SOCI 3251 Exam 1
Harriet Martineau
-Main Question = how can moral and active society be realized or distorted? (open question) Assumptions = ideas are inductive (i.e. come from experience) Theory and Method of Sociology: Morals = society's collective ideas of prescribed (ideals) and proscribed (laws) behavior, shared rules or consciousness Manners = patterns of action and order in society, social organization that materialize those morals How find morals and manners? 1. Circumstances under which relationship arises (geography, material resources, population, history, etc) 2. Fixed and Essential qualities of morals and manners (individual is link between society's morals/principles and its manners/interactional practices; ppl have personal agency but behavior is reflection of society acting upon individual) 3. Anomalies/Contradictions between action and meaning (contradiction between declared morals and habituated manners) Role of Sociologist: Impartiality = belie in "normal"/"positivist" science, but achieved through critique Critique = sociologist is moral being who must critically but fairly assess moral status of society with impartial standards Impartial Standards = set of principles society declares for itself (morals and manners), average contentment or happiness (culturally relative) Sympathy = similar to Weber's idea of verstehen, ability to leave behind biases to understand society they are studying Methods: -study the "things" (embody/objectify the "common mind" or "voice of people"; choose universal feature of collective life such as age/gender and study specific manifestations of them) and use the discourse of persons --> interview people! (read between the lines of people's speech, manner, etc.) "Standpoint" Theory = early example of feminist theory, both theoretical and methodological tool, based in experiences/perspectives from those on bottom of social order, inductive theory (therefore case/observations led to theory), written for the common people to read, desire to make practical applications of social science (to "understand" was to develop theory based upon the "understandings and standpoint of their OWN system" and how are they functioning/disfunctioning under the system they live under and understand Critical Theory = recognition that domination can quickly be guiding principle (moral) if not action (manner) in society; measuring domination --> condition of less powerful/disempowered, society's idea of liberty (attitudes towards authority and autonomy), society's provision to all to self-directing moral agents
WEB DuBois
-Social and Political Philosophy = black Americans must organize themselves as a race-conscious bloc in order to win and exercise their freedom -Primarily concerned with nature and intersection of race and class, conducted three types of research: 1. Empirical studies illuminating actual social conditions of AAs 2. Interpretive essays informed by careful historical research and personal experience, as well as keen observation that emphasized subjective experience and sources of inequality 3. Explicitly political essays focusing on Pan-Africanist and socialist solutions to inequality and racism Philadelphia Negro: -deeply empirically driven, especially since sociology was largely philosophical at the time -empirical study (through thousands of surveys) of the Seventh Ward (extremely impoverished area where AAs lived in Philadelphia during beginnings of Great Migration) -presents rich array of empirical information about lives of Philadelphia AAs, focusing on "social condition of the Colored People of the Seventh Ward of Philadelphia" -highlighted discrimination as important social factor impacting racial inequality, outlined experiences of pauperism, alcoholism, criminality in black population (did not blame them for their condition due to "pathologies or deficiencies of black ppl") Souls of Black Folk: -explicitly exposed the important intellectual and political schism in black community (Washington - moderate vs. DuBois - radical and Ida B. Wells) -critical of failings of black church to address real economic needs of black community -explored subjectivity because believed that race and racism did not work at strictly rational level -used own biographical experience to illuminate reality of race in US; ignorance of white folk to the plight of black folk, obscured by the Veil -The Color Line = speaks to collective/rational, collective/nonrational, individual/nonrational realms; preexisting social and cultural structure AND internalized attitude; examines objective, demographic, historical (15th century beginnings of slavery) aspects of race and the symbolic and experiential reality of race; non rational working highlighted with - "How does it feel to be the problem?" -Double Consciousness = sense of always looking at one's self through the eyes of others, of measuring one's soul by the tape of a world that looks on in amused contempt and pity; BUT points to greater understanding black ppl have of white AND black folk which is necessary for survival in society -The Veil = form of distortion and division, obscures our views of others and even ourselves; internalized side of the color line, difference effects on ppl because the color line is not equal; prevents whites and blacks from seeing blacks as fully human -Sociology = science that seeks the limits of chance in human conduct; chance is the scientific side of inexplicable will The Souls of White Folk: 1. Epistemology = title of the theory of knowledge claimed by white folk (however, assumed "universal knowledge" of white folk was actually understood by black folk not white folk), bold claims about knowledge of white folk that black folk held 2. Causes and Effects of WWI = world war demonstrated the white power struggle for the largest share in exploiting the darker races, "colonial aggrandizement" (status symbol of being a great colonial power which results in power struggles between White Europe); claimed that non-white folk saw world war coming and were not surprised over what happened (unlike white folk) --> resulted in sadness and Schaden Freude ("get what you deserve" attitude) of non-white folk 3. Dehumanization of Blackness = "black man has no rights which a white man is bound to respect" (from Dred Scott v. Sanford Supreme Court Ruling); points to materialistic and cultural domination of white society which stifles and dehumanizes black people (emphasis that this continues following end of Civil War); need to change symbolic economy of race in order to end racism, segregation, etc. 4. Lie of White Supremacy (Paternalism, Entitlement, Prestige) = entitlement results in whites only being able to see giving others basic human rights as rational if they can also benefit from the freedom of their darker brethren; prestige is the "myth of greatness" of white race ("theory of race that was supplemented by a carefully planned and slowly evolved method...as sort of public and psychological wage...public deference and tides of courtesy because they were white" - black reconstructionism) 5. Religion = institution that best exposed the lie of white supremacy through whiteness as a cult (promotion of white christianity in order to justify colonialism), race consciousness, self-deception, violence and hypocrisy -whites see discrimination as "zero-sum game" --> black gain is white loss
Max Weber
-Sociology = science which attempts the interpretive understanding of social action in order, thereby, to arrive at a causal explanation of its course and effects -Verstehen = interpretive sociology, focus on how people understand the world (to explain action and order) -focus on the subjective, sought to understand the states of mind/motivations that guide individuals's behavior -Sociologist's Task = understand meanings individuals assign to the contexts in which they are acting and the consequences that such meanings have for their conduct Assumptions = essence of human condition was that we need to have/search for meaning (what we are doing and how we are doing it), power of charismatic leaders to transcend the conventions and expectations imposed by the social order, purse non-rational goals by increasingly rational means Extension of Marx's "Historical Materialism": Differences = social life did not evolve according to some immanent/necessary law, development of societies could not be adequately explained on basis of single causal mechanism, NOT capitalism but process of rationalization and increasing dominance of bureaucracies that threaten to destroy creativity and individuality Power: -appears as social organization and always strives for legitimacy, rationalized in bureaucracy (inherent stratification and inequality) -influences meaning (both "material" and "ideal", power in this case, factors can result in social change) -"Switchman Metaphor" = presents that interests drive action but follow the "track" of chosen ideals [essentially BOTH, diverges from Marx here] (enduring debate of interests --> ideals or vice versa); people driven by interests but these interest are material AND ideal (ppl make meaning of, and interpret what is an "interest") Protestantism and Capitalism: -"logic" of capitalism is rational system built upon irrational system of religious ideas, work ethic becomes a moral duty -result of newly formed Protestants who are looking for definitive "signs" of salvation (result of predestination concept) through attempting to follow their correct "calling" --> sign = success and profit, achieved through "moral obligation" of performing labor duties to best of their ability -Isolation = like alienation and anomie, is a result of increasing division of labor; combatted by us engaging in our "calling" (fulfill duties, combat inner loneliness, given sense of purpose) -methodical attitude and practice that characterized Protestant asceticism was integral to rise and eventual dominance of Western capitalism -Iron Cage = ascetic ideals at heart of Protestant Ethic were carried into practical affairs of economic activity and social life more generally -Origins of Modern Capitalism = tech advances, division of labor, emphasis on rationality/calculability/predictability, science/law/administration/formal rules (bureaucracy), assimilation of non-rational --> lead to legitimated capitalism oppression Social Action: -implies that acting individual attaches a subjective meaning to his behavior 4 Types of Social Action= 1. Traditional - behaviors determined by habit/long-standing custom 2. Affectual - impulsive/display of unchecked emotions ("feeling states") 3. Instrumental Rational - similar to cost-benefit, action is geared toward efficient pursuit of goals through calculating advantages and disadvantages; zweckrational = similar to "the ends justify the means", ethnic of conviction 4. Value Rational - strategic selection of means capable of effectively achieving one's goals, wertrational = ethic of responsibility (prescribe/prohibit specific means/modes of conduct, social commitment to social responsibility) Class = ppl who share "life chances" that are determined by economic interests in possession of goods and opportunities for income Status = determined by specific positive/negative social estimation of honor Party = characterized by strategic pursuit of goals and maintenance of staff capable of implementing their objectives (focus on political parties and looking at power and legal order) Power = ability to influence others (by individual person) [ex = parent to child] Domination = focus more on relational power whereby one person can dictate behavior of another person (bureaucratic/group position) [ex = camp counselor to campers] Charismatic Authority = belief in person and patters of order established by person who are legitimated by "gift of grace" (shown through feats, heroism, revelations) Traditional Authority = belief in sanctity of traditions and legitimacy of those exercising them (ex = king) Rational/Legal Authority = belief in legal or rational rules and legitimacy, based on rule of law -pinnacle of domination (iron cage) is bureaucracy and capitalism
Nonrational
-action motivated by ideals, values, morals, traditions, habits, emotional states, norms, quest for meaning, unconscious desires
Rational
-action motivated by strategic/calculated attempts to maximize rewards and benefits while minimizing costs
Georg Simmel
-focused on sociological workings of interpersonal relationships and structure of and changes in zeitgeist (social and cultural "spirit" of his times) -emphasized how micro-level phenomena shape social outcomes -essence of society lies in interactions, therefore society is not a "thing in it of itself" -Interdependent Duality between Society and Individual = a form of individual cannot exist without others (other individuals to interact with); individuality is defined by groups to which one belongs -Sociology = study of social interaction/"sociation"; uncover basic forms of interaction through which individuals pursue their interests/satisfy their desires Assumptions = individuals's motivations are informed by their desire to satisfy their interests/pursue their interests, content of interaction, power is always present in interaction -focus on forms of reciprocal relationships of domination and subordination Forms vs. Content = sought to understand forms in which interaction takes place rather than analyzing the content of the interactions; motivations behind interaction are not social but rather psychological/biological factors, social component is our interactions undertaken in order to fulfill our drives /interests; forms that generally occur in predictable/measurable way (what are pieces of interaction - money, the stranger) "Tragedy of Culture": -modern society has expanded individual's personality to be absorbed into multiple groups (rather than just one) -"Objective Culture" (similar to Marx's commodify fetishism but no focus on "humanization" aspect) = products of human creativity dominating the individual will or "subjective culture" --> this is "tragedy of culture -most profoundly seen in money/exchange interaction -Money has trivialized personal qualities we share with others and ushered in superficial, impersonal, fragmented social relationships; represents alienating of duality between objective and subjective culture; can enter a wider array of relationships but at the expense of transforming the nature of our relationships Money and Exchange: -money is abstract, general standard for measuring value; allows us to become less dependent on others; retains same value, regardless of who possesses it therefore can cancel social inequities; impersonal quality of money allows for qualitative and quantitative expansion of one's social network -every interaction can be understood as a form of exchange; level of sacrifice in interaction in any form of exchange; "value" is subjective and relative and therefore is in the interaction NOT the object being exchanged -See Table 6.2 (Simmel vs. Marx) Fashion: -expression of individualization and differentiation, imitation and conformity Function of Conflict: -inevitable and even beneficial feature of social life -creation of individual and group unity depend on conflict -generates and is basis of in-group/out-group unity, provides individual sense of purpose -without common crisis/goal in face of obstacles there would be no basis for cooperation, group feelings, "harmony of interest", individual identity
George Herbert Mead
-influential in symbolic interactionism and social psychology; drew heavily from pragmatism (American doctrine) and social/psychological behaviorism (empirical branch of psychology that focuses on observable actions) -deeply empirical, with views into psychology via empirically observable proxies (measured mind phenomena via proxies) -viewed mind as behavioral process seen via "conversation of significant gestures" (internal conversation where individual takes attitude of the "other" - social imagination- to determine responses of the "other", i.e. shared expectation of behavior/social interpretation) -mutual dependence between individual and society, both require each other for progressive evolution and to reproduce one another (theory of social control, which informs/shapes individuality because it is what constitutes social interaction) -saw humans as most advanced species bc of ability to communicate symbolically (through language) -Mind = process/behavior that allows for conscious control of one's actions, "intelligent behavior" is the ability to control one's present action with reference to ideas about future consequences -symbols and language are used to point out objects to ourselves and orient our behavior; we interpret "meaning" of social situations through the synthesis of mind and symbols and language -Significant Symbol = words and gestures that have same meaning for all those involved in social act --> allows for coordinated activity through "3-fold relationship" (individual's gesture, adjustive response by another to that gesture, completion of social act initiated by gesture of first individual) The Self: -"I" = "here and now", creative aspect of one's self; spontaneous, unpredictable aspect of self and social interaction that sparks personal and cultural innovation -"Me" = "organized set of attitudes of others which one himself assumes", social product rooted in our perceptions of how others interpret our behaviors -Development of self = 1. Play (only able to assume attitude of one particular individual at a time, largely seen in children until around age 8; only able to switch successively between discrete roles while taking attitude of specific other toward themselves) 2. Game (ability to move beyond simply taking role of particular others and assume rules of multiple others simultaneously; able to control actions based on abstract "rules of game"; "roles organized according to rules" brings attitudes of all participants together in symbolic unity called "GENERALIZED OTHER") -Generalized Other = as part of "looking glass self" - looking at "generalized other" looking at you; our responding, to the organized set of attitudes common in group to which individual belongs, from the POV of whole community makes possible the coordination of diverse action; we're able to orient our behavior toward realization of abstract ideas [freedom, individual rights, fairness, etc] and is how individual works out/negotiates what they think is rational); points to idea that our "attitudes" are not individually held but are in fact social
Sociological Theory
-makes assumptions and categories explicit therefore open to examination, scrutiny and reformulation -ultimately theories attempt to provide an answer to problem of action and order Good Theory = 1. Proposes a relationship btwn variables and concepts 2. Understanding that relationship explains something important about social life 3. Permits range of possible answers that can be logically and/or empirically evaluated 4. Advances knowledge of the field -Theoretical Orientations: Collectivist vs. Individualistic Rational vs. Irrational
Individualist
-patterns of social life seen as emerging from ongoing interaction, agency/will power -individuals and groups create, re-create or alter order.. work UP to produce society -position grants more autonomy to actors, seen as relatively free to reproduce patterns and routines of social life (ie order) or transform them
Collectivist
-patterns of social life sees as product of existing structural arrangements -society works DOWN on individuals and groups to determine order, and is understood as reality "Sui genesis" (of overall system that emerged) that operates according to its own logic distinct from will of individuals
Karl Marx
-theoretical model intended to not only interpret but also change the world -rational, collectivist (largely) Assumptions = class struggle is the catalyst for social change and prime mover of history (conflict between bourgeois and proletariat over the ownership of the means of production), our human nature is to be creators and engage in creative labor, evolution of society (capitalism to socialism to communism to "end of history" - utopia), material existence is what fuels historical change ("historical materialism" - conflict, everything comes out of material conditions) Exploitation = inherent in a capitalistic society, how money/LABOR is stolen and transformed into capital Alienation = produced by private ownership, another form is our "fetishism" of of commodities (value the product more than the life that produced the product), four types: 1. worker form products of their labor 2. workers from production/labor process 3. worker from our species-essence or human essence 4. person from person (society) Capital = possessor of capital (not just money) is transformed into "anything money can buy" --> universal medium capable of being exchanged not only for goods/services but for human qualities such as beauty, talent, or honesty (money is SOCIAL not just economic); our identities therefore become tied not to our characteristics/capacities but instead are tied to our capital (how much we have) "Commodity Fetishism" = placing human qualities into product and thereby dehumanizing the maker/worker Class Consciousness = awareness of self and others within class based upon materialistic conditions "False Consciousness" = the loss of class consciousness that can manifest in multiple ways, distracted by "fleeting things" (such as career, religion, salary --> appear more real than they actually are) Religion = "inverted world consciousness" because we live in an "inverted world"
Emile Durkheim
-theoretical model was developed using a very scientific (empirically driven) and rational approach) --> saw this as more democratic and practical -saw society as Sui generis (objective reality that's irreducible to the individuals that compose it) and amenable to scientific investigation -focus on identifying changing nature of social solidarity and integration over development of societies (functional vs. disfunctional society) Assumptions = society is sui generis (we feel as an individual that we can become bigger than ourselves when we are in a group, we create things outside of ourselves but can only be achieved in a group), underlying morality associated with following society's solidarity (deviance is seen as amoral) Social Facts = conditions and circumstances external to the individual that, nevertheless, determine action and order; has ability to act upon and overpower our social agency (Ex = race, money) Social Solidarity = cohesion of social groups (held together by regulation and integration) -->Individual Conduct is outgrowth of social arrangements, particularly those connected to developmental stage of division of labor -Social Integration is rooted in shared moral code Collective Conscience = totality of beliefs and sentiments common to average citizens of same society that forms a determinate system which has its own life or collective representations (physical, empirical aspect of collective conscience); every group that comes together makes meaning of something and then feel and externalize by placing meaning on representation 2 Forms of Solidarity (from division of labor): 1. Mechanical = rooted in everyone doing/feeling the SAME thing; small, traditional societies based on likeness and similarity (deviant = threat to social order) 2. Organic = each person is interdependent with others, forming complex web of cooperative associations; comes from cultivating individual differences and knowing that each is doing their part for good of whole (based on socialization) [deviant = small social stigma then shift to find different specialization] Anomie = very similar to Marx's alienation, describes the pathological consequences of over specialized division of labor; "normlessness" in society Sociology = distinct field of study, uses same scientific methods as other fields, distinct from psychological realm (individual to the collective) Function of Crime = "normal" in all societies because it defines the moral boundaries of society by communicating the range of acceptable behaviors, offend collective conscience (society withouts crime would require everyone to have same moral notion and that each person came to that conclusion of their own) Suicide as Social: -Characteristics = integration of individual in social group, moral regulation of social group (each could be either balanced or "chronic") -demonstrated that individual pathologies are rooted in social conditions Anomie Suicide = not enough regulation Fatalistic Suicide = too much regulation (ex = slaves, suicide bombers) Egoistic Suicide = not enough integration (ex = catholic vs protestants) Altruistic Suicide = too much integration (obligatory, optional, acute; ex = military and cults) Religion as Social: Ritual = highly routinized act (ex = communion) Totem/Symbolization = something that stands for something else, representation that calls collective ideas and meanings -saw religious ceremonies as worshipping of social life itself -religion is carrier of social sentiments -profane vs. sacred Primary Object = system of ideas with which individuals represent to themselves society of which they are members Collective Effervescence = universal dichotomy of profane vs. sacred which separates menial tasks for "special" tasks (collective "feeling" within group, plays role of explaining and placing meaning on the things in their life)
Three Levels of Theory
1. Meta-Theory (epistemology) = goals and aims of science, strategies for knowing, standards of evaluation, implicit and untestable assumptions 2. Conceptual-Theory (ontology) = perspectives by which we address reality; language, images, vocabulary, classifications 3. Relational-Theory = proposes for what, when, where, why, and how things vary (action and order); two forms are Discovery/Generalization (predicts what, when, where action and order occurs based on average generally) and Explanation (explaining beyond the average observed); theory that is a system of generalizable/explanatory statements/propositions about phenomena
Jane Addams
Assumption = pragmatic approach, what and how are people thinking and using to make sense of things that they "understand", need to build theory on deeply FELT and LIVED experiences -sociology FOR people -applied sociology, advocated for social work concerned with social reform and justice because believed it was sociologist's ethical obligation to create better society for marginalized (Ex = life dedication to Hull House, focus on pragmatism and social uplift) -inductive theorist ("sanity of judgement") who believed work of sociologist should be to analyze situation-at-hand so that change could be brought about -Point of theory was to report and analyze the situation-at-hand as a narrative of multiple vantage points -Understood the individual social being as an embodied, agent subjectivity, motivated by interests and ethics; concentration on individual but individual as embodiment (ex = sociology of emotions) -Outlined society's essential characteristics, describes configuration of American society, analyzes how configuration should CHANGE if America is to transform into socialized democracy (theorized how social change can occur; through changes of consciousness and habits of interaction, in invention of new forms and sites of association, in using new associational forms to urge state to act responsibly towards all its citizens) Assumptions = change is constant (fundamental question is how to direct change to produce socialized democracy) -focused on contradictions of society -focused heavily on social interactions, how ppl make and apply meaning to social life, and how they develop a sense of identity and selfhood; effect of ethical agency and its constraints and moral dimensions of social meaning -great influence on method of "ethnography" (seeking to understand social conditions and arrangements through close and sustained observation of people's daily lives)
Theory
System of generalizable or explanatory statements or propositions about phenomena -vital, holds assorted observations and facts together -facts make sense only because we interpret them using preexisting categories and assumptions
Note
"Agency"/"Individualist" theories are not necessarily destructive of social order, can also reproduce/affirm structure of social order
Sociology
-Attempts to solve the problem of "action and order" (WHAT we do and the WAY we do it) Action = how individuals/groups act Order = patterns and/or predictability of behavior -Pays attention to external (rather than internal) phenomena "Independent Variable" (external phenomena, empirically observable via proxy) --> "Dependent Variable" (Action and Order, empirically observable)