Sociology Exam 2
In the context of the five types of societies based on various levels of subsistence technology, which of the following societies is based on technology that supports the cultivation of plants to provide food?
A horticultural society
Who among the following is most likely to believe that groups and organizations are generally characterized by superficiality and depthlessness in social relationships because employee interactions with customers are largely scripted and customer behavior and responses are often tried and tested ways of dealing with employees?
A postmodernist
How are role, role expectation, role performance, role conflict, role strain, and role exit alike or different?
A role is a set of behavioral expectations associated with a given status. Role expectation is a group's definition of the way that a specific role ought to be played, whereas role performance is how a person actually plays the role. When role conflict occurs, we may feel pulled in different directions. To deal with this problem, we may prioritize our roles and first complete the one we consider to be most important. Role conflict may occur as a result of changing statuses and roles in society. Role strain occurs when incompatible demands are built into a single status that a person occupies. For example, married women might feel role strain when they have to work full time, manage household duties, and take care of their family. Role exit occurs when people disengage from social roles that have been central to their self-identity. Role exit is a four-stage process, ending with the creation of a new identity.
According to Ebaugh, which of the following is included in the second stage of role exit?
A search for alternatives
What are the differences among ascribed, achieved, and master statuses?
A status is a specific position in a group or society and is characterized by certain expectations, rights, and duties. Ascribed statuses, such as gender, class, and race/ethnicity, are acquired at birth or involuntarily later in life. Achieved statuses, such as education and occupation, are assumed voluntarily as a result of personal choice, merit, or direct effort. A master status is the most important status a person occupies. For some, occupation is the chief indicator of their status. Occupation provides important clues to a person's educational level, income, and family background. Master statuses confer high or low levels of personal worth and dignity on people.
What is the sociological perspective on human development?
According to Charles Horton Cooley's concept of the looking-glass self, we develop a self-concept as we see ourselves through the perceptions of others. Our initial sense of self is typically based on how our families perceive and treat us. George Herbert Mead suggested that we develop a self-concept through role-taking and learning the rules of social interaction. According to Mead, the self is divided into the "I" and the "me." The "I" represents the spontaneous and unique traits of each person. The "me" represents the internalized attitudes and demands of other members of society.
How does social change occur in preindustrial, industrial, and postindustrial societies?
According to Emile Durkheim, although changes in social structure may dramatically affect individuals and groups, societies manage to maintain some degree of stability. Social solidarity derives from a society's social structure, which, in turn, is based on the society's division of labor. People in preindustrial societies are united by mechanical solidarity because they have shared values and common social bonds. As societies industrialized and developed more specialized economic activities, social solidarity came to be rooted in the members' shared dependence on one another. Industrial societies are characterized by organic solidarity, which refers to the cohesion that results when people perform specialized tasks and are united by mutual dependence.
What are the functionalist and conflict views on social institutions?
According to functionalist theorists, social institutions perform several prerequisites of all societies: replace members; teach new members; produce, distribute, and consume goods and services; preserve order; and provide and maintain a sense of purpose. Conflict theorists suggest that social institutions do not work for the common good of all individuals: Institutions may enhance and uphold the power of some groups but exclude others, such as the homeless.
Why is socialization so important for human beings?
Achieving full human potential requires interaction with others.
looking glass self
Charles Horton Cooley's term for the way in which a person's sense of self is derived from the perceptions of others.
organic solidarity
Emile Durkheim's term for the social cohesion found in industrial (and perhaps postindustrial) societies, in which people perform very specialized tasks and feel united by their mutual dependence.
mechanical solidarity
Emile Durkheim's term for the social cohesion of preindustrial societies, in which there is minimal division of labor and people feel united by shared values and common social bonds.
total institution
Erving Goffman's term for a place where people are isolated from the rest of society for a set period of time and come under the control of the officials who run the institution.
impression management (presentation of self)
Erving Goffman's term for people's efforts to present themselves to others in ways that are most favorable to their own interests or image.
face saving behavior
Erving Goffman's term for the strategies we use to rescue our performance when we experience a potential or actual loss of face.
dramaturgical analysis
Erving Goffman's term for the study of social interaction that compares everyday life to a theatrical presentation.
The sociological term for any physical or social attribute or sign that devalues a person's social identity and disqualifies that person from full social acceptance is __________.
stigma
gender socialization
the aspect of socialization that contains specific messages and practices concerning the nature of being female or male in a specific group or society.
racial socialization
the aspect of socialization that contains specific messages and practices concerning the nature of our racial or ethnic status as it relates to our identity, interpersonal relationships, and location in the social hierarchy.
The term "emotional labor" refers to
the display of only certain carefully selected emotions toward the public instead of true feelings.
personal space
the immediate area surrounding a person that the person claims as private.
socialization
the lifelong process of social interaction through which individuals acquire a self-identity and the physical, mental, and social skills needed for survival in society.
master status
the most important status that a person occupies.
agents of socialization
the persons, groups, or institutions that teach us what we need to know in order to participate in society.
role taking
the process by which a person mentally assumes the role of another person or group in order to understand the world from that person's or group's point of view.
anticipatory socialization
the process by which knowledge and skills are learned for future roles.
reciprocal socialization
the process by which the feelings, thoughts, appearance, and behavior of individuals who are undergoing socialization also have a direct influence on those agents of socialization who are attempting to influence them.
resocialization
the process of learning a new and different set of attitudes, values, and behaviors from those in one's background and previous experience.
primary socialization
the process of learning that begins at birth and occurs in the home and family.
secondary socialization
the process of learning that takes place outside the home;in settings such as schools, religious organizations, and the workplace—and helps individuals learn how to act in appropriate ways in various situations.
tertiary socialization
the process of learning that takes place when adults move into new settings where they must accept certain ideas or engage in specific behaviors that are appropriate to that specific setting.
ethnomethodology
the study of the commonsense knowledge that people use to understand the situations in which they find themselves.
sociobiology
the systematic study of "social behavior from a biological perspective."
self concept
the totality of our beliefs and feelings about ourselves.
nonverbal communication
the transfer of information between persons without the use of words.
significant others
those persons whose care, affection, and approval are especially desired and who are most important in the development of the self.
What are ethnomethodology and dramaturgical analysis?
Ethnomethodology is the study of the commonsense knowledge that people use to understand the situations in which they find themselves. Ethnomethodologists frequently break "rules" or act as though they do not understand some basic rule of social life so that they can observe other people's responses. According to Erving Goffman's dramaturgical analysis, our daily interactions are similar to dramatic productions. Presentation of self refers to efforts to present our own self to others in ways that are most favorable to our interests or self-image.
Which of the following terms was used by Ferdinand Tӧnnies to characterize a traditional society in which social relationships are based on personal bonds of friendship and kinship and on intergenerational stability?
Gemeinschaft
generalized other
George Herbert Mead's term for a child's awareness of the demands and expectations of the society as a whole or of a child's subculture.
People engage in civil inattention in an elevator, regardless of where the elevator is located. This illustrates that meanings shared across situations serve to regulate the form and process of interaction, but not the content. Which of the following terms refers to this pattern?
Interaction order
In the sociological sense, which of the following statements is true of a status?
It exists independently of the specific people occupying it.
Which of the following is a criticism of Weber's ideal type analysis of bureaucracies?
It largely failed to take into account the informal side of bureaucracy.
Which of the following is composed of large scale organizations that use print or electronic means (such as radio, television, film, and the Internet) to communicate with large numbers of people, to inform people about events, and to provide an array of viewpoints on current issues?
Mass Media
Which of the following terms refers to the social cohesion of preindustrial societies, in which there is minimal division of labor and people feel united by shared values and common social bonds?
Mechanical solidarity
Which of the following terms refers to the social cohesion found in industrial societies in which people perform very specialized tasks and feel united by their mutual dependence?
Organic solidarity
How do the sociology of emotions and the study of nonverbal communication add to our understanding of human behavior?
Our emotions are not always private, and specific emotions may be demanded of us on certain occasions. Feeling rules shape the appropriate emotions for a given role or specific situation. Nonverbal communication is the transfer of information between persons without the use of words. It establishes the relationship among people in terms of their responsiveness to and power over one another.
Which of the following refers to a group's ability to maintain itself in the face of obstacles?
Social solidarity
What are the stages in the life course, and why is the process of socialization important in each stage?
Socialization is ongoing throughout the life course; from childhood to adolescence to adulthood and old age. We learn knowledge and skills for future roles through anticipatory socialization. Throughout childhood, we are socialized by our parents, schools, peers, and other groups. Workplace (occupational) socialization is one of the most important types of early adult socialization.
Why is social structure important in our interaction with others?
The stable patterns of social relationships within a particular society make up its social structure. Social structure is a macrolevel influence because it shapes and determines the overall patterns in which social interaction occurs. Social structure provides an ordered framework for society and for our interactions with others. Social structure comprises statuses, roles, groups, and social institutions.
peer group
a group of people who are linked by common interests, equal social position, and (usually) similar age.
formal organization
a highly structured group formed for the purpose of completing certain tasks or achieving specific goals.
Gesellschaft
a large, urban society in which social bonds are based on impersonal and specialized relationships, with little long-term commitment to the group or consensus on values.
Mikayla is told repeatedly that she is not a very good student. Eventually, she comes to believe it, puts in little effort in class, and receives a poor grade. This scenario illustrates the concept of__________.
a self fulfilling prophecy
social devaluation
a situation in which a person or group is considered to have less social value than other persons or groups.
ascribed status
a social position conferred at birth or received involuntarily later in life, based on attributes over which the individual has little or no control, such as race/ethnicity, age, and gender.
achieved status
a social position that a person assumes voluntarily as a result of personal choice, merit, or direct effort.
Gemeinschaft
a traditional society in which social relationships are based on personal bonds of friendship and kinship and on intergenerational stability.
An organizational model characterized by a hierarchy of authority, a clear division of labor, explicit rules and procedures, and impersonality in personnel matters is called a(n) __________.
bureaucracy
According to Emile Durkheim, organic solidarity is __________.
characterized by interdependence and practical considerations
According to Erving Goffman, social interaction can be compared to a theatrical presentation in that an individual is an actor, observers are audiences, and interactions are guided by social scripts. The study of social interaction in this context is referred to as __________.
dramaturgical analysis
What are the symbolic interactionist views on the social construction of reality and the self
fulfilling prophecy?- The social construction of reality is the process by which our perception of reality is largely shaped by the subjective meaning that we give to an experience. We analyze a social context in which we find ourselves, determine what is in our best interest, and adjust our attitudes and actions accordingly. This process can result in a self-fulfilling prophecy; a false belief or prediction that produces behavior that makes the originally false belief come true.
The leader of a work group has proposed a solution to a problem. Some group members believe that the solution will lead to negative results. However, instead of discussing their concerns, they decide not to challenge the leader's authority. The result is an unwise decision. This scenario exemplifies __________.
groupthink
The process by which members of a cohesive group arrive at a decision that many individual members privately believe is unwise is termed __________.
groupthink
division of labor
how the various tasks of a society are divided up and performed.
Rishi is a member of a reading group. The group meets every Wednesday to read works of literature and analyze them. Rishi identifies with the group members and feels a sense of belonging with them. From Rishi's perspective, the reading group is an example of a(n) __________.
ingroup
mass media
large-scale organizations that use print or electronic means (such as radio, television, film, and the Internet) to communicate with large numbers of people.
In the context of sociologist Amitai Etzioni's classification of formal organizations, an organization that people join voluntarily to pursue some common interest or gain personal satisfaction or prestige from being a member is called a __________ organization.
normative
With regard to gender socialization, among African American families, children
often have "othermothers" who play an important role in their socialization.
ageism
prejudice and discrimination against people on the basis of age, particularly against older persons.
Henry, the father of a 15 year old boy, recently noticed that his choice of music is being influenced by that of his son. Henry and his son often have long discussions about pop culture and his son's preferences in music. As a result, Henry has started listening to rock music, which his son introduced to him. This is an example of __________
reciprocal socialization
Katy is a member of the literature club in her college, but she neither accepts nor follows the values and norms of the club. She, however, follows the norms and values portrayed by the members of her college sorority because she is a member. In this scenario, Katy's college sorority is most likely an example of a(n) __________.
reference group
The process by which a person mentally assumes the role of another person or group in order to understand the world from that person's or group's point of view is called __________
role taking
According to Durkheim, social solidarity in industrialized societies is sustained by __________.
shared dependence established through division of labor
In the "nature versus nurture" argument regarding socialization, the "nurture" component refers to __________
social influence
The family, religion, education, the economy, the government (politics), mass media, sports, science and medicine, and the military are examples of __________.
social institutions
industrial society
societies based on technology that mechanizes production.
horticultural society
societies based on technology that supports the cultivation of plants to provide food.
pastoral society
societies based on technology that supports the domestication of large animals to provide food.
hunting and gathering society
societies that use simple technology for hunting animals and gathering vegetation.
agrarian society
societies that use the technology of large scale farming, including animal drawn or energy powered plows and equipment, to produce their food supply.
What role do peer groups and media play in socialization now, and what role might these agents play in the future?
Peer groups contribute to our sense of belonging and self worth and are a key source of information about acceptable behavior. Peer groups simultaneously reflect the larger culture and serve as a conduit for passing on culture to young people. The media function as socializing agents by informing us about world events; introducing us to a wide variety of people; providing an array of viewpoints on current issues; making us aware of products and services that, if we purchase them, will supposedly help us to be accepted by others; and providing an opportunity to live vicariously through other people's experiences.
What is the difference between voluntary and involuntary resocialization?
Resocialization is the process of learning new attitudes, values, and behaviors, either voluntarily or involuntarily. Resocialization is voluntary when we assume a new status (such as becoming a student) of our own free will. Involuntary resocialization occurs against a person's wishes and generally takes place within a total institution, such as a jail or prison.
Which of the following occurs when people disengage from social roles that have been central to their self identity?
Role exit
How do schools socialize children in both formal and informal ways?
Schools continue to play an enormous role in the socialization of young people. Schools primarily teach knowledge and skills but also have a profound influence on the self image, beliefs, and values of children.
id
Sigmund Freud's term for the component of personality that includes all of the individual's basic biological drives and needs that demand immediate gratification.
superego
Sigmund Freud's term for the conscience, consisting of the moral and ethical aspects of personality.
ego
Sigmund Freud's term for the rational, reality-oriented component of personality that imposes restrictions on the innate pleasure-seeking drives of the id.
Which of the following terms refers to a set of organized beliefs and rules that establishes how a society will attempt to meet its basic social needs?
Social institution
What is the extent to which people would become human beings without adequate socialization?
Socialization is the lifelong process through which individuals acquire their self-identity and learn the physical, mental, and social skills needed for survival in society. The kind of person we become depends greatly on what we learn during our formative years from our surrounding social groups and social environment. Social contact is essential in developing a self, or self-concept, which represents an individual's perceptions and feelings of being a distinct or separate person. Much of what we think about ourselves is gained from our interactions with others and from what we perceive that others think of us.
According to the symbolic interactionist perspective on socialization, four components make up our self concept. Which of the following components is illustrated by the statement "I am good at soccer"?
The active self
Which of the following perspectives emphasizes that families are important for society because they are the primary source for the procreation and socialization of children?
The functionalist perspective
Which of the following concepts is based on the central idea that those who control bureaucracies not only wield power but also have an interest in retaining their power?
The iron law of oligarchy
How do functionalist and conflict theorists' perspectives differ on the roles that families play in the socialization process?
Theorists using a functionalist perspective emphasize that families serve important functions in society because they are the primary locus for the socialization of children. The family influences an emerging sense of self and the acquisition of beliefs and values. Families are also the primary source of emotional support. Ideally, people receive love, understanding, security, acceptance, intimacy, and companionship within families. On the other hand, conflict theorists stress that socialization contributes to false consciousness, a lack of awareness and a distorted perception of the reality of class as it affects all aspects of social life. As a result, socialization reaffirms and reproduces the class structure in the next generation rather than challenging the conditions that presently exist.
Which of the following statements is true of laissez faire leaders?
They are minimally involved in decision making and encourage group members to make their own decisions.
What are ways in which gender socialization and racial-ethnic socialization occur?
Through the process of gender socialization, we learn about what attitudes and behaviors are considered to be appropriate for girls and boys, men and women, in a particular society. One of the primary agents of gender socialization is the family. Racial socialization includes direct statements regarding race, modeling behavior, and indirect activities such as exposure to an environment that conveys a specific message about a racial or ethnic group.
The significant difference between childhood socialization and adult socialization is that __________
adult socialization involves greater freedom of choice than does childhood socialization
Samantha, a teenager, has a 69 year old grandmother who lives with her. Despite the fact that Samantha's grandmother is very active and flexible in her thoughts and ideas, Samantha always assumes that she is slow and rigid. As a result, Samantha refuses to go for walks with her and does not share any personal information with her because she assumes that her grandmother will not be able to understand her. This scenario exemplifies the concept of __________
ageism
