Social Problems Chapter 12: Population Growth and Aging

Types of Retirement Plans

-(1) traditional pensions, which are "defined benefit" plans, in which retirees receive a specified annual amount until their death (2) "defined contribution" plans in which workers contribute money to 401k plans or individual retirement accounts (IRAs), without any guarantee of what their future benefits will be. -Pensions, 401k plans, and IRAs provide limited financial security for old age. Fewer private employers are offering guaranteed pensions, and budget shortfalls threaten the pensions and other retirement benefits for government workers. Defined contribution retirement plans (401k plans and IRAs) are risky because they involve investments in the market and their value fluctuates. - In the recent economic crisis, the stock market took a huge hit, producing losses that decimated the IRAs and 401ks of older Americans. Many workers who were planning to retire could no longer afford to stop working. Others who had recently retired and then lost a lot of money in the market felt compelled to reenter the labor force. - Although some older workers want to retire but can't afford to, other older workers want to continue working but are forced to retire due to health problems/disability, job cuts, or displacement, or the need to care for parents or spouses.

e) China's One-Child Policy

-1979 China initiated a national family planning policy that encourages families to have only one child by imposing a monetary fine on couples that have more than one child. The implementation and enforcement of this policy varies from one province to another, and there are a number of exemptions that allow some couples to have two or even more children. -But the one child policy has been effective in reducing population growth in China, which has the highest rate of modern contraceptive use in the world. Of married women ages 15 to 49 in China, 86% use modern contraceptives. -China has been criticized for using extreme measures to enforce its one-child policy, including steep fines, seizure of property, and forced sterilizations and abortions. -In addition, because of a traditional preference for male heirs, many Chinese couples have aborted female fetuses with the hope of having a boy in a subsequent pregnancy. This has led to an imbalanced sex ratio, with many more Chinese males than females. -Another problem with the one-child policy is that as older Chinese retire, there are fewer workers to take their place and to support pensions for the elderly. Largely due to concerns of these imbalances in the population structure, China is considering adopting a 2 child policy.

d) Access to Safe Abortion

-Abortion is a sensitive and controversial issue that has religious, moral, cultural, legal, political, and health implications. -Worldwide, 1/5 pregnancies end in abortion, 1/10 pregancies end in unsafe abortion, inclding those performed in unhygienic conditions by unskilled providers (like traditional or religious healers and herbalists) and those that are self-induced by a woman inserting a foreign object into her uterus, ingesting toxic substances, or inflicting trauma to the abdomen. Of the estimated 42 mil. abortions each year, about 47,000 girls and women die. Almost all unsafe abortions take place in developing countries. -More than a quarter of the world's population lives in countries where abortion is prohibited or allowed only to save the life of the woman. Where abortion is illegal, it is very often unsafe, and where abortion is legal, and widely accessible through formal health systems, it is highly safe. Because the abortion rate is similar in regions with legal abortion and in regions with restrictive abortion laws, "legal restrictions on abortion largely do not affect whether women will get an abortion, but they can have a major impact on whether abortion takes place under safe or unsafe conditions, and, therefore, whether it jeopardizes women's health and lives".

Ageism: Prejudice and Discrimination toward the Elderly

-Ageism---refers to negative stereotyping, prejudice, and discrimination based on a person's or group's perceived chronological age. Ageism is reflected in negative stereotypes of the elderly, such as that they are slow, they don't change their ways, they are grumpy, they are poor drivers, they can't/don't want to learn new things, they are incompetent, and they are physically and/or cognitively impaired. -Ageism also occurs when older individuals are treated differently because of their age, such as when they are spoken to loudly in simple language, assuming they cannot understand normal speech, or when they are denied employment due to their age. -Another form of ageism---ageism by invisibility---occurs when older adults are not included in advertising and educational materials. -Old age is stereotypically viewed as a negative time during which older individuals suffer a loss of identity (retirement from job), loss of respect from society, and increasing dependence on others. Although stereotypes of old people may accurately describe a number of old people, for many older individuals, these stereotypes do not apply. Contrary to negative views of aging, people in their later years can be productive and fulfilled. -Ageism is embedded in our culture and is much more widely accepted than other "isms" such as racism, sexism, and heterosexism. Nelson states that "there is no other group like the elderly about which we feel free to openly express stereotypes and even subtle hostility". Gullette said that "ageism is to the 21st century what sexism, racism, homophobia, and ableism were earlier in the 20th century---extrenched and implicit systems of discrimination, without adequate movements of resistance to oppose them". -Ageism is different from the other "isms" in that everyone is vulnerable to ageism if they live long enough. -Another indicator of ageism in our society is the negative view of wrinkles, gray hair, and other physical signs of aging. Many Americans purchase products or treatments to make them look younger, spending lots of money and undergoing unnecessary and often risky medical procedures to look younger. -Unlike more traditional societies that honor and respect their elders, ageism is widespread in modern societies. With the invention of the printing press, elders lost their special status as the keepers of a culture's stories and knowledge. Ageism also stems partly from fear and anxiety surrounding aging and death. Many people are uncomfortable around the topic of death and don't like to acknowledge death as a natural part of the life cycle. We use euphemisms to avoid talking about death: We say someone "passed away", "has gone to a better place", "is resting in peace", "kicked the bucket", "has departed", and so on. Old people are reminders of our mortality, and as such, take on negative social meanings.

b) Economic Development

-Although fertility reduction can be achieved without industrialization, economic development may play an important role in slowing population growth. -Families in poor countries often rely on having many children to provide enough labor and income to support the family. Economic development decreases the economic value of children and is also associated with more education for women and greater gender equality. -Economic development tends to result in improved health status of populations. Reductions in infant and child mortality are important for fertility decline because couples no longer need to have many pregnancies to ensure that some children survive into adulthood. The more developed a country is, the more likely women are to be exposed to meanings and values that promote fertility control through their interaction in educational settings and through media and information technologies.

Global Context of Population Growth?

-Although thousands of years passed before the world's population reached 1 billion around 1800, the population exploded from 1 billion to 6 billion in less than 300 years. -World population was 1.6 billion when we entered the 20th century, and 6.1 billion when we entered the 21st century. -In only 12 years, world population grew from 6 billion (in 1999) to 7 billion (in 2011)

The Aging of the World's Population

-Another demographic trend that presents its own set of challenges is the increasing number and proportion of older individuals in the total population. -Between 2010 and 2050, the percentage of older individuals (65 and over) in the world population is expected to double, and will nearly double in the U.S. The United Nations projects that in 2080, more than 2 billion people--1 in 5 people in the world--will be 65 or older. In the U.S., the number and share of people age 80 and older is also growing. -The aging of the world's population is due to both declining levels of fertility and to increased longevity. In more than 70 countries--including China, Japan, and all European countries--fertility rates have fallen well below the 2.1 children replacement level. Globally, life expectancy increased from 49 in the 1950s to 68 between 2005 and 2010, and is expected to rise to 81 between 2095 and 2100. -In the U.S., another factor contributing to the aging of the population is the aging of an unusually large generation of Americans known as the baby boomers--the generation of Americans born between 1946 and 1964, a period of high birthrates. The first of the baby boomer generation turned 65 in 2011. -Population aging increases pressure on a society's ability to support its elderly members. A commonly used indicator of this pressure is the elderly support ratio--calculated as the number of working-age people divided by the number of people 65 or older. Globally, "working age" is considered to be ages 15 to 64; in the U.S., "working age" is considered to be ages 20 to 64. As the proportion of older people increases in a population, fewer working-age adults support the elderly population. In 1950, worldwide there were 12 people of working age (15 to 64) for every person age 65 and older. In 2010, the elderly support ratio was 9 to 1, and by 2050, it is expected to drop to 4 to 1. Germany, Italy, and Japan have an elderly support ratio of 3 to 1--the lowest in the world. By 2050, Japan will have only one working-age adult for every elderly person; Germany and Italy will each have two. -The decrease in the elderly support ratio raises concerns about whether there will be enough workers to take care of the older population. Population aging raises other concerns as well: How will societies provide housing, medical care, transportation, and other needs of the increasing elderly population?

a) Cutting Social Security Benefits

-Cuts in Social Security benefits would create a significant financial burden on households that depend on Social Security. -Aside from simply reducing the amount of benefits paid to recipients, another way to cut benefits is to increase the retirement age. In 1983, the retirement age (the age at which a worker could collect full Social Security retirement benefits) was raised from 65 to 67 to be phased in over 23 years. Some policy makers suggest raising the retirement age even further to 68, 69, or even 70. However, due to the link between higher socioeconomic status and longer life expectancy, raising retirement age imposes the greatest burden on low earners who have lower life expectancies and therefore fewer years to collect Social Security. In addition, older workers already face employment discrimination, and finding or keeping employment is difficult for seniors. Finally, the older workers become, the more likely they will experience health problems, and hence file disability claims.

Symbolic Interactionist Perspective on Population and Aging?

-Focuses on how meanings, labels, and definitions learned through symbolic interaction affect population problems. Ex. Many societies are characterized by pronatalism---a cultural value that promotes having children. Throughout history, many religions have worshipped fertility and recognized it as being necessary for the continuation of the human race. In many countries, religions prohibit or discourage birth control, contraceptives, and abortion. Women in pronatalistic societies learn through interaction with others that deliberate control of fertility is socially unacceptable. Women who use contraception in communities in which family planning is not socially accepted face ostracism by their community, disdain from relatives and friends, and even divorce and abandonment by their husbands. However, once some women learn new definitions of fertility control, they become role models and influence the attitudes and behaviors of others in their personal networks. -Emphasizes the importance of examining social meanings and definitions associated with aging. "Old age" is largely a social construct; there is no biological marker that indicates when a person is "old". Rather, old age is a matter of social definition. In the U.S., and much of the world, a person is considered to be old or a senior citizen when they reach 65, as this is the age that company pension plans and Social Security have used to define when a person retires and collects benefits. Due to changes in the Social Security System, the retirement age for receiving full Social Security benefits has been increased to 67, yet we continue to use 65 to define "elderly". -Also learn both positive and negative meanings associated with old age, such as "wise" and "experienced" as well as "frail" and "impaired". In U.S. culture, negative labels of older people, such as "crone", "old geezer", and "old biddy" are predominant, and reflect ageism -Reminds us that understanding the quality of life among the elderly requires consideration of how the elderly subjectively define their experiences. Ex. to asses social isolation among the elderly, researchers often use objective measures such as the frequency of social contacts among the elderly. But it is also important to consider how the elderly subjectively experience their level of social contact, as some older adults have a preference for engaging in solitary activities and experience being alone as enjoyable.

Conflict Perspective on Population and Aging

-Focuses on how wealth and power, or the lack thereof, affect population problems. -1798 Malthus predicted that the population would grow faster than the food supply and that masses of people were destined to be poor and hungry. According to Malthusian theory, food shortages would lead to war, disease, and starvation, which would eventually slow population growth. However, conflict theorists argue that food shortages result primarily from inequitable distribution of power and resources. -Also note that population growth results from pervasive poverty and the subordinate position of women in many less developed countries. Poor countries have high infant and child mortality rates. Hence, women in many poor countries feel compelled to have many children to increase the chances that some will survive into adulthood. Their subordinate position prevents many women from limiting their fertility. In many developing countries, a woman must get her husband's consent before she can receive any contraceptive services.Thus, according to conflict theorists, population problems result from continued economic and gender inequality. -View the elderly population as a special interest group that competes with younger populations for scarce resources. Debates about funding programs for the elderly (such as Social Security and Medicare) versus funding for youth programs (such as public schools and child health programs) largely represent conflicting interests of the young versus the old. A growing elderly population means that the elderly have increased power in political issues. In the U.S., adults age 65 to 74 have the highest rate of voting of any age group.

World Population: History, Current Trends, and Future Projections.

-Humans have existed on this planet for at least 200,000 years. -For 99% of human history, population growth was restricted by disease and limited food supplies. -Around 8000 B.C., the development of agriculture and the domestication of animals led to increased food supplies and population growth, but even then, harsh living conditions and disease still put limits on the rate of growth. This pattern continued until the mid-18th century, when the Industrial Revolution improved the standard of living for much of the world's population. The improvements included better food, cleaner drinking water, improved housing and sanitation, and advances in medical technology, such as antibiotics and vaccinations against infectious diseases--all of which contributed to rapid increases in the population. -Population doubling time is the time required for a population to double from a given base year if the current rate of growth continues. -It took several thousand years for the world's population to double to a size of 14 million, but then took only a thousand years to nearly double to 27 million and another thousand to reach 50 million. From there, it took only 500 years to double from 50 million to 100 million, and 400 years for the next doubling to occur. When the Industrial Revolution began around 1750, population growth exploded, taking only 100 years to double. The most recent doubling--from three billion in 1960, to six billion in 1999----took only about 40 years. Although the world population will continue to grow in the coming decades, it will probably not double in size again. -World population is projected to grow from 6.9 billion in 2010 to 8 billion in 2025, 9.3 billion in 2050, and 10 billion in 2085. Most of the world's population live in less developed countries. The most populated country in the world today is China, where nearly one in five people on this planet live. By 2050, India will become the most populated country. -Nearly all of world population growth is in less developed countries, mostly in Africa and Asia. Higher population growth in developing countries is largely due to higher total fertility rates---the average lifetime number of births per woman in a population. Although total fertility rates worldwide have declined significantly from nearly 5 in the 1950s to 2.45 between 2010 and 2015, they continue to be highest in the least developed countries of the world. -Other factors that affect population size include migration, armed conflict, economic stagnation, and high rates of disease such as HIV/AIDS. -Although some predict that population will stabilize around the middle of the 21st century, no one knows for sure. -Despite the overall decline in fertility rates, there are 25 countries in the world, primarily in Africa, where women have an average of between 5 and 7 children. -To reach population stabilization, fertility rates throughout the world would need to achieve what is called "replacement level", whereby births would replace, but not outnumber, deaths. -Replacement-level fertility---the level of fertility at which a population exactly replaces itself from one generation to the next--is 2.1 births per woman, slightly more than 2 because not all female children will live long enough to reach their reproductive years. -The number of countries that have achieved below-replacement fertility rates has grown from 5 between 1950 and 1955, to more than 70 in 2010 and is expected to reach 196 by 2050. In some of these countries, population will continue to grow for several decades because of the population momentum--continued population growth as a result of past high fertility rates that have resulted in a large number of young women who are currently entering their childbearing years. -But there are 37 countries or areas whose populations are projected to decrease between 2009 and 2050. -The U.S. population has a total fertility rate slightly lower than the replacement level--2.0 in 2010. However, U.S. population is expected to continue to increase through 2050 because of immigration. -In sum, there are two population size trends occurring simultaneously that appear to be contradictory: (1) The total number of people on this planet is rising and is expected to continue to increase over the coming decades (2) fertility rates are so low in some countries that the countries' populations are likely to decline over the coming years.

Is Social Security in Crisis?

-In 2010, Social Security's income ($781 billion) exceeded its expenditures ($713 billion). However, a number of factors threaten the long-term ability of Social Security to meet its financial obligations to future retirees, including the retirement of the baby boomers, increasing longevity, the declining elderly support ratio (fewer workers per beneficiary), widening wage inequality (which means that more income is not subject to Social Security taxes), high rates of unemployment, and wage stagnation. -Since 1984, surpluses have been accumulating in the trust fund, creating significant reserves for the baby boomers' retirement. According to the most recent report of the Social Security Trustees, Social Security's total income, including interest earnings on trust fund assets, will be sufficient to cover annual costs until 2023, and trust fund reserves will be exhausted in 2036; thereafter, funding from taxes would cover only about 3/4 of benefits through 2085. The bottom line seems to be that, in the short-term, Social Security is not "broke" and there is no immediate crisis. But long-term changes to the Social Security system will be needed to ensure that the program is able to meet its financial obligations to future retirees.

The Role of Social Security in Retirement

-In addition to retirement plans and savings, most workers are eligible to receive Social Security retirement benefits when they reach retirement age. -Social Security, actually titled "Old Age, Survivors, Disability, and Health Insurance", is a federal insurance program established in 1935 that protects against loss of income due to retirement, disability, or death. -More than 2/3 of Social Security benefits paid in 2009 were retirement benefits, 19% were disability benefits, and 12% were survivor benefits (to dependent spouses and children). - The amount a person receives from Social Security is based on how much that person earned during their working history--higher lifetime earnings result in higher benefits. Benefit payments also depend on the age at which a person retires. The minimum age for receiving full benefits was 65 years for many years, but in 1983, Congress phased in a gradual increase in the full retirement age from 65 to 67. People born in 1960 and later are subject to the new retirement age of 67. Retirees can claim reduced benefits as early as age 62; they receive a larger benefit if they wait until age 70 to claim benefits. In the U.S., spouses are entitled to 1/2 of their partners' benefits regardless of their own work histories and Social Security contributions. -June 2011, average monthly Social Security benefit to retired workers was $1180.80, which totals about $14,000 a year. -When Social Security was established in 1935, it was not intended to be a person's sole economic support in old age; rather, it was meant to supplement other savings and assets. But Social Security is a major source of family income for most older Americans: For more than half of Americans over age 65, Social Security provides more than half of their income, and without Social Security income, nearly half of all seniors would be living in poverty. -Poverty rates for U.S. adults ages 65 and older are lower than for any other age group. -Because Social Security payments are based on the number of years of paid work and preretirement earnings, women and minorities, who often earn less during their employment years, receive less in retirement benefits.

f) Voluntary Childlessness

-In the U.S., as in other countries of the world, the cultural norm is for women and couples to, sooner or later, want to have children. -However, a small but growing segment of U.S. women and men does not want children and chooses to be childfree. -In the U.S., 7% of women ages 35 to 44 are voluntarily childless, making voluntary childlessness more common than involuntary childlessness. -In general, childfree couples are more educated, live in urban areas, are less religious, and do not adhere to traditional gender ideology. -In a study of childless-by-choice women, the top reason women gave for not wanting children is that they simply love their life as it is. Other reasons included valuing freedom and independence and not wanting to take on the responsibility. 3/4 of women said they "had no desire to have a child, no maternal/paternal instinct". Another reason some individuals choose not to have children is concern for overpopulation and a deep caring for the health of the planet. Yet, ironically, voluntarily childless individuals are often criticized as being selfish and individualistic, as well as less well adjusted and less nurturing.

c) Expanding Social Security Benefits

-In this current economic climate, people need more, not less, economic support. -Options for increasing Social Security benefits include raising the minimum benefit amount, offering unemployed parents who are taking care of their children wage credits, and increasing the benefits for the very old (85 years and older). Another proposal involves restoring a student benefit (which existed between 1965 and 1985) so that children of the retired, deceased, or disabled can continue to receive benefits until age 22 if attending college or vocational school. -Proposals to cut Social Security benefits or raise retirement age for receiving benefits are opposed by seniors and advocacy groups for older adults. Raising the tax cap would go far to ensure the future financial viability of Social Security, but this option is generally not supported by the wealthy segment of the population who would bear the burden of higher taxes. Until legislators enact change to prevent the long-term Social Security deficit, there is little chance of seeing Social Security benefits increased.

Family Caregiving for Our Elders

-Many adults have or will provide care and/or financial support for aging spouses, parents, grandparents, and in-laws. Adults who care for their aging parents while also taking care of their own children are referred to as members of the sandwich generation---they are "sandwiched" in between taking care of both parents and children. -For thousands of years, caring for older adults has been an important function of the family. Ex. Chinese culture embraces the tenet of filial piety, which entails respecting, obeying, pleasing, and offering support and care to parents. Due to social, economic, and cultural changes, it has become more difficult for families throughout the world to care for aging parents. -Countries around the world have used various methods to encourage parental support. The U.S. and Taiwan offer tax deductions and credits to adult children caring for elderly parents. In China, which has the largest aging population in the world, some parents have taken their adult children to court for failing to support them. Millions of Chinese families have signed a Family Support Agreement---a voluntary contract between older parents and adult children that specifies the details of how the adult children will provide parental care.

Poor Maternal, Infant, and Child Health

-Maternal deaths are the leading cause of mortality for reproductive-age women in the developing world. -Having several children at short intervals increases the changes of premature birth, infectious disease, and death for the mother or the baby. -Childbearing at young ages (teens) also increases the risks of health problems and death for both women and infants. -In developing countries, 1 in 4 children is born unwanted, increasing the risk of neglect and abuse. -The more children a woman has, the fewer the parental resources (parental income, time, and maternal nutrition) and social resources (health care and education) available to each child.

Employment Age Discrimination of Elderly

-Most (80%) Americans think they will continue working full- or part-time after they reach retirement age, either because they will want to (44%) or because they will have to (36%). One of the obstacles older workers face in finding and keeping employment is age discrimination. Lahey found that younger job seekers were 40% more likely to be offered a job interview than older job seekers with similar resumes. -Older workers may be more vulnerable to being "let go" because, although they have seniority on the job, they may also have higher salaries, and businesses that need to cut payroll expenses can save more money by letting higher-salaried personnel go. -Prospective employers may view older job applicants as "overqualified" for entry-level positions, less productive than younger workers, and/or more likely to have health problems that could affect not only their productivity, but the cost of employer-based group insurance premiums. -Employers may also be concerned about the ability of older workers to learn new skills and adapt to new technology.

Retirement Concerns of Older Americans

-One of the concerns as we age is financial planning for retirement. A majority (53%) of nonretired U.S. adults do not think they will have enough money to live comfortably in retirement, up from about a third in 2002. -More than half of U.S. households are at high risk of experiencing a significant drop in living standards at retirement. -Only 57% of Americans have enough retirement savings to replace one year's worth of salary; only 11% have more than 4 years worth of salary saved in retirement accounts.

b) Increasing Social Security Revenue

-One option for increasing Social Security revenue is to raise the tax that funds Social Security (the payroll or FICA tax) from its current rate of 12.4% (6.2% paid by employer, 6.2% paid by employee) to a higher rate. To offset gains in life expectancy, Social Security taxes increased 19 times, from 1% between 1937 and 1949 to 6.2% in 1990 (paid by both employer and employee) As of August 2011, Social Security taxes have not increased since 1990--the longest period without an increase to the payroll tax. The downside to raising the payroll tax is that it could result in fewer jobs, as employers would have a higher financial burden. Paying a higher payroll tax would also disproportionately burden low-wage earners. -Another option is to raise or even eliminate the tax cap, so that more earnings are taxed, providing more funds to the Social Security program. This would affect higher-income earners, who currently earn more than the tax cap, but only pay payroll taxes on the first $106,800 of their earnings. -Finally, policies that increase employment and wages of all workers would lead to more revenue for Social Security. Because health insurance costs are deducted from taxable income, policies to reduce health care costs would also indirectly increase Social Security funding.

Combating Ageism and Age Discrimination in the Workplace

-One strategy to combat ageism involves incorporating positive views of aging in educational lessons, beginning in preschool, and in other forms of media. Such lessons should teach about aging as a normal part of life, rather than something to fear or be embarrassed about. Younger people should have opportunities to learn from the wisdom, experience, and life perspective of older individuals. -1967 Congress passed the Age Discrimination in Employment Act (ADEA), which was designed to ensure continued employment for people between the ages of 40 and 65. In 1986, the upper age limit was removed, making mandatory retirement illegal in most occupations. Under ADEA, it is illegal to discriminate against people because of their age with respect to hiring, firing, promotion, layoff, compensation, benefits, job assignments, and training. -Age discrimination is difficult to prove. Nevertheless, thousands of age discrimination cases are filed with the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) annually.

Environmental Problems and Resource Scarcity

-Overpopulation is the world's top environmental problem, followed closely by climate change and the need to replace fossil fuels with renewable energy sources. Population growth places increased demands on natural resources, such as forests, water, cropland, and oil, and results in increased waste and pollution. -Half of the planet's forests have been cleared for human land use and, in 2025, 2/3 of the world's population will be living in countries with water scarcity or stress, and the world's fisheries will be depleted by the middle of this century. -The countries that suffer most from shortages of water, farmland, and food are developing countries with the highest population growth rates. However, countries with the largest populations do not necessarily have the largest impact on the environment. This is because the demands that humanity makes on the earth's natural resources--each person's environmental footprint--is determined by the patterns of production and consumption in that person's culture. The environmental footprint of an average person in a high-income country is much larger than that of someone in a low-income country. Hence, although population growth is a contributing factor in environmental problems, patterns of production and consumption are at least as important in influencing the effects of population on the environment.

Poverty, Unemployment, and Global Insecurity

-Poverty and unemployment are problems that plague countries with high population growth. -Less developed, poor countries with high birthrates do not have enough jobs for a rapidly growing population, and land for subsistence farming becomes increasingly scarce as populations grow. -In some ways, poverty leads to high fertility because poor women are less likely to have access to contraception and are more likely to have large families in the hope that some children will survive to adulthood and support them in old age. But high fertility also exacerbates poverty, because families have more children to support and national budgets for education and health care are stretched thin. -Rapid population growth is a contributing factor to global insecurity, including civil unrest, war, and terrorism. Although world population is overall aging, some countries in Africa and the Middle East are experiencing a "youth bulge"--a high proportion of 15 to 29 year olds relative to the adult population. Youth bulges result from high fertility rates and declining infant mortality rates, a common pattern in developing countries today. The combination of a youth bulge with other characteristics of rapidly growing populations, such as resource scarcity, high unemployment rates, poverty, and rapid urbanization, sets the stage for political unrest. "Large groups of unemployed young people, combined with overcrowded cities and lack of access to farmland and water create a population that is angry and frustrated with the status quo and thus is more likely to resort to violence to bring about change."

a) Family Planning and Contraception

-Since the 1950s, governments and nongovernmental organizations such as the International Planned Parenthood Federation have sought to lower fertility through family planning programs that provide reproductive health services and access to contraceptive information and methods. -Worldwide, 55% of married women ages 15 to 49 uses some form of modern contraception; in the U.S., 73% of women use modern contraception; in least developed countries, 23% married women use modern contraception. -Worldwide, about 215 mil. women who don't want to be pregnant are not using modern contraception, 78 mil. use traditional, less reliable methods of family planning, and 137 mil. use no method at all. -Ryerson claims that in most countries, lack of access to family planning is a very minor reason for not using contraception. In Nigeria, less than 1% of nonusers who don't want to be pregnant cite lack of access as the reason. Other reasons for not using modern contraception include (1) the belief that modern methods of contraception are dangerous (2) male partners are opposed to using modern contraception (3) the belief that one's religion opposes the use of contraception (4) the belief that God should decide how many children a woman has. -Encouraging women to use modern contraception requires providing access to affordable contraceptive methods, but providing access is not enough. Women and men need education to dispel myths about the dangers of using contraception and to understand the health and economic benefits of delayed, spaced, and limited childbearing. Involving men in family planning services is important because although men play a central role in family planning decisions, they often do not have access to information and services that would empower them to make informed decisions about contraceptive use.

How is Social Security Funded?

-Social Security is funded by workers through a payroll tax called the Federal Insurance Contributions Act (FICA) that comprises 12.4% of a worker's wages (62.% is deducted from the worker's paycheck and 6.2% is paid by the employer). Self-employed workers pay the entire FICA tax. FICA taxes are paid on wages up to a certain level, or tax cap, which changes each year based on average U.S. wages. In 2011, the tax cap was $106,800, meaning that people whose wages were more than this amount paid FICA tax only on the first $106,800 of their earnings. -Another source of funding for Social Security is a tax on higher-income beneficiaries. For most recipients, Social Security benefits are not taxed, but for recipients who have income from other sources that is above a certain amount ($25,000 for individuals; 32,000 for couples), a portion of Social Security benefits is taxed to help finance Social Security. -Finally, Social Security funds are held in a trust fund and invested in securities guaranteed as to both principal and interest by the federal government. Social Security benefits are paid out of this trust fund, and each year a Board of Trustees issues a report on the financial status of the trust fund.

Options for Reforming Social Security

-Social Security is the most solvent part of the U.S. government. It is funded through its own separate tax and interest from its trust fund to pay beneficiaries. No other government program or agency is fully funded. -Social Security is also a very efficient program. Although it collects taxes from more than 90% of the workforce and sends benefits to more than 50 million Americans, Social Security spends less than one cent of every dollar on administration. -But unless changes are made in years to come, Social Security won't have enough funds to provide payouts to future retirees. -Options include strategies for increasing Social Security Revenue, cutting benefits, and expanding Social Security benefits.

c) The Status of Women: The Importance of Education and Employment

-Throughout the developing world, the primary status of women is that of wife and mother. Women in developing countries traditionally have not been encouraged to seek education or employment; rather, they are encouraged to marry early and have children. -Improving the status of women by providing educational and occupational opportunities is vital to curbing population growth. Educated women are more likely to marry later, want smaller families, and use contraception. Data from many countries have shown that women with at least a secondary-level education eventually give birth to between 1/3 and 1/2 as many children as women with no formal education. -Better-educated women tend to delay marriage and exercise more control over their reproductive lives, including decisions about childbearing. In addition, "education can result in smaller family size when the education provides access to a job that offers a promising alternative to early marriage and childbearing". -Providing employment opportunities for women is also important to slow population growth, since high levels of female labor force participation and higher wages for women are associated with smaller family size. -Primary school enrollment of young girls and boys is also related to declines in fertility rates. In countries where primary school enrollment is widespread or nearly universal, fertility declines more rapidly because (1) schools help spread attitudes about the benefits of family planning (2) universal education increases the cost of having children because parents sometimes are required to pay school fees for each child and because they lose potential labor that children could provide. - However, providing access to contraception and increasing girls' education are unlikely to slow population growth without changes in male attitudes towards family planning. Indeed, attempts to provide free primary education may increase African men's desire for more children because the costs are decreased. -Another important component of family planning and reproductive health programs involves changing traditional male attitudes toward women. According to traditional male gender attitudes (1) a woman's most important role is being a wife and a mother (2) it is a husband's right to have sex with his wife at his demand (3) it is a husband's right to refuse to use condoms and to forbid his wife to use any other form of contraception.

Efforts to Curb Population Growth: Reducing Fertility

-To some population experts, stopping population growth is a critical issue. "Zero population growth, which characterized human population for more than 99% of its history, must be achieved once again, at least as a long-term average, if the human species is to survive". -Although worldwide fertility rates have fallen significantly since the 1950s, they are still high in many less developed regions.

Responding to Problems of Population Growth and Population Aging

-Whereas some countries are struggling to slow population growth, others are challenged with maintaining or even increasing their populations. -In some countries with below-replacement fertility levels, population strategies have focused on increasing rather than decreasing population. Ex. In Australia and Japan, the government has paid women a monetary bonus for having babies. -Aside from monetary rewards, many countries encourage childbearing by implementing policies designed to help women combine child rearing with employment. Ex. Many European countries have generous family leave policies and universal child care. -Another way to increase population is to increase immigration. Ex. Spain has eased restrictions on immigration as a way to gain population.

What are some problems related to the aging of the population?

-ageism--prejudice and discrimination against older individuals, employment and retirement concerns of older Americans, and the challenge of meeting the various needs of the elderly population (like retirement income and health care).

What are some social problems related to population growth?

-environmental problems, poverty and unemployment, global insecurity, and poor maternal/infant health.

Structural Functionalist Perspective on Population and Aging

-focuses on how changes in one aspect of the social system affect other aspects of society. Ex. the demographic transition theory of population describes how industrialization has affected population growth. According to this theory, high fertility rates are necessary in traditional agricultural societies to offset high mortality and to ensure continued survival of the population. As a society becomes industrialized and urbanized, improved sanitation, health, and education lead to a decline in mortality. The increased survival rate of infants and children along with the declining economic value of children leads to a decline in fertility rates. About 1/3 of the world's countries have completed the demographic transition--the progression from a population with short lives and large families to one in which people live longer and have smaller families. -Many countries with low fertility rates have entered what is known as a "second demographic transition", in which fertility falls below the two-child replacement level. This second demographic transition has been linked to greater educational and job opportunities for women, increased availability of effective contraception, and the rise of individualism and materialism. -The growing elderly population is a social change that has led to a number of other social changes, such as increased pressure on the workforce and on federal programs to support the aging population (Medicare and Social Security). Increased longevity also affects families, who often bear the brunt of elder care. -Also focuses attention on the unintended, or latent, consequences of social behavior. Although the intended, or manifest, function of modern contraception is to control and limit childbearing, there have also been far-reaching unintended effects of contraception on the social and economic status of women. The development of modern contraceptives--particularly the birth control pill--has led to fewer births to high school- and college-aged women, increased age at first marriage, and increased participation by women in the workforce. "The advent of the pill allowed women greater freedom in career decisions, by allowing them to invest in higher education and a career with far less risk of an unplanned pregnancy." Another example of an unintended consequence can be found in the findings of studies that link Social Security programs in various countries and lowered fertility. One reason that people have children is to provide security in old age. Social Security reduces the need to have children to secure care in old age.