socio 12 gender

Theoratical perspective on gender: Structural Functionalism

(most important &major influence on research in the social sciences, including gender studies.) -Functionalists argue that gender roles were established well before the pre-industrial era when men typically took care of responsibilities outside of the home, such as hunting, and women typically took care of the domestic responsibilities in or around the home. -These roles were considered functional because women were often limited by the physical restraints限制 of pregnancy and nursing and unable to leave the home for long periods of time. Once established, these roles were passed on to subsequent generations since they served as an effective means of keeping the family system functioning properly. -World War II, changes in the family structure also occurred. Many women had to assume the role of breadwinner养家糊口的人 (or modern hunter-gatherer) alongside their domestic role in order to stabilize a rapidly changing society. When the men returned from war and wanted to reclaim their jobs, society fell back into a state of imbalance, as many women did not want to forfeit 丧失their wage-earning positions

three waves of feminism

-1st Wave: early 1900s movement focused on (voting rights)/property rights/reproductive health -2nd Wave: 1960s movement focused on civil rights/social justice/socio-cultural change/legal equality/reproductive rights (equal pay for equal works and combat战斗 violence against women) -3rd Wave: 1990s to now movement focused on power and empowerment in a world ordered by money and markets (women of color challenged white feminism. and transnational feminisms)

sex and gender

-a term that denotes the presence of physical or physiological differences between males and females -a term that refers to social or cultural distinctions of behaviors that are considered male or female

Theoratical perspective on gender: Feminist Theory

-a type of conflict theory that examines inequalities in gender-related issues. It uses the conflict approach to examine the maintenance of gender roles and inequalities. -Radical feminism, in particular, considers the role of the family in perpetuating 延续male dominance. In patriarchal societies, men's contributions are seen as more valuable than those of women. Patriarchal perspectives父权制 and arrangements are widespread and taken for granted. As a result, women's viewpoints tend to be silenced or marginalized边缘化to the point of being discredited or considered invalid. -Sanday's study of the Indonesian Minangkabau (2004) revealed that in societies some consider to be matriarchies母系社会 (where women comprise the dominant group), women and men tend to work cooperatively rather than competitively regardless of whether a job is considered feminine by U.S. standards. (the men do not sense of bifurcated 分叉consciousness)

glass ceiling and glass escalator

-an invisible barrier 屏障that women hit as they move up male-dominated workplaces -shown that there is an invisible barrier block women from access to high-level positions in male-dominated workshops. -women lack similar mentoring, training, and promotions促销 that men often receive in corporations. =men in female-dominated occupations职业(librarians, nurses, social workers) get an invisible ride to higher status positions. =men are more likely promoted, see an increase in wages, surprise other works. =white men are more likely to experience this than men of color.

Sexual Attitudes and Practices (Sexuality around the World)

-non-Western societies—like China, Iran, and India—valued chastity 贞洁highly in a potential mate, while Western European countries—such as France, the Netherlands, and Sweden—placed little value on prior sexual experiences -89 percent of Swedes responded that there is nothing wrong with premarital 婚前sex, while only 42 percent of Irish responded this way. Western cultures, attitudes can differ. -Of industrialized nations, Sweden is thought to be the most liberal when it comes to attitudes about sex, including sexual practices and sexual openness. -the country has very few regulations on sexual images in the media, and sex education, which starts around age six, is a compulsory 义务part of Swedish school curricula. 课程

intersex, transgender

-people with some mixture of make and female primary sex characteristics. (individual born with ambiguous genitalia模棱两可的生殖器) -an adjective that describes individuals who identify with the behaviors and characteristics that are other than their biological sex

Theoratical perspective on gender: Conflict Theory

-society is a struggle for dominance among social groups (like women versus men) that compete for scarce resources. When sociologists examine gender from this perspective, men-dominant group,women-subordinate group. -social problems are created when dominant groups exploit or oppress subordinate groups. Consider the Women's Suffrage Movement or the debate over women's "right to choose" their reproductive futures. It is difficult for women to rise above men, as dominant group members create the rules for success and opportunity in society - Engels suggested that the same owner-worker relationship seen in the labor force is also seen in the household, with women assuming 假设the role of the proletariat. This is due to women's dependence on men for the attainment of wages, which is even worse for women who are entirely dependent upon their spouses for economic support. Contemporary conflict theorists suggest that when women become wage earners, they can gain power in the family structure and create more democratic arrangements in the home, although they may still carry the majority of the domestic burden, as noted earlier

gender roles, gender norms

-society's concept of how men and women should behave -rules that govern how men and women behave

Sexual Attitudes and Practices

-sociologists focus their attention on sexual attitudes and practices, not on physiology or anatomy. Sexuality is viewed as a person's capacity for sexual feelings. -Studying sexual attitudes and practices is a particularly interesting field of sociology because sexual behavior is a cultural universal. -What is considered "normal" in terms of sexual behavior is based on the mores and values of the society. Societies that value monogamy一夫一妻, for example, would likely oppose extramarital sex.反对婚外性行为

Why do women earn less?

1. due to the different occupations men and women enter. Many female-dominated occupations earn significantly less than male-dominated occupations. Occupational Sex Segregation 2. due to society's view of the family American culture gives parenting responsibilities primarily to women. -When they do return they have less job experience and seniority. Women also more likely to take care of aging parents 3. due to discriminations against women.

Sexual Attitudes and Practices: Sex Education

One of the biggest controversies争议 regarding sexual attitudes is sexual education in U.S. -sex education is not required in all public school curricula课程 in the United States. The heart of the controversy is not about whether sex education should be taught in school (studies have shown that only seven percent of U.S. adults oppose sex education in schools); it is about the type of sex education that should be taught. - 15 percent should teach abstinence exclusively 禁欲专属and should not provide contraceptives避孕药 or information. Forty-six percent shoud teach. Thirty-six percent believed not important. -Fifty-five percent of respondents feel giving teens information about sex and how to obtain and use protection will not encourage them to have sexual relations. 77 percent think safe. -Sweden, whose comprehensive sex education program in its public schools educates participants about safe sex, can serve as a model for this approach. The teenage birthrate in Sweden is 7 per 1,000 births, compared with 49 per 1,000 births in the United States. Among fifteen to nineteen year olds, reported cases of gonorrhea in Sweden are nearly 600 times lower than in the United States

Theoratical perspective on gender: Symbolic Interactionism

Symbolic interactionism aims to understand human behavior by analyzing the critical role of symbols in human interaction. This is certainly relevant to the discussion of masculinity and femininity. -the meanings attached to symbols are socially created and not natural, and fluid, not static, we act and react to symbols based on the current assigned meaning. -When people perform tasks or possess characteristics based on the gender role assigned to them, they are said to be (doing gender). This notion is based on the work of West and Zimmerman (1987). Whether we are expressing our masculinity or femininity, West and Zimmerman argue, we are always "doing gender." Thus, gender is something we do or perform, not something we are. -both gender and sexuality are socially constructed. The (social construction of sexuality) refers to the way in which socially created definitions about the cultural appropriateness 文化适当性of sex-linked behavior shape the way people see and experience sexuality. This is in marked contrast to theories of sex, gender, and sexuality that link male and female behavior to (biological determinism), or the belief that men and women behave differently due to differences in their biology.

Sexual Attitudes and Practices :Sexuality in the United States

The United States prides itself on being the land of the "free," but it is rather restrictive when it comes to its citizens' general attitudes about sex compared to other industrialized nations. -29 percent of U.S. respondents stated that premarital sex is always wrong -U.S. culture is particularly restrictive in its attitudes about sex when it comes to women and sexuality. It is widely believed that men are more sexual than are women. men think about sex every seven seconds. Research, however, suggests that men think about sex an average of 19 times per day, compared to 10 times per day for women -Belief that men have—or have the right to—more sexual urges than women creates a double standard. -the double standard as prohibiting 婚前premarital sexual intercourse for women but allowing it for men - 70 percent of boys and 78 percent of girls ages fifteen to nineteen said they "agree" or "strongly agree" that "it's okay for an unmarried female to have a child" -65 percent of teens stated that they "strongly agreed" or "somewhat agreed" that although waiting until marriage for sex is a nice idea, it's not realistic

feminism

The belief that women should be equal to men in all areas. This includes economic equiality, political equality, and socil equality.

Pay gap

The pay gap is a comparison between women's and men's typical earnings. It can be compared by weekly earnings or annual earnings. women earn 77cents for every dollar men earn

gender identity

a person's deeply held internal perception of his or her gender -Individuals who identify with a role that is different from their biological sex are called transgender. - (Transgender) is not the same as homosexual, and many homosexual males view both their sex and gender as male. estimated that two to five percent of the U.S. population is transgender -Transgender individuals who attempt to alter their bodies through medical interventions such as surgery and hormonal therapy—so that their physical being is better aligned 对齐with gender identity—are called (transsexuals). -They may also be known as male-to-female (MTF) or female-to-male (FTM). Not all transgender individuals choose to alter their bodies: many will maintain their original anatomy but may present themselves to society as another gender. - It is important to note that people who cross-dress, 变装通or wear clothing that is traditionally assigned to a gender different from their biological sex, are not necessarily transgender. Cross-dressing is typically a form of self-expression, entertainment, or personal style, and it is not necessarily an expression against one's assigned gender -Some hypotheses suggest biological factors such as genetics or prenatal hormone 产前激素levels as well as social and cultural factors such as childhood and adulthood experiences. Most experts believe that all of these factors contribute to a person's gender identity - "Gender Identity Disorder" is stigmatizing 污名化by replacing it with "Gender Dysphoria." 烦躁不安 -Changing the clinical description may contribute to a larger acceptance of transgender people in society. Studies show that people who identify as transgender are twice as likely to experience assault or discrimination as nontransgender individuals; they are also one and a half times more likely to experience intimidation 恐吓

sexual orientation

a person's physical, mental, emotional, and sexual attraction to a particular sex (male or female) -Sexual orientation is typically divided into four categories: heterosexuality异性恋, the attraction to individuals of the other sex; homosexuality同性恋, the attraction to individuals of the same sex; bisexuality双性恋, the attraction to individuals of either sex; and asexuality无性, no attraction to either sex. Heterosexuals and homosexuals may also be referred to informally as "straight" and "gay," respectively. -According to current scientific understanding, individuals are usually aware of their sexual orientation between middle childhood and early adolescence. Homosexual women (also referred to as lesbians), homosexual men (also referred to as gays), and bisexuals of both genders may have very different experiences of discovering and accepting their sexual orientation. At the point of puberty, some may be able to announce their sexual orientations, while others may be unready or unwilling to make their homosexuality or bisexuality known since it goes against U.S. society's historical norms -Much of this discrimination is based on stereotypes and misinformation. Some is based on heterosexism异性恋, which Herek suggests is both an ideology and a set of institutional practices that privilege heterosexuals and heterosexuality over other sexual orientations.

Three types of feminism

liberal -seek to expand opportunities for women -women maintain equality through their own actions an choices. socialist main idea: capitalism values men's work over women's works, therefore it increase partichy(made domination) propose: =wages for housework: women do more housework and they should be paid for this extra work. =change the structure of the family where both men and women equally divide time in paid labor and unpaid labor. radical: in order to reach goal of gender euqality, society must eliminate gender itself.

Patriarchy

male dominated society

The social construction of sexuality

socially created definitions about the cultural appropriateness文化适宜性 of sex-linked behavior which shape how people see and experience sexuality

gender roles

society's concept of how men and women should behave - masculine roles are usually associated with strength, aggression, and dominance,攻击性和支配性相关 while feminine roles are usually associated with passivity, nurturing, and subordination.被动性，培养和从属性相关 Role learning starts with socialization at birth. -One way children learn gender roles is through play. Studies have shown that children will most likely choose to play with "gender appropriate" toys (or same-gender toys) even when cross-gender toys are available because parents give children positive feedback for gender normative behavior -Men tend to outnumber women in professions such as law enforcement, the military, and politics. Women tend to outnumber men in care-related occupations such as childcare, healthcare (even though the term "doctor" still conjures the image of a man), and social work.