neglect. Given these definitional complexities, the true incidence of child neglect is largely undetermined.

Scope of Child Neglect*

Child neglect is the most frequently reported and substantiated form of child maltreatment. Approximately 75% of all child maltreatment cases reported to CPS in 2014 were for child neglect, compared to 17% for physical abuse and 8% for sexual abuse.

Consequences for Child Victims of Physical Abuse

Child physical abuse victims do not respond to being abused in consistent or predictable ways. Child's perceptions of the abuse may also serve an important mediating role. The more severe the abuse, the longer it continues, the more frequent, and the greater the number of subtypes of maltreatment experienced. The earlier the abuse, the greater the negative effects. Children who experience physical maltreatment are more likely than their non-abused counterparts to exhibit physical, behavioral, and mental impairments. In some cases, the negative consequences associated with abuse continue to affect these individuals well into adulthood.

CPM: Child Risk Factors

Child psychological maltreatment increases with age. 14-17-year-olds at greatest risk. Data shows no significant differences in the incidence rate of emotional abuse or emotional neglect for females and males.

Summary of CPM

Child psychological maltreatment is arguably the most elusive form of maltreatment and, as a result, has received the least amount of attention. Studies of the negative effects of psychological maltreatment are limited in both number and quality, making interpretations of findings difficult. Few intervention and prevention approaches have been developed to address the unique aspects of child psychological maltreatment, and research evaluating the effectiveness of such approaches is limited.

CSA: Child Risk Factors

Children of all ages, from infants to adolescents, are at risk of being sexually exploited. No clear differences in rates of sexual abuse between race and ethnic groups have been identified. Children with disabilities are 2-3 times more likely to be sexually abused as children without disabilities. Some researchers have also examined various socioemotional characteristics of victims that increase their vulnerability to CSA. Low self-esteem, susceptibility to persuasion, behavior difficulties, and emotional immaturity are all victim characteristics associated with CSA.

Defining the Problem

Claims-making influences people's understanding of what the problem is and in turn, impacts research and policy. Claims-making among researchers has led to vastly different research methodologies that have produced different, competing definitions. No one definition is accepted as universally correct. Existing legal definitions are problematic. The lack of consensus has made it difficult to make laws against violent acts. Child sex abuse laws more clear bc focus on perpetrator actions Child psychological, physical ,and neglect abuse laws less clear bc focus on injury outcomes IPV laws are too narrow bc focus on single incident only Progress depends on achieving definitional consensus

Commercial Sexual Exploitation of Children

Commercial sexual exploitation of children comprises sexual abuse by the adult and remuneration in cash or kind to the child or a third person or persons. The child is treated as a sexual and commercial object. Child pornography is defined by federal law under 18 U.S.C. § 2256(8) as any "visual depiction" of an actual minor (under age 18) or a computer-generated image that is indistinguishable from that of a minor who is engaging in sexually explicit conduct, "including any photograph, film, video, picture, or computer-generated image or picture, whether made or produced by electronic, mechanical, or other means" Child Sexual Abuse and Pornography Act of 1986 provides for federal prosecution of individuals engaged in child pornography, including parents who permit their children to engage in such activities. The use of such language acts to legitimize images which are not pornography, rather, they are permanent records of children being sexually exploited and as such should be referred to as "child sexual abuse images"

CPA: Law and Policy

Criminal justice system responses that target child physical abuse offenders. All U.S. States and territories have child abuse statutes that define serious physical abuse as punishable by law. Since late 1980s, improvements have been made in both the processes of criminal investigation of child physical abuse as well as its prosecution due to increased interdisciplinary training, networking, and professional cross-training among lawyers, social workers, and medical professionals. Other policy initiatives have potential to impact the occurrence of child physical abuse (e.g., paid family leave was associated with reduced risk of abuse-related head injuries in young children).

CSA: Characteristics of Perpetrators

Data from NIS-4 suggest a relatively equal distribution of offenders across age groups for offenders 26 years old or older. There seem to be two distinct age periods for the onset of CSA offending: one during adolescence and one during the thirties. Overwhelming majority of child sexual abuse perpetrators are male. Perpetrator-victim sex differences varied depending on whether the offense was pedophilia (adult-to-child) or hebephilia (adult-to-adolescent). Male perpetrators offended against child victims nearly one-fourth of the time and chose female victims in approximately 90% of cases. 60% of sexual abuse reported to authorities is committed by either a biological or non-biological parent/partner. However, self-report victimization surveys generally find that sexual victimization is more likely to occur outside the family. Researchers have identified various mental health problems and psychological deficits that characterize some child sexual offenders and increase risk of offending.

Scope of Child Physical Abuse

Defining child physical abuse is no easy task. One way to define physical child abuse is to focus on observable harm. A child who is injured is abused. Beginning in 1988, the National Center on Child Abuse and Neglect began to include an endangerment standard in addition to a harm standard. The harm standard recognizes children as CPA victims if they have observable injuries that last at least 48 hours Children without observable injuries may also be recognized as abuse victims if they are deemed substantially at risk for injury or endangerment.

Discovering Intimate Partner Violence (IPV)

Early women's rights movement went from focusing on securing the right to vote to victimization of women within the family. 1970s women's movement raised awareness of wife abuse, including marital rape National Coalition Against Domestic Violence founded in 1976 Involvement of health care and government entities - with focus on consequences of violence - helped to make the movement to raise awareness about violence against women go mainstream In the 1980s dating violence was viewed as a form of violence against women - seminal study showing parallel between girlfriends and wives Stalking, sexual assault among dating couples and cyber stalking have been recognized as abuse The movements results included Violence Against Women Act (VAWA). Recognition of male victims. Research is limited but suggests that violence among intimates is often reciprocal.

Table 5.2: Negative Effects Associated With Child Neglect

Effects: Social and attachment difficulties Cognitive and academic deficits Emotional and behavioral problems Physical consequences Long-term consequences

Prevention of Child Sexual Abuse

Efforts aimed at prevention have focused primarily on equipping children with the skills they need to respond to or protect themselves from sexual abuse. School-based empowerment programs to help children avoid and report victimization became popular across the United States. They teach children knowledge and skills to help them to protect themselves from a variety of dangers. Some education programs target actual or potential offenders. Stop It Now program, developed by a national nonprofit organization in Vermont, is one of the best-known examples. It encourages offenders and those at risk for offending to self-identify, report themselves to authorities, and enter treatment. Public policy and law are viewed as perpetrator prevention strategies. Unfortunately, most legislative initiatives have not been adequately evaluated. What research is available suggests that sex offender policies including notification, registration, and residency restrictions do not prevent sex offenders from repeating their crimes.

Subtypes of Child Psychological Maltreatment

Eight subtypes include: Close confinement Rejecting Exploiting Degrading Isolating Terrorizing Missocializing Denying emotional responsiveness Newer models suggest ninth subtype: parental inconsistency.

International and Understudied Groups

Elder abuse has gained recognition by parallels with child abuse. Now there are Adult Protective Services. More attention is being given to violence against women and children around the world. Cross-cultural definitions and understandings of relationship violence are important to consider. Variations among diverse groups are important to consider in research and practice. Some understudied groups in the US are: Immigrant families Ethnic and racial minorities LGBT families: Research suggests that LGBTQ couples likely experience as much, or perhaps even more, violence than heterosexual couples. Disabled intimates Religious groups Rural residents Intimates serving in the military

Prevalence of Peer Sexual Harassment

Estimates of peer sexual harassment among adolescents and emerging adults vary widely, ranging from 23% to more than 80%. This variation is largely due to the characteristics of the samples surveyed, definitions used, the way questions were worded, and the time period examined. Additional studies confirm the greater victimization of LGBTQ students, especially lesbians; students of color, especially female students of color; and students with disabilities, especially girls.

Prevalence of Dating Violence and Stalking

Estimates of the incidence of teen dating violence vary, depending on the sample of teens surveyed and the behaviors they are asked about. Victimization rates reported in various studies range from about 6% to nearly 16%; self-reported perpetration rates range from 6.4% to about 19%. A disturbing trend emerging in the research literature is the prevalence among teens of using cell phones or the Internet to control and stalk their dating partners. In many studies, victimization rates of teen dating violence and stalking do not show significant variation across racial and ethnic groups. LGBTQ teens also report higher rates of victimization and perpetration relative to their heterosexual peers. Studies show similar rates of dating violence perpetration by girls and boys. Girls are more likely than boys to be injured by a dating partner.

Prevalence of Rape and Sexual Assault

Estimates of the prevalence of rape and sexual assault vary widely. FBI reports by police departments throughout the United States indicate that in 2014, there were about 85,000 rape cases. However, National Crime Victimization Survey indicates significantly more rape and sexual assault cases: In 2014, 110 rape victims per 100,000 people 12 years old and older in the U.S.

Estimating the Scope of VMIR

Estimating the scope of the problem is difficult. Statistics cannot be summarized in simple, bullet-point, form. Examples include obtaining statistics on child sexual abuse. Reported crimes Dark figure Survey issues - operationalizing crimes Polyvictimization is the term we use to describe the empirical reality that victims are often exposed to multiple forms of violence and maltreatment.

Child Neglect

Experts generally agree that deficits in meeting a child's basic needs, including basic needs in the broad categories of physical, emotional, medical, and educational needs, constitute child neglect.

What constitutes a basic need and what constitutes parental failure to provide?

Factors: Duration Frequency

CSA: Family Characteristics

Family life that is characterized by violence, dysfunction, and instability serves as a risk factor for child sexual abuse and this is true for both the families of victims as well as perpetrators. Parenting within the families of individuals who become perpetrators of CSA has also been examined as a risk factor. Perhaps the most widely researched family risk factor for perpetration of child sexual abuse is a childhood history of abuse.

Child Physical Abuse: Legal Perspectives

Federal law defines physical abuse as actions that result in "serious physical or emotional harm." Child physical abuse is illegal in all 50 states, districts, and U.S. territories, but individual states are left to define the specifics of these guidelines.

CPM: Intervention and Prevention

Few intervention and prevention approaches have been developed to address the unique aspects of CPM, and research evaluating the effectiveness of such approaches is limited. Children need ongoing support, addressing issues of intrapersonal concern (self-blame and low self-esteem), acknowledging the reality of their experiences, enhancing their problem-solving skills to cope with the maltreatment, ensuring they are able to fulfill their educational potential to enhance self-esteem, explaining the parents' difficulties, and encouraging the development of positive, enduring, and meaningful relationships with other adults. Interventions for psychologically maltreating parents, particularly those who emotionally neglect their children, are based on attachment theory. Home-visiting programs to improve insensitive parenting. Cognitive-behavioral therapy approaches with psychologically maltreating parents to help parents manage difficult child behavior, decrease parental anger, and correct misattributions of child behavior. Important role that schools and educators can play. Recommended: A public health model that includes universal interventions aimed to broadly promote positive parent-child relationships and healthy child development. Schools to promote healthy interpersonal interactions. Public education, which includes universal interventions aimed to broadly promote positive parent-child relationships and healthy child development.

Peer Harassment Intervention & Prevention

Given the prevalence of peer sexual harassment and its negative short- and long-term consequences for victims, effective responses when it occurs, and perhaps more importantly, programs to prevent it from occurring, are essential. Apart from holding perpetrators accountable and providing victims with treatment and accommodations (e.g., assistance in making up missed classes and schoolwork), some schools, particularly in the lower grades, proactively address sexual and gender harassment by offering bullying prevention programs. Evaluations of these programs, however, show that they are not effective in preventing either sexual or gender harassment. Consequently, programs are needed that: 1) explicitly challenge hegemonic masculine norms and replace them with an alternative, more egalitarian set of core beliefs and behavioral norms; 2) provide opportunities to learn and practice healthy relationship skills; 3) address sexual health and other relevant issues, such as substance use; and 4) empower young people to recognize and intervene to stop sexual harassment.

Parental Behaviors

Guidelines list six categories of parental behaviors that constitute child psychological maltreatment: Spurning (e.g., verbal and nonverbal hostile rejecting/degrading behaviors). Terrorizing (e.g., caregiver behaviors that harm or threaten harm to a child or child's loved ones or possessions). Exploiting/corrupting (e.g., encouraging inappropriate behaviors in a child). Emotional unresponsiveness (e.g., ignoring a child's needs or failing to express positive affect toward a child). Isolating (e.g., denying a child opportunities to interact/communicate with others). Mental health/medical/educational neglect (e.g., failing to provide for a child's needs in these areas).

Rape and Sexual Assault Intervention and Prevention Strategies

Historically, responses to sexual assault by the legal, health care, and education systems, as well as by victims' friends and family, have been woefully inadequate and, at times, even harmful. Police tended to "unfound" many rape complaints; did not to investigate them because they did not think there was enough evidence that a "real" rape had occurred or they doubted victims' accounts of the crime. Reforms since the 1990s have helped to improve the treatment of victims by the criminal justice system and other social service providers, such as medical personnel. Intervention includes education and training for police and medical staff. Most police officers receive special training to sensitize them to the trauma of victims Many hospitals use Sexual Assault Nurse Examiners to collect physical evidence from victims in emergency rooms—developments that have positive outcomes for victims and for the successful prosecution of perpetrators. Despite the many reforms, however, victims continue to encounter difficulties reporting to police and obtaining help.

CPM: Intimate Partner Violence

Historically, the fields of child maltreatment and intimate partner violence (IPV) have developed as separate entities. Increasingly, researchers have begun to see the two issues as interconnected. Many children have been exposed to severe violence including witnessing a parent being beaten up, threatened with a gun or knife, stabbed, or shot. A number of controlled studies have found that children exposed to intimate partner violence experience a variety of negative psychosocial, cognitive, and physiological problems across the lifespan. Mandatory reporting of child abuse in cases of partner violence?

Intergenerational Transmission

How are parents supposed to discipline children? discipline versus punish How are married couples supposed to interact? How are men and women supposed to navigate sexual interactions? Research suggests intergenerational transmission is not as strong as many imagine. In 2015 research found support for the intergenerational transmission of sexual abuse and neglect but not physical abuse.

Perpetrator Protective Factors for Neglect

In a study across three large-scale probabilistic longitudinal samples of low-income families. Robust findings indicated that higher levels of self-efficacy were associated with lower rates of self-reported or CPS reports of child neglect. Parental involvement in their child's activities also served as a protective factor against the occurrence of child neglect.

Emotional Neglect

Includes failure to provide a child with emotional support, security, and encouragement.

Conflict Tactics Scales (CTS)

Intimate partners: The Conflict Tactics Scales (CTS), originally created by Murray Straus (1979), is the most historically significant and widely used scale in self-reported intimate violence. Parent-child dyads: The Parent-Child Conflict Tactics Scale (CTSPC), created a modified version of the CTS specifically to measure child maltreatment. Self-report data

Consequences of CSA for Victims

Investigators have identified a wide range of outcomes associated with CSA including physical, emotional, behavioral, cognitive, and interpersonal problems. One of the most common symptoms identified in sexually abused children is sexualized behavior. Overt sexual acting out toward adults or other children, compulsive masturbation, excessive sexual curiosity, sexual promiscuity, and precocious sexual play and knowledge. Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and PTSD-related symptoms, including nightmares, fears, feelings of isolation, inability to enjoy usual activities, somatic complaints, autonomic arousal (e.g., heightened startle response), and guilt feelings. The most common problems observed in adult victims of CSA are depression, anxiety, and post-traumatic stress disorder.

Gender Harassment

Involves being touched or grabbed in a sexual way, or being forced to touch someone else in a sexual way; and being called gay or lesbian in a malicious way.

Why do child neglect and child psychological maltreatment receive less attention than other forms of abuse?

It is not always visible

Definition of Child Sexual Abuse

Key components are generally regarded as essential in defining child sexual abuse. Definitions should include sexual experiences with children that involve both physical contact and noncontact activities. Sexual activities include contact performed by the perpetrator on the child but also by the child on the perpetrator. The range of sexual activities we might call child sexual abuse extends from exhibitionism to intercourse. Although certain acts are generally universally recognized as abusive (e.g., vaginal and anal penetration), other activities are not. Question: How can one determine whether a grandfather kisses his granddaughter out of innocent affection or for his sexual gratification? Evaluate the intent of the perpetrator. Definitions emphasizes the adult's exploitation of his or her authority, knowledge, and power to achieve sexual ends. Children are incapable of providing informed consent to sexual interactions with adults. A child may be unable to provide consent due to: Developmental status Adult's authority status Although many definitions limit abuse to situations involving an age discrepancy of five years or more between perpetrator and victim, others include children and adolescents as potential perpetrators if a situation involves the exploitation of a child by virtue of the perpetrator's size, age, sex, or status.

Rape myths about men

Male rape is tantamount to loss of masculinity Men should be able to defend themselves against rape Men who get raped must be gay Men cannot be forced against their will to have sex Men are less affected by the consequences of sexual assault than women Men are always ready to accept any sexual opportunity Men must be sexually aroused to be raped

Why are there differences between the FBI data and the NCVS data on rape and sexual assault?

Many people, including rape victims themselves, adhere to a set of beliefs, commonly referred to as rape myths, about what constitutes "real rape" and "worthy victims." Myths are not true.

Child Physical Abuse: Intervention and Prevention

Many strategies have been developed over the years, which focus on the following: Children (victims) Parents Communities Child Protective Services (CPS) Law and policy Programs

Neglect: Intervention and Prevention

Most intervention and prevention strategies address child maltreatment generally and are not uniquely focused on child neglect. Federal and state laws provide for the protection of children who are at risk for child abuse or neglect via a division within state departments of social services or Child Protective Services. The average response time from report to investigation is 75 hours or 3.1 days. CPS offered no post-investigative services at all, for example, in approximately 40% of substantiated cases in 2014. The response is often associated with the CPS workloads which are high and increasing. CPS workers are charged with a diversity of tasks including investigating reports of child maltreatment, providing needed services to victims, protecting children, and providing support for families. CPS workers attempt to do all these things in an environment that is very stressful.

Death: a consequence for child victims of physical abuse

NCANDS data indicate that an estimated 1,580 children died in 2014 as a result of child abuse. The two most common causes of death were neglect (72%) and physical abuse (41%). Most of these children were very young (71% under the age of 3) and most were killed by their parents (79%). According to the U.S. Commission to Eliminate Child Abuse and Neglect Fatalities, established by the Protect Our Kids Act in 2013, although the overall safety of children has increased in the United States, child fatalities are not declining and somewhere between 1,500 and 3,000 U.S. children will die each year from maltreatment. Child Fatality Review Team*: investigates cause of death to see if it was child abuse, and what kind

Summary of CSA

No one knows exactly how many children experience sexual abuse each year. Conservative estimates derived from the most methodologically sound studies suggest that in the United States, 20% of women and between 5% and 10% of men have experienced some form of child sexual abuse. In recognition of the significance of the child sexual abuse problem, many professionals are involved in responding to the needs of victims and the treatment of perpetrators. The prevention of child sexual abuse begins with social awareness and the recognition that expertise, energy, and money are needed to alleviate the conditions that produce child sexual abuse.

Moderators of Effects of CSA

No single symptom or pattern of symptoms is present in all victims of child sexual abuse. Many child sexual abuse victims exhibit no symptoms at all, at least in the short term. Child sexual abuse situations are also associated with severity of symptoms. Perhaps the most consistent finding is that threats, force, and violence by the perpetrator are linked with increased negative outcome.

Rape

Nonconsensual attempted or completed penetration, no matter how slight, of the vagina or anus with a body part or object, or oral penetration by a sex organ of another person.

Perpetrators: Mental Health

Not all perpetrators are sexually aroused by children Other factors, disinhibitors, may be operating E.g., alcohol E.g., cognitive distortions

Practice, Policy, and Prevention Issues for VMIR

Numerous policies and practices have been introduced to help address VMIR Prevention= social support and education programs designed to prevent intimate violence from occurring. Family support and training programs School-based programs Community awareness campaigns Intervention= societal responses to VMIR after it occurs. Child and Adult Protective Services Mandatory arrest laws "No-drop" prosecution policies Family preservation, foster care, and adoption Family support and training programs School-based programs Treating offenders and victims Shelters and hotlines Community awareness campaigns

CSA: Scope of the Problem

Of the approximately 3.2 million children reported to CPS during 2014, 8.3% were victims of child sexual abuse. Approximately 60,000 total cases of CSA were substantiated. Most child maltreatment never comes to the attention of CPS. Compared with official statistics, self-report surveys have the potential to present a clearer picture of the true rate of victimization.

CSA: Modus Operandi of Offenders

Offenders use specific tactics to both recruit victims as well as to maintain their compliance. Perpetrators typically select children who are vulnerable, such as children who are quiet, withdrawn, lonely, passive, easily manipulated, and those who have low self-esteem, few close friends, and are emotionally needy. A grooming process starts. The offender employs a series of strategies aimed at gaining the child's trust and compliance, developing a "special" relationship with the child, and gradually crossing sexual boundaries by progressing from nonsexual to sexual touch. Youth may also be vulnerable to online grooming. Another potential way to form a relationship with a child or adolescent is through sexting.

Removing the Child

One of the most controversial issues within child protection circles is the question of when children should be temporarily or permanently removed from their homes. CPS agencies are mandated to make child protection their top priority. The debate centers on those middle-ground cases where risk is difficult to assess. Much of the disagreement centers on when families can or should be offered family preservation services and whether these services can successfully rehabilitate abusive parents.

Out-of-Home Care

Out-of-home care is one example of the kinds of post investigative services provided by CPS agencies. Out-of-home care for child maltreatment victims includes foster care placement, kinship care, and placement in residential treatment centers and institutions.

Structural Characteristics of Intimate Relationships

Part of the reason VMIR occur is structural. Time together Opportunity Power differences Patriarchy

Forms of Neglect

Physical neglect Medical neglect Emotional neglect Environmental neglect Prenatal neglect

Debatable Child Neglect Subjects

Poverty Parental intent Cultural context

National Incidence Studies (NIS)

Provides surveys of professionals who are mandated to report cases of child maltreatment to CPS and provide estimates of the incidence of child maltreatment. Official data

Child Psychological Maltreatment*

Psychological maltreatment is the least common form of reported and substantiated child maltreatment. The most recent statistics available indicate that 6% of all reported cases of child maltreatment were identified as child psychological maltreatment. It has received less attention than other forms of abuse, in part, because it is so difficult to define.

Prenatal Neglect

Refers to any actions of a pregnant woman that can potentially harm her unborn child (e.g., abuse of illicit drugs and alcohol in utero)

Methodological Issues

Research on VMIR can never be perfect. There are many methodological hurdles that stand in the way of full understanding. Methodological issues include: Is impartial empiricism in the study of intimate violence possible? Are definitions negotiated? Correlation is not causation Randomized controlled trials Longitudinal studies and matched comparison groups

Child Risk Factors for Neglect

Risk declines with age

Rape Myths

S/he asked for it by being sexy S/he caused it by her own carelessness/stupidity S/he deserved it S/he led him on Wo/men lie about rape S/he didn't really mean to S/he really wanted it to happen S/he was entitled S/he enjoyed it Only certain types of men/women rape S/he didn't fight back enough S/he implicitly agreed to have sex S/he miscommunicated Only certain types of women/men are raped There was no violence/weapon involved Rape is an inevitable, natural event Rape is a sexual event; it's rough sex Rape is a trivial event Rape only happens in very specific places/situations

Table 3.1: Characteristics of Children Who Are Physically Abused and the Adults Who Abuse Them

See Book

Table 3.2: Effects Associated With Physical Child Abuse for Children and Adolescents and Adults

See Book

Table 4.2: Common Effects Associated With Child Sexual Abuse in Children, Youth, and Adults

See Book

Table 6.3: Outcomes Associated With Child Psychological Maltreatment

See Book

Table 7.2: U.S. High School Students Who Are Sexually Active, by Sex and Grade, 2013

See Book

Table 7.6: Consequences of Sexual Assault for Adolescent Victims

See Book

Table 6.1: Conceptual Perspectives on Psychological Maltreatment

See book

Is self-defense training considered a prevention strategy for rape and sexual assault?

Self-defense training places the burden of safety on potential victims rather than holding perpetrators accountable, and fails to address the critical need to change pro-rape attitudes in our culture, especially among young men.

Sexual Assault

Sexual assault encompasses various forms of nonconsensual sexual contact, such as kissing or fondling a person without their consent or when they are unable to consent. The most severe form of sexual assault is rape Sexual assault may be accomplished through the use of physical force or the threat of force, but a perpetrator may also use intimidation or the imposition of their authority to make the victim have sex with them.

Acquaintance Rape

Sexual assaults perpetrated by someone the victim knows About 73% of rapes are acquaintance rapes.

CSA: Exploitation Over the Internet

Sexual exploitation of children can also occur as a result of Internet interactions, a form of exploitation described in the research literature in recent years as cyberexploitation or online crimes against children. Children may experience online sexual harassment. This can include a variety of behaviors, such as "threatening or offensive behavior targeting the child or sharing information or pictures online about the targeted child" Scholars have proposed several approaches to combating the problem of Internet exploitation of youth. A first step is to educate youth, parents, and professionals who work with youth and families about the potential dangers of the Internet and how they can protect against this form of exploitation.

Culturally and Developmentally Normative Sexual Behavior

Sexual interactions between children and adults have occurred throughout history and only recently have come to be recognized as a social problem. In the United States, it is essential to know what types of behaviors are generally regarded as developmentally appropriate. One way to approach the question of acceptability is to examine what kinds of sexual behaviors are common in children.

Discovering Relationship Violence

Social constructionism - sociological concept to explain how social conditions become social problems. Societal reactions to particular social conditions, individuals, and institutions transform public perceptions. Claims-makers make assertions of grievances or claims with respect to some condition. As the cause of claims-makers is recognized by society more generally, the social condition comes to be defined as a social problem. Social problems are "discovered" through this process of societal reactions and social definitions. Thus, social problems come and go as reactions change. Increased media and academic coverage Progress in reducing violence against children and women reached international level: Children's Human Rights 1989 UN Convention on Rights of the Child Women's Human Rights 1994 UN Declaration on Elimination of Violence against Women In the United States, claims-makers began defining various forms of family violence as social problems

Measurement Issues

Social phenomena are inherently difficult to study. The funneling metaphor is helpful as we turn our attention to specific data sources and survey instruments that are commonly used to study VMIR. Official data Self-report surveys Victimization surveys

CSA: Societal Attitudes

Societal attitudes, such as a lack of understanding and acknowledgement of child sexual abuse, represent another risk factor that contributes to a climate where child sexual abuse to occur.

Low Cost of Violence

Sociologists define social control as the collective efforts of a society to ensure conformity and prevent deviance. All theories of social control begin with the assumption that humans are rational beings who maximize benefits and minimize costs. Deterrence theorists suggest: Where there are few formal legal costs to behavior, the behavior is more common.

Perpetrators: Pedophilia

Some evidence suggests that CSA perpetrators seek out sexual encounters with children primarily because they are sexually attracted to children. Psychologists define such sexual attraction as a mental disorder called pedophilia where the individual has "recurrent, intense sexually arousing fantasies, sexual urges, or behaviors involving sexual activity with a prepubescent child or children." Some evidence suggests that CSA offenders are not only sexually attracted to children but also have an emotional attachment with children, sometimes called emotional congruence, who meet their needs for intimacy.

Why might we reasonably expect VMIR to be a common occurrence under specific conditions?

Structural characteristics of intimate relationships Culture of acceptance Low cost of violence Intergenerational transmission

Teen Dating Violence

Teen dating violence is physical, psychological, or sexual violence, as well as stalking, perpetrated within a dating relationship.

CPM: Legal Issues

The 1974 federal Child Abuse Prevention and Treatment Act refers to child psychological maltreatment and delegates the responsibility for more specific definitions to the individual states. The lack of clear and consistent legal definitions contributes to problems in identifying child psychological maltreatment, inaccuracies in reporting such maltreatment, and limitations in the ability of Child Protective Services (CPS) to intervene to protect children who are psychologically maltreated.

The National Child Abuse and Neglect Data System (NCANDS)

The National Child Abuse and Neglect Data System (NCANDS) is a federally sponsored data collection system on reported child abuse and neglect. Every year NCANDS compiles CPS data from all 50 states on a variety of important issues relevant to child maltreatment. It is official data

National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS)

The National Crime Victimization Survey is a semiannual victim survey conducted by the U.S. Census Bureau on behalf of the Department of Justice. The NCVS has been conducted since 1973 and is the primary source of information in the United States on the characteristics of criminal victimization. It is victimization data

The National Intimate Partner and Sexual Violence Survey

The National Intimate Partner and Sexual Violence Survey is a victimization survey that measures adult respondents' recollections about physical violence and sexual assault experienced by the respondent. It is victimization data

Additional Data

The National Survey of Children's Exposure to Violence uses the Juvenile Victimization Questionnaire to measure exposure to a wide variety of childhood victimization, including conventional crime, child maltreatment, peer and sibling victimization, sexual assault, and witnessing an indirect victimization. victimization data

Uniform Crime Report (UCR)

The Uniform Crime Reporting Program is a nationwide effort by the FBI to collect and report crimes, number of arrests, and persons arrested. Published annually It is official data

Risk Factors: Dating Violence and Stalking

The factors associated with peer sexual harassment and sexual assault also emerge as significant factors contributing to teen dating violence and stalking. Social class is consistently associated with teen dating violence: youth who are poor are more likely to report victimization as well as perpetration. Witnessing parental intimate partner violence or experiencing maltreatment as a child also increases the likelihood that a teen will be the victim or perpetrator of dating violence. Having a friend involved in dating violence increases a teen's risk of victimization and perpetration.

Medical Neglect

The failure or delay in seeking needed health care, refusal to allow or provide needed care for diagnosed conditions, and noncompliance with medical recommendations.

Child Physical Abuse Definition

The intentional use of physical force against a child that results in or has the potential to result in physical injury.

Culture of Acceptance

The more we as a society accept physical, emotional and sexual aggression as "appropriate" or "inevitable," or even "fun," the more likely it is that abuses will occur.

CSA: Intervention for Offenders

The most common form of treatment for adult sex offenders is multi-component CBT. Most behavioral approaches use some form of aversive therapy that pairs an aversive outcome with sexually deviant fantasies. For example, in a technique called masturbatory satiation, the perpetrator is instructed to reach orgasm through masturbation as quickly as possible using appropriate sexual fantasies. CBT can also target distorted beliefs, levels of empathy, and low self-esteem, all of which are associated with perpetration. Other treatments include chemical castration. The primary goal in working with child sexual abuse offenders and in determining treatment effectiveness has been the evaluation of recidivism rates.

Consequences for Neglected Kids

The most immediate and tragic physical consequence of child neglect is, of course, death. In 2014, 1,580 children died as a result of child abuse and neglect in the United States. These children were disproportionately very young (71% were under 3) and neglect victims (72%). A physical consequence often associated with neglect in infants is failure to thrive (FTT), a syndrome characterized by marked retardation or cessation of growth during the first 3 years of life and often due to inadequate nutrition and disturbed social interactions. Additional consequences of child neglect include: Social adjustments Intellectual ability Academic achievement Emotional and behavioral difficulties

CSA: Interventions for Children & Nonoffending Parents

The most well-supported treatment approach for the problems experienced by CSA victims is trauma-focused cognitive behavioral therapy (TF-CBT). Treatment includes (PRACTICE): Psychoeducation Parenting skills Relaxation skills Affective expression Cognitive coping skills Trauma narrative and processing In vivo mastery Conjoint therapy Enhancing safety Researchers who have evaluated the effectiveness of TF-CBT have found that this form of treatment is effective, particularly for reducing post-traumatic stress symptoms in children.

Problems of VMIR

The problem of violence and maltreatment in intimate relationships is an increasingly universal concern. There is cultural influence on violence and maltreatment in intimate relationships. The social constructionist perspective also helps illustrate how research is used in ongoing debates about violence and maltreatment in intimate relationships.

Consequences of Peer Sexual Harassment

The psychological and physical impacts of sexual harassment on victims include depression, lowered self-esteem, lowered self-confidence, loss of appetite, and sleep disturbances. These negative outcomes appear to be more frequent and more severe for female sexual harassment victims. This may be because girls are not only more likely to experience sexual harassment, but also because girls experience more frequent and more severe harassment

Violence and Maltreatment in Intimate Relationships (VMIR)

The scope of violence and maltreatment in intimate relationships is pervasive. Women, children, and the elderly are more likely to be victimized in their own home than they are on the streets of America's most dangerous cities. Examples: Ray Rice, Chris Brown

CPA: Programs

Therapy for abused children Cognitive behavioral therapy Trauma-Focused Cognitive Behavioral Therapy Parent training and support efforts: Incredible Years (IY) program targets children with behavior problems and aims to reduce coercive parent-child interactions by providing parents with information about child development. Alternatives for Families Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (AF-CBT) has been empirically evaluated that targets both physically abusive parents and their children. Parent-child interaction therapy (PCIT): This form of therapy involves behavioral parent training whereby the parent is coached in parenting skills during live parent-child interactions. Primary prevention efforts are designed to prevent child maltreatment from occurring in the first place and are often offered at the community level. These prevention strategies are typically designed to improve the larger community environment of children either through wide-scale training, information dissemination, or changes in public policy. Public Awareness Campaigns: educating the public about the problem through mass media campaigns/public service announcements. The ACT (Adults and Children Together) Against Violence Campaign is an example of a violence prevention media campaign. Community prevention: Triple P (Positive Parenting Program). Triple P promotes family harmony and reduces parent-child conflict by helping parents develop a safe, nurturing environment. Durham Family Initiative (DFI) attempts to expand universal assessments designed to identify families at risk for child maltreatment and then connect them to appropriate community-based services. School-based program: Chicago Child-Parent Center, which provides preschool education and a variety of family support services for low-income children aged 3-9 years.

Rape and Sexual Assault Intervention and Prevention Programs

There are a number of prevention programs currently employed in various settings, including middle schools, high schools, and colleges and universities. Some are referred to as awareness-based programs, which employ speakers, such as sexual assault survivors, and victim advocates. Bystander intervention programs. As Cook-Craig and her colleagues (2014) explain, "As a prevention strategy, the bystander approach trains individuals to respond to situations in which norms or behaviors that promote violence are present."

Teen Dating Violence and Stalking

These definitions encompass a wide range of behaviors, including hitting and slapping, threats, forced sexual activity, and following a person.

Physical Neglect

Typically defined as failure to provide a child with basic necessities of life, such as food, clothing, and shelter.

Sexual Harassment

Unwelcome sexual advances, requests for sexual favors, or other verbal, nonverbal or physical conduct of a sexual nature. It includes a wide range of unwanted and unwelcome behaviors such as sexual comments, jokes, gestures, or rumors; showing sexual pictures or writing sexual messages in private (e.g., notes) or on public spaces (e.g., bathroom walls and locker rooms).

Discovering Child Maltreatment

Value of children has changed historically Harshness of life, high rates of disease, and the visibility of death all contributed to a general devaluation of life and of children's lives in particular. The discovery of child physical abuse in the U.S. can be traced to the house refuge movement First child abuse court case was tried in 1874 Child-saving movement promoted child protective statutes in 1900s. The battered child syndrome as first described in the 1960s helped to recognize child abuse as a social problem Child sexual abuse is not universally recognized Child neglect and child psychological maltreatment were the last forms of child maltreatment to attract attention (1990s)

Social Construction

What can be learned from these examples? The social conditions only become recognized as social problems as a result of successful advocacy by those concerned about the issue. Social problems are negotiated, with a variety of claims makers weighing in on the nature and seriousness of the problem. Violence and maltreatment in intimate relationships has only relatively recently been socially constructed as a social problem.

Consequences Associated with CPM

While there is considerable research examining the long-term effects associated with child psychological maltreatment, there is less understanding about the mechanisms that explain why child psychological maltreatment leads to certain outcomes.

___________ parent bonds can contribute as a risk factor for CSA. a. Strong b. Weak c. Uneven d. Inconsistent

b. Weak

Who experiences sexual harassment more often? a. males b. females c. they experience it equally d. cannot determine

b. females

Out of the following examples, which is a contested form of child sexual abuse? a. taking photographs of naked children to sell b. parents walking around naked in front of their children c. a sibling having anal intercourse with their younger sibling d. a 13-year-old child agreeing to have sex with step-parent

b. parents walking around naked in front of their children

In order for the harm standard to be met, how long must injuries last? a. at least 1 hour b. 24 hours c. 48 hours d. a week

c. 48 hours

In the past 20 years, what has happened to the reported number of child abuse cases? a. increased b. decreased c. stayed the same d. unable to determine

c. stayed the same

Child psychological maltreatment: a. is one individual form of abuse. b. is a result of sexual abuse. c. is a result of physical abuse. d. can be a component of all other forms of maltreatment and can also stand alone.

d. can be a component of all other forms of maltreatment and can also stand alone.