SOCI 102 - Social Construction (Chapter 5)

Race

A social distinction based on perceived physical or biological characteristics

Nationalism

A strong feeling of pride in and devotion to one's country

Prejudice

A negative attitude toward someone, based solely on her membership in a particular group

What is a symbolic ethnicity? Who has this type of identity and who does not?

A symbolic ethnicity is an ethnicity that is individualistic in nature and without real social cost for the individual. Symbolic ethnicities can involve leisure-time activities, are rooted in the family, and reinforced by voluntary enjoyable aspects of being ethnic. In the case of symbolic ethnicities, ethnicity is not something that influences an individual's life unless he or she wants it to. According to Herbert Gans symbolic ethnicity is "a nostalgic allegiance to the culture of the immigrant generation, or that of the old country; a love for and a pride in a tradition that can be felt without having to be incorporated in everyday behavior" (Gans, 1991: 436). Waters argues that Whites of European ancestry have a choice over their ethnic identities. They can select to claim a specific ancestry of just be "White" or American/Canadian. Visible minorities do not have that choice as they cannot mask their ethnic identities and are often labeled with identities by others.

First Nations

A term of ethnicity that refers to the Aboriginal people in what is now Canada who are neither Inuit or Metis.

What is a nation, according to Anderson in Imagined Communities? How are nations "imagined"?

According to Anderson, nations are imagined (members of even the smallest nation will never know one another, yet they feel a communion); limited (even the largest nation has finite, elastic boundaries beyond outside of which lie other nations); sovereign (emblems of freedom above religions and other groupings) and communities (based on a deep, horizontal comradeship). The members of the nation imagine the symbols of a nation and the identity associated with that nation. It is important to note that different people have more or less power to impose their ideas of what it means to be a "Canadian" or any other nationality on others. For example, the government of Canada creates a book filled with what they consider core information about Canada that new immigrants use to study for the citizenship test.

Social Construction

According to Berger and Luckman, a process that involves 2 steps: 1) people categorize experience and then act on the basis of those classifications; 2) they eventually forget the social origins of the categories and come to see them as natural and unchangeable

Explain the theory of social construction generally and as it applies to race and ethnicity

According to Berger and Luckman, social construction is a process that involves 2 steps: 1) people categorize experience and then act on the basis of those classifications 2) they eventually forget the social origins of the categories and come to see them as natural and unchangeable Race and ethnicity are social constructions. They are categories that are not "natural" but are created within society. Many societies categorize people people based on skin color. This choice is rooted in historical contexts (slavery, colonialism). Such arbitrary focus on certain features highlights how the different physical characteristics perceived to be significant between racial categories hold no intrinsic value and are not rooted in biological differences between groups. Different races were categorized and established long ago, and people have since forgotten the social origins of the categories of race and ethnicity thus seeing them as natural and unchanging.

Authoritarian Personality

Adorno's term for a personality that is more likely to develop prejudicial attitudes. People with this type of personality tend to see the world in terms of good and evil and strictly follow rules and orders.

Contact Theory

Allport's theory that increasing contact between antagonistic groups can reduce prejudice, lead to a growing recognition of similarities, and alter stereotypes about the other group.

Imagined Communities

Anderson's term to describe members of a nation feeling a sense of community even though they will never know most of their fellow citizens

What are the two main steps in the process of social construction? How are race and ethnicity socially constructed?

Berger and Luckman posited that the process of social construction occurs in 2 steps: first, people categorize based on their experiences and then act on the basis of those categories. Second, people forget the social origins of those categories and accept them as natural and unchanging. Race and ethnicity are socially constructed. They are rooted in society`s historical context (slavery, colonialism). Essentialism is the belief that different races have essential or inherent biological traits that make them fundatmentally different from each other. We know that race and ethnicity are social construct because 1) it is clear that our conception of race/ethnicity has changed over time. The definition of who is "White" has dramatically changed through time. 2) Race and ethnicity are in no way rooted in biology- it is impossible to genetically test race. This discredits the essentialism theory. 3) In group variation is much greater than between group variation

Invisible Knapsack

Coined by Mcintosh, an unseen collection of unearned assets that white people use in their daily lives but about which they are expected to remain oblivious

Discuss the history of First Nations inequality in Canada

Early encounters between Europeans and First Nations were trading relationships. The Royal Proclamation of 1763 recognized the "Indian" nations or tribes and exerted sovereignty over Indian people. Colonial govts were to respect Indian land; resulted in many treaties between first nations the Canadian govt. The Indian Act of 1876 outlined what the govt of Canada deem to be "Indian" people and allowed it to regulate many parts of their lives. Govt worked to assimilate First nations by restricting their cultural practices and getting them to assimilate to the dominant culture. 1876-1996- 150,000 first nations children were forced into residential schools, which tried to resocialize them (physical, psychological and sexual abuse was abundant in these schools; schools restricted their language and forced them to speak English or French). Limited first nations' political rights- first nations did not get to vote until 1960 and in provincial elections in Quebec until 1969. Working on land claims and participating in cultural and economic practices were illegal in many first nations communities until 1951. Long term inequality experienced by first nations in canada- poverty rates are staggeringly high; poverty rates are two to three times higher for first nations children than they are for other children. attempts to make amends for mistreatment: 1) education and recognition of first nations issues 2) movements and campaigns to attempt to redress and compensate for abuse (commission, payment to victims, apologies by govt) 3) organizations (assembly of first nations 1968) work to lobby govt on behalf of first nations 4) social programs created by first nations, prov. govts, and govt of Canada

Explain Sherif's Robbers Cave experiment (at the boys' camp). What does this teach us about the development of, and solutions to, prejudice?

In this experiment, Sherif sends a group of boys to camp. He randomly divides them into two groups. He first has each group live on their own—they develop a strong sense of group identity and strong ties among members of the group. In the second week, Sherif has the boys engage in competition with one another for things that both groups really want. This competition causes a lot of conflict between the groups. Sherif then tries to reduce the conflict by putting the two groups in contact with one another. This only increases conflict. It is only when the two groups cooperate for things that they cannot achieve alone (superordinate goals) that the boys come to have more positive attitudes towards the members of the other group. This experiment teaches us that prejudice and the development of these attitudes is dependent on the situation. Certain situations make it more likely - for example, when there is competition over scare and prized resources. The experiment also makes it clear that simply being in contact with those against whom you have prejudice does not necessarily reduce that prejudice. It is only when you are cooperating that these attitudes change.

Vertical Mosaic

John Porter's term that describes a society, such as Canada, that contains different ethnic, language, regional, and religious groups with unequal levels of status and power.

Assess the role of race and ethnicity as a dimension of inequality

Our social construction of race has real consequences for individuals in society. In terms of race and ethnicity, society's perceptions and assumptions are more important than the facts of reality (that there is no biological basis to discriminate between races). Racism is an organized system of race-based group privilege that operates at every level of society and is held together by a sophisticated ideology of "race supremacy". Racism leads to both privileges and sanctions. Sanctions include restrictions and limitations on people in certain racial categories. Ex. Most people believe that Canada is a meritocracy and thus expect that ethnic groups with high levels of education should have relatively high incomes. While white Canadians have the lowest level of high school graduation and university attendance rates, they earn a very high income. Filipino and Korean Canadians have very high graduation rates, and yet make very low incomes compared to other groups. This is a probably combination of prejudice and discrimination, as well as the Canadian immigration system, which attracts immigrants with high levels of education but often limits their ability to perform jobs they are trained for.

Explain the difference between prejudice and discrimination and the theories that explain how they arise (and can be reduced)

Prejudice is a negative attitude toward someone, based solely on her membership in a particular group. Prejudice can lead to discrimination, The unfair treatment (negative or positive) of an individual based on his actual or perceived membership in a certain group or category. The Thomas principle posits that if people define situations as real, then they are real in their consequences. Social constructions of race and ethnicity have real consequences for individuals. Racism is an organized system of race-based group privilege that operates at every level of society and is held together by a sophisticated ideology of race supremacy. Racism leads to both privileges and sanctions (ex. restrictions and limitations on people in certain racial categories). Realistic conflict theory can be used to explain how prejudice and discrimination arise. The theory posits that prejudice originates from social groups competing over valued resources or opportunities. Contact theory argues that increasing contact between antagonistic groups can reduce prejudice, lead to a growing recognition of similarities, and alter stereotypes about the other group. Supraordinate goals are an important factor in reducing prejudice, as sometime mere contact between competing groups is not enough to change views. When groups must work together to achieve a common goal that they could not achieve on their own, prejudice is more likely to diminish.

Explain the difference between race and ethnicity

Race is a social distinction based on perceived physical or biological characteristics. Ethnicity is the shared language, religion, customs, and history of a particular group. The core difference between race and ethnicity is that race is based on perceived biological traits and ethnicity is based on cultural differences.

Describe how the policy of multiculturalism is not benign but benefits certain groups at the expense of others

Some groups (specifically those of British or French origins) have more status and power in Canada and, as a result, enjoy higher incomes and levels of education than other ethnic groups. British and French Canadians are Charter Groups, the original ethnic groups to settle a previously unoccupied or newly conquered region. These groups a) have more power than later immigrants and b) get to decide which other groups can enter the territory and under what conditions. This situation leads to great inequality between charter groups and later immigrants. Ethnic differences in a country reproduce class differences and can limit certain groups' social mobility. Although there has been a slight reduction in income inequality based on ethnicity, the economic elite is still mostly made up of individuals with British ethnic origins.

Describe the concepts of optional or symbolic ethnicities and their importance

Symbolic ethnicity is an individualistic label that has little cost for the individual. It describes a nostalgic allegiance to, love for, and pride in a cultural tradition that can be felt and lived without having to be incorporated to the person's everyday behavior. Whites have the option to adopt a symbolic ethnicity or to claim no ethnicity at all while visible minorities do not have this same freedom and often have no control over the ethnic labels that others assign to them. The option of choosing how to present yourself on surveys and in everyday social interactions exists for whites because of social changes and societal conditions that have created a great deal of social mobility, immigrant assimilation, and political and economic power for whites. In the world of work and school and neighborhood, individuals do not have to admit to being ethnic unless they choose to (unless it benefits them in a situation). The identity development is more complicated for non-whites because there is the added element of racial discrimination and racism, along with the "ethnic" developments of finding others who share their background. For all the ways ethnicity does not matter to whites, it matters for non-whites. If the dominant group considers ethnicity as something that can be chosen, it becomes harder to understand the need for social change and easier to claim ignorance. It becomes easy on the individual level to expect everyone else to be able to turn their ethnicity on and off at will like they are able to. The paradox of symbolic ethnicity is that it depends upon the ultimate goal of a pluralist society, and at the same time makes it more difficult to achieve that goal. Social mobility and declining racial sensitivity are closely associated.

Pluralism

The belief that conflict is a central feature of societies and that ethnicity is an essential aspect of individual identity and group behavior; A condition in which minority groups participate fully in the dominant society, yet maintain their cultural differences.

Immigration

The movement of people around the world. Canada has 3 major categories of immigrants: Economic, family class, and refugees

Ethnicity

The shared language, religion, customs, and history of a particular group. The core difference between race and ethnicity is that race is based on perceived biological traits and ethnicity is based on cultural differences.

Racism

The systematic belief, which operates at every level of society, that races have particular characteristics or abilities that make them inferior or superior to others. Rooted in a sophisticated ideology of white supremacy.

Census

The systematic collecting and recording of information about members of a given population.

Essentialism

The theory that some "essential" element makes a person part of a particular race or ethnic group. From this perspective, ethnic groups and nationalities are based on biological factors (similar appearance, skin color, or eye color) and a territorial location (region or country

Discrimination

The unfair treatment of an individual based on his actual or perceived membership in a certain group or category

What is the vertical mosaic? How is this related to inequality and power?

The vertical mosaic is a concept created by John Porter. He argues that Canada is a mosaic of different ethnicities, languages, regions, and religions. These groupings are unequal in both status and power. He also argues that multiculturalism can benefit some groups over others. Particularly, those of British or French dissent (what he calls the charter groups of Canada) have more power than later immigrants and get to decide what other groups get to come to Canada. This leads to great inequality between charter groups and later immigrants.

Nation

a group of people who are united by a common fate and who have a shared national character. Based on shared language, ethnicity, and history

Nation-State

a group of people who share a physical territory and government, although may not share an ethnicity, language, or history—Canada is a nation state

Supraordinate goals

refer to goals that require the cooperation of two or more people or groups to achieve, which usually results in rewards to the groups.

Thomas Principle

Thomas and Thomas' theory that, if we define a situation as real, it is real in its consequences

Multiculturalism

Based on the idea of pluralism, support for having various cultural or ethnic groups in a society; the belief that conflict is a central feature of societies and that ethnicity is an essential aspect of individual identity and group behavior

Realistic Conflict Theory

Based on the work of Bobo, the theory that prejudice originates from social groups competing over valued resources or opportunites

Symbolic Ethnicity

Waters's term for the individualistic type of ethnicity that some people can adopt with little social cost