Sociology: Chapters 1-3

Ideal type

A construct or model for evaluating specific cases -key concept credited by Weber -purpose was to provide a useful standard for measuring 'how bureaucratic an actual organization is' (Weber)

Percentage

A portion of 100 -allows us to compare groups of different sizes -time-saver in sociological research and analysis

Sociological imagination

-An awareness of the relationship between an individual and the wider society, both today and in the past. -This awareness allows all of us to comprehend the links between our immediate, personal social settings and the remote, impersonal social world that surrounds and helps to shape us. -A key element in the sociological imagination is the ability to view one's own society as an outsider would, rather than only from the perspective of personal experiences and cultural biases. -Allows us to go beyond personal experiences and observations to understand broader public issues -one important way we can use a sociological imagination is to enhance our understanding of current social issues throughout the world

Sociology

-The scientific study of social behavior and human groups -It focuses on social relationships; how those relationships influence people's behavior; and how societies, the sum total of those relationships, develop and change -involves the organized, systematic study of phenomena (in this case, human behavior) in order to enhance understanding -seek to draw conclusions that speak to all people- not just the affluent or the powerful -has been used to evaluate the success of programs or the impact of changes brought about by policymakers and political activists -the federal government has become the major source of funding for sociological research. Yet Max Weber urged that sociology remain an autonomous discipline and not become unduly influenced by any one segment of society. according to Weber's ideal of value neutrality, sociologists must remain free to reveal information that is embarrassing to the government, or for that matter, supportive of government institutions

How might sociologists study the impact of the global recession that began in 2008?

-They might note a change in marital patterns in the United States. Since the recession began, the median age of first marriage has risen to 28.7 years for men and 26.7 years for women. -Sociologists might also observe that today, fewer people are making that rip to the altar than in the past. -Sociologists might evaluate the recession's impact on education. Private school enrollment declined. -They might even consider the recession's effect on environmental actions, such as carpooling.

C. Wright Mills

-leading sociologist -coined the term: sociological imagination- an awareness of the relationships between an individual and the wider society, both today and in the past -advocated using the sociological imagination to view divorce not as simply an individual's personal pronely but rather as a societal concern (we can see that an increase in the divorce rate actually redefines a major social institution- the family. this private concern becomes a public issue that affects schools, government agencies, businesses, and religious institutions)

Examples to discuss with sociological terms: -why thousands of jobs have moved from the US to developing nations -what social forces promote prejudice -what leads someone to join a social movement and work for social change -how access to computer technology can reduce social inequality -why relationships between men and women in Seattle differ from those in Singapore

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Value

A collective conception of what is considered good, desirable, and proper-or bad, undesirable, and improper-in a culture -they indicate what people in a given culture prefer as well as what they find important and morally right (or wrong) -may be specific, such as honoring one's parents and owning a house, or they may be more general, such as health, love, and democracy -the members of a society do not uniformly share its values Ex: angry political debates and billboards promoting conflicting causes tell us that much -values influence people's behavior and serve as criteria for evaluating the actions of others -the values, norms, and sanctions of a culture are often direct related Ex: -if a culture places a high value on the institution of marriage, it may have norms (or strict sanctions) that prohibit the act of adultery or make divorce difficult -if a culture views private property as a basic value, it will probably have stiff laws against theft and vandalism -the values of a culture may change, but most remain relatively stable during one person's lifetime -socially shared, intensely felt values are a fundamental part of our lives in the US -values can also differ in subtle ways not just among individuals and groups, but from one culture to another -an example of cultural differences in values is public opinion regarding the treatment of different racial and ethnic groups

Cultural universal

A common practice or belief found in every culture -found in ALL cultures, just in different ways Ex: food, shelter, clothing, religion, sports (they are found in every culture, but there are not the same in every culture, they differ) -not only does the expression of cultural universal vary from society to another; within a society, it my also change dramatically over time. -each generation, and each year for that matter, most human culture change and expand

Social inequality

A condition in which members of society have differing amounts of wealth, prestige, or power -some sociologists, in seeking to understand the effects of inequality, have made the case for social justice Ex: the disparity between what coffee bean pickers in developing nations are paid and the price you pay for a cup of coffee underscores global inequality

Research design

A detailed plan or method for obtaining data scientifically -selection of a research design is often based on the theories and hypotheses the researcher starts with. the choice requires creativity and ingenuity, because it directly influences both the cost of the project and the amount of time needed to collect the data -research designs that sociologists regularly use to generate data include surveys, ethnography, experiments, and existing sources -page 41 for table of major research designs

Interview

A face-to-face, telephone, or online questioning of a respondent to obtain desired information -can obtain a higher response rate, because people find it more difficult to turn down a personal request for an interview than to throw away a written questionnaire -a skillful interviewer can go beyond written questions and probe for a subject's underlying feelings and reasons -studies have shown that the characteristics of the interviewer have an impact on survey data Ex: female interviewers tend to receive more feminist responses from female subjects than do map interviewers, and Black interviewers ten do receive more detailed responses about race-related issues from Black subjects than do White interviewers

Control variable

A factor that is held constant to test the relative impact of an independent variable

Society

A fairly large number of people who live in the same territory, are relatively independent of people outside their area, and participate in a common culture -the fact that you share a similar culture with others helps to define the group or society to which you belong -a society is the largest form of human group. it consists of people who share a common heritage and culture. members of society learn this culture and transmit it from one generation to the next. they even preserve their distinctive culture through literature, art, video recordings, and other means of expression

Symbol

A gesture, object, or word that forms the basis of human communication -use of symbols to convey meaning to others Ex: thumbs-up gesture, a gold star sticker, and the smiley face in an e-mail are all symbols -often deceptively simple, many symbols are rich in meaning and may not convey the same meaning in all social contexts

Sapir-Whorf hypothesis

A hypothesis concerning the role of language in shaping our interpretation of reality. It holds that language is culturally determined -named for 2 linguists -describes the role of language in shaping our interpretation of reality. -according to Sapir and Whorf, because people can conceptualize the world only through language, language PRECEDES though. -thus the word symbols and grammar of a language organize the world of us -this hypothesis also holds that language is not a given. rather, it is culturally determined, and it encourages a distinctive interpretation of reality by focusing our attention on certain phenomena

Variable

A measurable trait or characteristic that is subject to change under different conditions Ex: income, religion, occupation, and gender

Folkway

A norm governing everyday behavior whose violation raises comparatively little concern -play an important role in shaping the daily behavior of members of a culture. -society is less likely to formalize folkways than mores, and their violation raises comparatively little concern Ex: wearing flip-flops in the middle of DC winter

Formal norm

A norm that has been written down and that specifics strict punishments for violators -In the US, we often formalize norms into laws, which are very precise in defining proper and improper behavior -laws are just one example of formal norms. the requirements for a college major and the rules of a card game are also considered formal norms

Informal norm

A norm that is generally understood but not precisely recorded -standards of proper dress are a common example of informal norms -our society has no specific punishment, or sanction, for a person who comes to school, say, wearing a monkey suit. making fun of the nonconforming student is usually the most likely response

Mean

A number calculated by adding a series of values and then dividing by the number of values -time-saver in sociological research and analysis

Sanction

A penalty or reward for conduct concerning a social norm -conformity to an norm can lead to positive sanctions such as a pay raise, a medal, a word of gratitude, or a pat on the back -negative sanctions include fines, threats, imprisonment, and stares of contempt -the entire fabric of norms and sanctions in a culture reflects that culture's values and priorities. the most cherished values will be most heavily sanctioned; matters regarded as less critical will carry light and informal sanctions

Culture lag

A period of maladjustment when the nonmaterial culture is still struggling to adapt to new material conditions -introduced by William F. Ogburn Ex: pedofiles on the Internet, took many years before there were laws about that -resistance to technological change can lead not only to culture la, but to some real questions of cultural survival

Questionnaire

A printed or written form used to obtain information from a respondent -have the advantage of being cheaper, especially in large samples

Correlation

A relationship between two variables in which a change in one coincides with a change in the other -correlations are an indication that causality may be present; they do not necessarily indicate causation

Observation

A research technique in which an investigator collects information through direct participation, by closely watching a group or community

Random sample

A sample for which every member of an entire population has the same chance of being selected

Subculture

A segment of society that shares a distinctive pattern of customs, rules, and traditions that differs from the pattern of the larger society Ex: rodeo rider, residents of a retirement community, workers on an offshore oil rig- all are examples of what sociologists refer to as subcultures -in a sense, a subculture can be thought of as a culture existing within a larger, dominant culture. -the existence of many subcultures is characteristic of complex societies such as the US -members of a subculture participate in the dominant culture while engaging in unique and distinctive forms of behavior -frequently, a subculture will develop an argot, or specialized language, that distinguishes it from the wider society -athletes that play parkour, an extreme sport that combines forward running with fence leaping and the vaulting of walls, water barriers, and even moving cars, speak an argot they devised especially to describe their feats. Parkour runners talk about doing King Kong vaults- diving arms first over a wall or grocery cart and landing in a standing position. they may follow this Ex: -In India, a new subculture has developed among employees at the international call centers established by multinational corporations. to serve customers in the US and Europe, the young men and women who work there must be fluent speakers of English. But the corporations that employ them demand more than proficiency in a foreign language; they expect their Indian employees to adopt Western values and work habits, including the grueling pace US workers take for granted. In return they offer perks such as Western-style dinners, dances, and coveted consumer goods. Significantly, they allow employees to take the day off on US holidays, like Labor Day and Thanksgiving- not on Indian holidays like Diwali, the Hindu festival of lights. While most Indian families are home celebrating, call center employees see only each other; when they have the day off, no one else is free to socialize with them. As a result, these employees have formed a tight-knit subculture based on hard work and a taste for Western luxury goods and leisure-time pursuits. Another shared characteristic among some employees at Indian call centers is their contempt for the callers they serve. In preforming their monotonous, repetitive job day after day, hundreds of thousands of these workers have come to see the faceless Americans they feel with as slow, often rude customers. Such shared understandings underpin this emerging subculture

Sample

A selection from a larger population that is statistically representative of that population

Dominant ideology

A set of cultural beliefs and practices that helps to maintain powerful social, economic, and political interests -In Karl Marx's view, a capitalist society has a dominant ideology that serves the interests of the ruling class -from the conflict perspective, the dominant ideology has major social significance. not only do a society's most powerful groups and institutions control wealth and property; even more important, they control the means of producing beliefs about reality through religion, education, and the media -feminists would also argue that if all a society's most important institutions tell women they should be subservient to men, that dominant ideology will help to control women and keep them in a subordinate position

Conflict perspective

A sociological approach that assumes that social behavior is best understood in terms of tension between groups over power or the allocation of resources, including housing, money, access to services, and political representation -where functionalists see stability and consensus, conflict sociologists see a social world in continual struggle -the tension between competing groups need not be violent; it can take the form of labor negotiations, party politics, competition between religious groups for new members, or disputes over the federal budget -the conflict approach has become increasingly persuasive since the late 1960s. the widespread social unrest resulting from battles over civil rights, bitter divisions over the war in Vietnam, the rise of the feminist and gay liberation movements, the Watergate political scandal, urban riots, confrontations at abortion clinic, and shrinking economic prospects for the middle class have offered support for the conflict approach- the view that our social world is characterized by continual struggle between competing groups -Karl Marx viewed struggle between social classes as inevitable, given the exploitation of workers that he perceived under capitalism -expanding on Marx's work, sociologists and other social scientists have come to see conflict not merely as a class phenomenon but as a part of everyday life in all societies -in studying any culture, organization, or social group, sociologists want to know who benefits, who suffers, and who dominates at the expense of others -they are concerned with conflicts between women and men, parents and children, cities and suburbs, Whites and Blacks, to name a few -interested in how society's institutions- including family, government, religion, education, and the media- may help to maintain the privileges of some groups and keep others in subservient positions -their emphasis on social change and the redistribution of resources makes conflict theorists more radical and activist than functionalists -conflict theorists fear than the sociobiological approach could be used as an argument against efforts to assist disadvantaged people, such as schoolchildren who are not competing successfully

Functionalist perspective

A sociological approach that emphasizes the way in which the parts of a society are structured to maintain its stability -think of society as a living organism in which each part of the organism contributes to its survival -Talcott Parsons (1902-1979), a Harvard University sociologist, was a key figure in the development of the functionalist theory Ex: many Americans have difficulty understanding the Hindu prohibition against the slaughtering cows (specifically, zebu). What explains this devotion to the cow in the face of human deprivation- a devotion that appears to be dysfunctional? The simple explanation is that cow worship is highly functional in Indian society, according to economists, agronomists, and social scientists who have studied the matter -functionalists acknowledge that not all parts of a society contribute to its stability all the time (a dysfunction)

Interactionist perspective

A sociological approach that generalizes about everyday forms of social interaction in order to explain society as a whole -all these aspects of microsociology catch the attention of interactionists (workers interacting on the job, encounters in public places like bus stops and parkers, behavior in small groups) -today, given rising concern over the cost and availability of gas, interactionists have begun to study a form of commuter behavior called "slugging." To avoid driving to work, commuters gather at certain pre appointed places to seek rides from complete strangers. when a driver pulls into the parking area or vacant lot and announces his destination, the first slug in line who is headed for that destination jumps in. rules of etiquette have emerged to smooth the social interaction between driver and passenger: neither the driver nor the passenger may eat or smoke; the slug may not adjust the windows or radio or talk on a cell phone. the presence of the slugs, who get a free ride, may allow the driver to use special lanes reserved for high occupancy vehicles -also referred to as symbolic interactionism -interactionism is a sociological framework in which human beings are viewed as living in a world of meaningful objects. those "objects" may include material things, actions, other people, relationships, and even symbols -they see symbols as an especially important part of human communication -symbols have a shared social meaning that is understood by all members of a society -George Herbert Mead is widely regarded as the founder of the interactionist perspective -sociologists associated with the interactionist perspective emphasize that language and symbols offer a powerful way for a subculture to feel cohesive and maintain its identity

Feminist perspective

A sociological approach that views inequity in gender as central to all behavior and organization -sociologists began embracing the feminist perspective only in the 1970s, although it has a long tradition in many other disciplines -because it focuses clearly on one aspect of inequality, it is often allied with the conflict perspective -proponents of the feminist view tend to focus on the macro level, just as conflict theorists do -drawing on the work of Marx and Engels, contemporary feminist theorists often view women's subordination as inherent in capitalist societies -some radical feminists view the oppression of women as inevitable in all male-dominated societies, whether capitalist, socialist, or communist -an early example of this perspective can be seen in the life and writings of Ida Wells-Barnett. following her groundbreaking publications in the 1890s on the practice of lynching Black Americans, she became an advocate in the women's rights campaign, especially the struggle to win the vote for women. like feminist theorists who succeeded her, Wells-Barnett used her analysis of society as a means of resisting oppression. in her case, she researched what it meant to be Black, a women in the US, and a Black woman in the US -feminist scholarship has broadened our understanding of social behavior by extending the analysis beyond the male point of view. consider sports. Ex: sports. feminist theorists consider how watching or participating in sports reinforces the roles that men and women play in the larger society: -although sports generally promote fitness and health, they may also have an adverse effect on participant's health. men are more likely to resort to illegal steroid use; women, to excessive dieting -gender expectations encourage female athletes to be passive and gentle, qualities that do not support the emphasis on competitiveness in sports. as a result, women find it difficult to enter sports traditionally dominated by men, such as Indy or NASCAR -although professional women athlete's earnings are increasing, they typically trail those of male athletes

Hypothesis

A speculative statement about the relationship between two or more variables -if refuted, researchers must reformulate their conclusions -sociologists are interested in both the general pattern that emerges from their data and exceptions to the pattern

Survey

A study, generally in the form of an interview or questionnaire, that provides researchers with information about how people think and act -must be based on precise, representative sampling if it is to genuinely reflect a broad range of the population -in preparing to conduct a survey, sociologists must not only develop representative samples; they must also exercise great care in the wording of questions -an effective survey question must be simple and clear enough for people to understand (it must be specific enough so that there are no problems in interpreting the results) -open-ended questions must be carefully phrased to solicit the type of information desired -surveys can be indispensable sources of information, but only if the sampling is done properly and the questions are worded accurately and without bias -in wording questions, researchers must also pay careful attention to change in society -2 main forms of the survey: interview and questionnaire

Counterculture

A subculture that deliberately opposes certain aspects of the larger culture -countercultures typically thrive among the young, who have the least investment in the existing culture

Scientific method

A systematic, organized series of steps that ensures maximum objectivity and consistency in researching a problem -standards of scientific research: quite stringent and they demand as strict adherence as possible -requires precise preparation in developing research. otherwise, the research data collected may not prove accurate. -sociologists and other researchers follow 5 basic steps in the scientific method: 1. defining the problem 2. reviewing the literature 3. formulating the hypothesis 4. selecting the research design and then collecting and analyzing data 5. developing the conclusion

Cross-tabulation

A table or matrix that shows the relationship between two or more variables

Secondary analysis

A variety of research techniques that make use of previously collected and publicly accessible information and data -generally, in conducting secondary analysis, researchers use data in ways that were unintended by he initial collectors of information Ex: census data are compiled for specific uses by the federal government but are also valuable to marketing specialists in locating everything from bicycle store to nursing homes -sociologists consider secondary analysis to be nonreactive- that is, it does not influence people's behavior Ex: Émile Durkheim's statistical analysis of suicide neither increased nor decreased human self-destruction -researchers can then avoid the Hawthorne effect by using secondary analysis -there is one inherent problem, however: the researcher who relies on data collected by someone else may not find exactly what is needed -many social scientists find it useful to study cultural, economic, and political documents, including newspapers, periodicals, radio and television taps, the Internet, scripts, diaries, songs, folklore, and legal papers

Dramaturgical approach

A view of social interaction in which people are seen as theatrical performers -type of interactionist method -popularized by Erving Goffman -compares everyday life to the setting of the theater and stage -just as actors project certain images, all of us seek to present particular features of our personalities while we hide other features Ex: thus, in a class, we may feel the need to project a serious image; at a party, we may want to look relaxed and friendly

Language

An abstract system of word meanings and symbols for all aspects of culture; including gestures and other nonverbal communication -one of the major elements of culture that underlie cultural variations -an important component of cultural capital -members of a society generally share a common language, which facilitates day-to-day exchanges with others -7,000 languages are spoken in the world today -language is fundamental to their shared culture Ex: -the English language makes extensive use of the words dealing with war. An observer from an entirely different and warless culture could gauge the importance that war and the military have had in our lives simply by recognizing the prominence that militaristic terms have in our language -language is the foundation of every culture -it includes speech, written characters, numerals, symbols, and nonverbal gestures and expressions. -language quickly became a key not only to tracking potential terrorists, but also to building diplomatic bridges with Muslim countries willing to help in the war against terrorism -language does more than simply describe reality; it also serves to shape the reality of a culture -can shape how we see, taste, smell, feel, and hear -it also influences the way we think about the people, ideas, and objects around us -language communicates a culture's most important norms, values, and sanctions

Experiment

An artificially created situation that allows a researcher to manipulate variables -when sociologists want to study a possible cause-and-effect relationship, they may conduct experiments -in the classic method of conducting an experiment, 2 groups are selected and matched for similar characteristics, such as age or education. the researcher then assign the subjects to one of the 2 groups

Dysfunction

An element or process of a society that may disrupt the social system of reduce its stability -we view many dysfunctional behavior patterns, such as homicide, as undesirable. yet we should not automatically interpret them in this way -the evaluation of a dysfunction depends on one's own values or as the saying goes, on "where you sit" Ex: the official view in prisons in the US is that inmate gangs should be eradicated because they are dysfunctional to smooth operations. yet some guards have come to view prison gangs as a functional part of their jobs. the danger posed by gangs creates a "threat to security," requiring increased surveillance and more overtime work for guards, as well as requests for special staffing to address gang problems

Norm

An established standard of behavior maintained by a society -for an norm to be significant, it must be widely shared and understood Ex: heterosexuality as the norm in marital partnerships, silencing your phone during a film -sociologists distinguish between norms in 2 ways. -First norms are classified as either formal or inform. -Norms are also classified by their relative importance to society. when classified in this way, they are known as mores and folkways -norms are violated in some instances because one norm conflicts with another Ex: suppose that you live in an apartment building and one night hear the screams of the woman next door, who is being beaten by her husband. If you decide to intervene by ringing their doorbell or calling the police, you are violating the norm of minding your own business, while following the norm of assisting a victim of violence -acceptance of norms is subject to change as the political, economic, and social conditions of a culture are transformed Ex: until the 1960s, formal norms throughout much of the US prohibited the marriage of people form different racial groups. over the past half century, however, such legal prohibitions were cast aside. the process of change can be seen today in the increasing acceptance of single parents and growing support for the legalization of marriage between same-sex couples -when circumstances require the sudden violation of longstanding cultural norms, the change can upset an entire population -the entire fabric of norms and sanctions in a culture reflects that culture's values and priorities. the most cherished values will be most heavily sanctioned; matters regarded as less critical will carry light and informal sanctions

Operational definition

An explanation of an abstract concept that is specific enough to allow a researcher to assess the concept -early on, any social science researcher must develop an operational definition of each concept being studied Ex: -a sociologist interested in status might use membership in exclusive social clubs as an operational definition of status -someone studying prejudice might consider a person's unwillingness to hire or work with members of minority groups as an operational definition of prejudice

Manifest function

An open, stated, an conscious function -Robert Merton (1968) made an important distinction between manifest and latent functions -they involve the intended, recognized consequences of an aspect of society Ex: the university's role in certifying academic competence and excellence

Latent function

An unconscious or untended function that may reflect hidden purposes Ex: one latent function of universities is to hold down unemployment. another is to serve as a meeting ground for people seeking marital partners

Technology

Cultural information about the ways in which the material resources of the environment may be used to satisfy human needs and desires -technology in its many forms has increased the speed of cultural diffusion and broadened the distribution of cultural elements -technology not only accelerates the diffusion of scientific innovations but also transmits culture -The English language and North American culture dominate the Internet and World Wide Web. Such control, or at least dominance, of technology influences the direction of cultural diffusion. Ex: websites cover been the most superficial aspects of the US culture but offer little information about the pressing issues faced citizens of other nations

Law

Governmental social control

Theory

In sociology, a set of statements that seeks to explain problems, actions, or behavior -we can think of theories as attempts to explain events, forces, materials, ideas, or behavior in a comprehensive manner -an effective theory may have both explanatory and predictive power (that is, it can help us to see the relationships among seemingly isolated phenomena, as well as to understand how one type of change in an environment leads to other changes) -not a final statement about human behavior

Value neutrality

Max Weber's term for objectivity of sociologists in the interpretation of data -he recognized that personal values would influence the questions that sociologists select for research. -in his view, that was perfectly acceptable, but under no conditions could a researcher allow his or her personal feelings influence the interpretation of data -in Weber's phrase, sociologists must practice value neutrality in their research -as part of this neutrality, investigators have an ethical obligation to accept research findings even when the data run counter to their personal views, to theoretically based explanations, or to widely accepted beliefs Ex: -for example, Émile Durkheim challenged popular conceptions when he reported that social (rather than supernatural) forces were an important factor in suicide. -although some sociologists believe that neutrality is impossible, ignoring the issue would be irresponsible. Let's consider what would happen if researchers brought their own biases to the investigation. A person investigating the impact of intercollegiate sports on alumni contributions, for example, might focus only on the highly visible revenue-generating sports of football or basketball and neglect the so-called minor sports, such as tennis or soccer, which are more likely to involve women athletes. Despite the early work of W.E.B. DuBois and Jane Addams, sociologists still need to be reminded that the discipline often fails to adequately consider all people's social behavior. -the issue of value neutrality does not mean that sociologists can't have opinions, but it does mean that they must work to overcome any biases, however unintentional, that they may bring to their analysis of research

Cultural capital

Noneconomic goods, such as family background and education, which are reflected in a knowledge of language and the arts -not necessarily book knowledge, cultural capital refers to the kind of education that is valued by the socially elite -though chinese cuisine is cultural, it is not the prestigious kind of culture that is valued by the elite -in the US, immigrants- especially those who arrived in large numbers and settles in ethnic enclaves- have generally taken 2 or 3 generations to develop the same level of cultural capital enjoyed by more established groups

Mores

Norms deemed highly necessary to the welfare of a society

Quantitative research

Research that collects and reports data primarily in numerical form -this type of research can make use of large samples, it can't offer great depth and detail on a topic

Qualitative research

Research that relies on what is seen in field or naturalistic settings more than on statistical data -focuses on small groups and communities rather than on large groups or whole nations -most common form is ethnography, or observation

Basic sociology

Sociological inquiry conducted with the objective of gaining a more profound knowledge of the fundamental aspects of social phenomena. Also known as pure sociology -this type of research is not necessarily meant to generate specific applications, although such ideas may result once findings are analyzed -when Durkheim studied suicide rates, he was not primarily interested in discovering a way to eliminate suicide. In this sense, his research was an example of basic rather than applied sociology

Macrosociology

Sociological investigation that concentrates on larger-scale phenomena or entire civilizations -coined by Robert Merton Ex: Émile Durkheim's cross-cultural study of suicide more recently macrosociologists have examined international crime rates and the stereotype of Asian Americans as a "model minority"

Microsociology

Sociological investigation that stresses the study of small groups, often through experimental means -coined by Robert Merton Ex: sociological research on the micro level has included studies of how divorced men and women disengage from significant social roles and of how a teacher's expectations can affect a student's academic performance

Argot

Specialized language used by members of a group or subculture -such argot allows insiders- the members of the subculture- to understand words with special meanings. -it also establishes patterns of communication that outsiders can't understand

Verstehen

The German word for "understanding" or "insight"; used to stress the need for sociologists to take into account the subjective meanings people attach to their actions -Weber spread the word, told his students that they should employ it in their intellectual work

Science

The body of knowledge obtained by methods based on systematic observation

Social capital

The collective benefit of social networks, which are built on reciprocal trust -much has been written about the importance of family and friendship networks in providing people with an opportunity to advance

Invention

The combination of existing cultural items into a form that did not exist before Ex: the bow and arrow, the automobile, and the television are all examples of inventions, s are Protestantism and democracy Ex: -facebook

Validity

The degree to which a measure or scale truly reflects the phenomenon under study -a valid measure of income depends on the gathering of accurate data

Double consciousness

The division of an individual's identity into two or more social realities -W.E.B. DuBois coined the term to refer to the division of an individual's identity into two or more social realities. he used the term to describe the experience of being black in white america Ex: today, an African American holds the most powerful office in the nation, President of the US. Yet for millions of African Americans, the reality of being black in the US typically is not one of power

Reliability

The extent to which a measure produces consistent results

Culture shock

The feeling of surprise and disorientation that people experience when they encounter cultural practices that are different from their own Ex: -a resident of the US who visits certain areas of China and wants local meet for dinner may be stunned to learn that the speciality is dog meat. -someone from a strict Islamic culture may be shocked by the comparatively provocative dress styles and open displays of affection common in the US and various European cultures

Anomie

The loss of direction felt in a society when social control of individual behavior has become ineffective -Durkheim coined the term -Often, the state of anomie occurs during a time of profound social change, when people have lost their sense of purpose or direction. in a period of anomie, people are so confused and unable to cope with the new social environment that they may resort to suicide

Median

The midpoint or number that divides a series of values into two groups of equal numbers of values -time-saver in sociological research and analysis

Material culture

The physical or technological aspects of our daily lives -coined by William F. Ogburn -including food, housing, factories, and raw-materials (physical things)

Culture war

The polarization of society over controversial cultural elements -originally, in the 1990s, the term referred to political debates over heated issues such as abortion, religious expression, gun control, and sexual orientation. Soon, it took on a global meaning- especially after 9/11, as Americans wondered, "Why do they hate us?" -Through 2000, global studies of pubic opinion had reported favorable views of the US in countries diverse as Morocco and Germany. But after the US established a military presence in Iraq and Afghanistan, foreign opinion of the US became quite negative

Diffusion

The process by which a cultural item spreads from group to group or society to society -diffusion can occur through a variety of means, among them exploration, military conquest, missionary work, and the influence of the mass media, tourism, and the Internet -it has also been hastened by the spread of the fat-food restaurant

Innovation

The process of introducing a new idea or object to a culture through discovery or invention -innovation interest sociologists because of the social consequences of introducing something new. -there are 2 forms of innovation: discovery and invention

Discovery

The process of making known or sharing the existence of an aspect of reality -a significant factor in the process of discovery is the sharing of newfound knowledge with others Ex: the finding of the structure of the DNA molecule and the identification of a new moon of Saturn are both acts of discovery Ex: -Pluto is a planet -atoms, nucleus, protons, electrons, neutrons

Casual logic

The relationship between a condition or variable and a particular consequence, with one leading to the other

Nonverbal communication

The sending of messages through the use of gestures, facial expressions, and postures Ex: in the US, a salute symbolizes respect, while a clenched fist signifies deviance -we are not born with these expressions, we learn them, just as we learn other forms of language, from people who are our same culture -not the same in all cultures

Mode

The single most common value in a series of scores -while the mode is easier to identify than other summary measures, it tells sociologists little about all the other values -time-saver in sociological research and analysis

Code of ethics

The standards of acceptable behavior developed by and for members of a profession -The professional society of the discipline, the American Sociological Association (ASA), first published the society's Code of Ethics in 1971 and revised it most recently in 1997. It puts forth the following basic principles: 1. Maintain objectivity and integrity in research 2. Respect the subject's right to privacy and dignity 3. Protect subjects from personal harm 4. Preserve confidentiality 5. Seek informed consent when data are collected from research participants or when behavior occurs in a private context 6. Acknowledge research collaboration and assistance 7. Disclose all sources of financial support (American Sociological Association 1999) -sometimes ASA's Code of Ethics, is not a sufficient guarantee of ethical conduct

Ethnography

The study of an entire social setting through extended systematic fieldwork -firsthand studies -basic technique of ethnography is observation, or direct participation in closely watching a group or organization -includes the collection of historical information and the conduct on in-person interviews -although ethnography may seem a relatively informal method compared to surveys or experiments, ethnographic researchers are careful to take detailed notes while observing their subjects -in some cases, the sociologist actually joins a group for a period, to get an accurate sense of how it operates, this approach is called participant observation -ethnographic research poses other complex challenges for the investigator. scientists must be able to fully understand what they are observing. in a sense, then, researchers must learn to see the world as the group sees it in order to fully comprehend the events taking place around them. this raises a delicate issue. if the researcher is to be successful, the observer cannot allow the close associations or even friendships that inevitably develop to influence the subject's behavior or the conclusions of the study. -Even while working hard to gain acceptance from the group being studied, the participant observer must maintain some degree of detachment

Natural science

The study of the physical features of nature and the ways in which they interact and change Ex: astronomy, biology, chemistry, geology, and physics

Social science

The study of the social features of humans and the ways in which they interact and change Ex: sociology, anthropology, economics, history, psychology, and political science -have a common focus on the social behavior of people

Experimental group

The subjects in an experiment who are exposed to an independent variable introduced by a researcher

Control group

The subjects in an experiment who are not introduced to the independent variable by the researcher

Content analysis

The systematic coding and objective recording of data, guided by some rationale -can be revealing Ex: despite women's participation in all sports, content analysis of televised sports coverage shows that even when a men's sport is out of season, it gets more coverage than women's sports in season. furthermore, coverage of female cheerleaders and athletes' wives exceeds coverage of the female athletes who compete in sports

Sociobiology

The systematic study of how biology affects human social behavior -stresses the universal aspects of culture -sociobiologists assert that many of the cultural traits humans display, such as the almost universal expectation that women will be nurturers and men will be providers, are not learned but are rooted in our genetic makeup -founded on the naturalist Charles Darwin's (1859) theory of evolution: species would slowly adapt to their environment -Darwin called this process of adaption to the environment through random genetic variation natural selection -sociobiologists apply Darwin's principle of natural selection to the study of social behavior. they assume that particular farms of behavior become genetically linked to a species if they contribute to its fitness to survive -in its extreme form, sociobiology suggests that all behavior is the result of genetic or biological factors, and that social interactions play no role in shaping people's conduct -sociobiologists focus on how human nature is affected by the genetic composition of a group of people who share certain characteristics (such as men or women, or members of isolated tribal bands) -in general, sociobiologists have stressed the basic genetic heritage that all humans share and have shown little interest in speculating about alleged differences between racial groups and nationalities -however, family cohesiveness, peer group behavior, and other social factors can override genetic influences on behavior -conflict theorists fear than the sociobiological approach could be used as an argument against efforts to assist disadvantaged people, such as schoolchildren who are not competing successfully

Ethnocentrism

The tendency to assume that one's own culture and way of life represent the norm or are superior to all others -term coined by William Graham Sumner in 1906 -the ethnocentric person sees his or her group as the center of defining point of culture and views all other cultures as deviations from what is "normal" Ex: Westerners who think cattle are to be used for food might look down on India's Hindu religion and culture, which view the cow as sacred. Or people in one culture may dismiss as unthinkable the mate selection or child-rearing practices of another culture -in sum, our view of the world is dramatically influenced by the society in which we were raised -ethnocentrism means evaluating foreign cultures using the familiar culture of the observer as a standard of correct behavior -negative views

Culture

The totality of learned, socially transmitted customs, knowledge, material objects, and behavior -it includes the ideas, values, and artifacts (Ex: DVDs, comic books, and birth control devices) of groups of people Ex: patriotic attachment to the flag of the US is an aspect of culture, as is a national passion for the tango in Argentina -in sociological terms, culture does not refer solely to the fine arts and refined intellectual taste. It consists of ALL objects and ideas within a society, including slang words, ice-cream cones, and rock music -Sociologists consider both a portrait by Rembrandt and the work of graffiti spray painters to be aspects of culture. A tribe that cultivates soil by hand has as much culture as a people that relies on computer-operated machinery. Each people has a distinctive culture with its own characteristic ways of gathering and preparing food, constructing homes, structuring the family, and promoting standards of right and wrong -the fact that you share a similar culture with others helps to define the group or society to which you belong -if it were not for the social transmission of culture, each generation would have to reinvent television, not to mention the wheel -having a common culture also simplifies many day-to-day interactions -all these assumptions reflect basic values, beliefs, and customs of the culture of the US -today, when text, sound, and video can be transmitted around the world instantaneously, some aspects of culture transcend national borders -each culture has a unique character -cultures adapt to meet specific sets of circumstances, such as climate, level of technology, population, and geography -like other aspects of culture, such as language and norms, a nation's values are not necessarily fixed

Hawthorne effect

The unintended influence that observers of experiments can have on their subjects -in some experiments, just as in observation research, the presence of a social scientist or other observer may affect the behavior of the people being studied -the term originated as the result of an experiment conducted at the Hawthorne plant of the Western Electric Company during the 1920s and 1930s. researchers found that every change they made in working conditions- even reduced lighting- seemed to have a positive effect on workers' productivity. they concluded that workers had made a special effort to impress their observers. though the carefully constructed study did identity some causes for changes in the workers' behavior hat did not have to do with their being observed, the term Hawthorne effect has become synonymous with a placebo or guinea pig effect -can be avoided by using secondary analysis

Clinical sociology

The use of the discipline of sociology with the specific intent of altering social relationships or restructuring social institutions -clinical sociologists take direct responsibility for implementation and view those with whom they work as their clients

Applied sociology

The use of the discipline of sociology with the specific intent of yielding practical applications for human behavior and organizations -major societal concerns facing our nation -violence -pornography -crime -immigration -population Ex: the growing interest in learning more about local communities. since its founding in 1994, the Northeast Florida Center for Community Initiatives (CCI), based at the University of North Florida in Jacksonville, has conducted several community studies, including a homeless census and survey, an analysis of the economic impact of the arts in Jacksonville, and a long-term survey of the effects of Hurricane Katrina -typical of applied sociology, these outreach efforts are collaborative, involving faculty, undergraduate and graduate students, volunteers, and community residents -another CCI's applications of sociology, the Magnolia Project, is based in a storefront clinic in an underprivileged area of Jacksonville. Part of the Healthy Start initiative, which aims to decrease high infant mortality rates, the project serves women of childbearing age who have little or no regular access to health care. CCI's responsibility include (1) interviewing and surveying key community participants, (2) coordinating data collection by the project's staff, (3) analyzing data, and (4) preparing progress reports for funding agencies and community partners. Through March 2012, not a single infant death had occurred among the 293 participants in the program -applied sociologists generally leave it to policymakers to act on their evaluations

Bilingualism

The use of two languages in a particular setting, such as the workplace or schoolroom, treating each language as equally legitimate -bilingualism has policy implications largely in 2 areas: efforts to maintain language purity and programs to enhance bilingual education -bilingual programs are an expense that many communities and states are unwilling to pay for and are quick to cut back -in the end, the immigrant's experience is not only about learning a new language. it is about learning a whole new culture- a new totality of socially transmitted customs, knowledge, material objects, and behavior

Independent variable

The variable in a causal relationship that causes or influences a change in another variable

Dependent variable

The variable in a causal relationship that is subject to the influence of another variable

Cultural relativism

The viewing of people's behavior from the perspective of their own culture -it places a priority on understanding other cultures, rather than dismissing them as "strange" or "exotic." -unlike ethnocentrists, cultural relativists employ the kind of value neutrality in scientific study that Max Weber saw as so important -stresses that different social contexts give rise to different norms and values -positive views -looking at aspects of a culture that may seem exotic because they are different than your own, but accepting them because they are the aspects of other cultures Ex: southerner eating sushi in Japan. you probably are thinking i can't eat raw fish, but for cultural relativism, you think well this culture, Japanese, eat it so it must be alright to consume -although cultural relativism does not suggest that we must unquestionably accept every cultural variation, it does require a serious and unbiased effort to evaluate norms, values, and customs in light of their distinctive culture

Globalization

The worldwide integration of government policies, cultures, social movements, and financial markets through trade and the exchange of ideas -sociologists recognize that social behavior must be viewed in a global context Ex: September 2001, terrorist attack -one example of the massive global impact was the downturn in international tourism, which last for at least 2 years. the effects have been felt by people far removed from the US, including African game wardens and Asian taxi drivers -some observers see globalization and its effects as the natural result of advances in communications technology, particularly the Internet and satellite transmission of the mass media. others view it more critically, as a process that allows multinational corporations to expand unchecked

Culture industry

The worldwide media industry that standardizes the goods and services demanded by consumers -spoken about by Theodor Adorno and many others

Nonmaterial culture

Ways of using material objects, as well as customs, beliefs, philosophies, governments, and patterns of communication -coined by William F. Ogburn -generally, the nonmaterial culture is more resistant to change than the material cultures

Virginia Tech shooting

the event raised numerous issues and topics for study, including: -the media's role in describing the attacks -the presence of violence in our educational institutions -the gun control debate -the inadequacy of the nation's mental health care system -the stereotyping and stigmatization of people who suffer from mental illness

What do sociologists focus on?

they study the influence that society has on people's attitudes and behavior and the ways in which people interact and shape society