Sociology Exam 2 -- Important Terms

4 developments changing scripts

-demise of the dating system -increased acceptance of cohabitation -incorporation of divorced and older singles -the continual adaption of communication technology (internet)

chances someone who gets married today will get divorced

-impossible to know -some ways to hypothesize -looking at divorce rates among older cohorts -calculate as if the most recent year would be what happens every year -study trends in divorce and compare to who is getting married and make some educated guesses -while only an educated guess, less than 1/2 of marriages will probably end in divorce

defining ambiguity

-some stepparents legally adopt stepchildren -legal obligations that may not be accurate -cohabitation may lead to ambiguity

3 categories of adoption

1. private services -about 60,000 adoptions per year, and mostly newborns -most likely to be in touch with biological parents 2. through state or local welfare systems (foster care, etc.) -average age at adoption is 6 3. international adoptions -about 4,000 adoptions per year -peaked in 2004, but decreased due to ethical and legal concerns

unmarried parents

40% of children today are born to unmarried parents -single parenthood takes many forms such as: -young adults -- single or not yet ready to marry -older women -- single by chance or choice -divorced individuals -- have children but may not remarry

hook up culture

Lisa Wade found that the script around hookup culture often included drinking and parties -however, this does not capture range of emotions, as well as those who abstain from hookups

hooking up

a casual sexual or romantic encounter without explicit commitment or exclusivity -definition is a bit broad, but generally includes making out to intercourse

Social Scripts

a commonly understood pattern of interaction that serves as a model of behavior in familiar situations -a social guide on how to handle certain scenarios -for example, going on a date -today there is more diversity in beginning a relationship --still some scripts, but now multiple possible scripts

Love

a deep affection and concern for another, with whom one feels a strong emotional bond -modern version of love is seen as "mythical" because it involves an imaginary perfection -however, this ideal motivates people to search for their happiness

annulement of marriage

a legal or religious determination that the marriage was never valid

parent

an adult intimately responsible for the care and rearing of a child -become a parent when one has children, either biologically or by adoption

marriage, individualism, and divorce

an increased focus on individualism suggests that some individuals may marry to make themselves happy -however, this may lead to a marriage being unstable -divorce has become prominent in the relationship landscape

blended familly

any family that includes stepparents, stepsiblings, or half-siblings -estimated 15% of children live in blended families but may be an undercount

causes of divorce

as discussed in the video, divorce is most common among: -people with less education -African-Americans and American Indians -those early in their marriages -those who have been married before

older singles and single parents

as marrying later and divorce become more common, three groups currently single and looking for a relationship have become more prevalent: 1. older single who postponed marriage for education or careers 2. adults with children but who have not been married 3. divorced and separated adults

parenting styles

authoritative -- parents are demanding but responsive to children's needs and feelings authoritarian-- demanding, but not responsive -- often rigid and strict permissive -- responsive but not demanding uninvolved -- neither demanding nor responsive, often emotionally and sometimes physically absent

parenting and discipline

can vary widely and change over time -for example, spanking -decrease in those that agree spanking is necessary -45% of parents report using spanking as a form of discipline

same-sex couple parents

census bureau estimates about 200,000 children living with same-sex couple parents, but number has grown rapidly -same-sex couples are much less likely to have children than different sex couples -could partially be legal obstacles -same-sex couples increasingly pursuing adoption, foster care

Children's Living Arrangements

changes in families and marriage over the last 50 years, also affect the lives of children today -Sociologist Gerson (2010) states "While the actors did not change, the play did"

economic trends

childbearing patterns show individuals responding to economic conditions -during the recession, there was a sharp decline in birth rates for those under 30 -however, hard economic conditions do not always lead to lower birth rates -even after the recession, the birth rates continued to fall -richer societies have lower birth rates than poor ones

living without children

childless vs childfree --have tried but cannot vs personal choice --while the experience many be different, around 15% of American adults live without children -particularly apparent among women with higher education and those who are less religious -sharp drop in living without children

competition and insecurity

children are playing less and involved in more activities -parental insecurity around has grown in the last few decades -having fewer children, so investment in each child has grown -growing fears of economic uncertainty and necessity of advanced education -other fears such as crime, are prominent in parents minds -consumer culture helps fuel this

children in blended families

children today experience blended families at a higher rate -differences across racial-ethnic groups -latino couples have low divorce rates but are likely to remarry -african americans have high divorce rates but are unlikely to remarry -asian americans have low rates of divorce and the lowest likelihood of living in a blended family

intensive parenting

cultural pressure on women to devote more time, energy, and money to raising their children -term has expanded to 'intensive parenting" -with time constraints, mothers often compensate by engaging in less leisure activities and sleeping less -some may engage in "snowplow parenting" -a goal of clearing any obstacles in a child's path to success

endogamy: sex

data on same-sex marriage is not reliable -often collected at the state level and not all states ask about sex on marriage license -in 2019, census bureau estimated about 543,000 same-sex marriages in the US

diversity

different family arrangements contributes to family diversity

3 themes of living arrangements

diversity -- the once dominant household structure of children living with two married parents has shifted, including same-sex, cohabitators, and divorced parents inequality -- shifts differ across groups social change -- decline in industry and increasing economic independence for women has led to changes in family structure

inequality

divorce can widen social class inequality in family life

social change

divorce highlights the social change toward an individual orientation in family life and decision making

consequences of divorce

divorce is often not the intended outcome of marriage -therefore, it may get a reputation as bad -for those in an unhappy marriage, divorce may be a better option -there may be potential positive aspects to divorce as well

children's well-being

divorce may negatively affect children's school performance and happiness -it can also impact children's mental health and relationships with parents -however, it does not appear to affect physical health -divorce is often seen as an uncoupling process -older children may be more aware of this process -younger children may not be seriously affected until moving into a new household

divorce rates and trends

divorce rates can be incredibly challenging to measur, and changes based on how it is calculated -in 2018, an estimated 1 million divorces -crude divorce rate -- 3.1 divorces for every 1,000 people in the country refined divorce rate -- 15 divorces for every 1,000 married couples -how common is divorce among married couples specifically -divorce-marriage ratio -- 1 divorce for every 2.1 marriages that year -calculated by dividing number of new divorces in a year by number of new marriages in a year

relationship dynamics

divorce usually follows unhappiness and conflict but other key factors as well: -couples are more likely to divorce when they: -describe themselves as unhappy in their marriages -spend less time alone with each other -disagree frequently about household tasks, time together, sex, in laws other possible factors: religious disagreement -less likely if there are more children -factors that may contribute to stress such as infertility or children's health disabilities, increase likelihood of divorce

history of divorce: church and state

divorce was permitted and common in many cultures historically -however, when christianity became widespread, introduced rules against divorce -not enforced until 8th century and by the 12th century, it was nearly impossible to divorce under church doctrine

transitions

divorce, death in the family, etc. -family transitions can have long lasting effects on children and can often add stress to children's lives transitions involving romantic relationships of adults are important: -children may relationships with adults change or end -adjusting to new parenting standards -children's lives become intertwined with other children (half-siblings, etc) transitions may have an economic impact

adults happiness

divorced people are generally less happy than married people -unhappy people are more likely to get divorced -divorce increases odds of experiencing symptoms of depression or unhappiness -divorce can result in stigma -many may keep in private or remarry to remove the status

dating

emerged in early 20th century and quickly became seen as the path to marriage -however, decline in this form of dating began by the mid-1960s -today, the term dating is used in different ways: -a date, or a single event defined by a certain combination of goals shared by the participants -two people are said to be dating when they form a more stable relationship

2. protective factors

examples of protective factors that may help prevent negative effects due to divorce: -coping skills, interpersonal skills, self confidence -economic, educational, or other resrouces for families -attentive parenting, diminished conflict and continued involvement from both parents

connecting online

first online dating started with Match.com in 1995 -1 in 4 young adults report using online dating sites -has provided easy opportunities to meet someone and overcome social isolation -however, lying and misrepresentation often happen on dating sites

the matching process: cohabitation

generally, cohabitaiting couples break up more than married couples -maybe because people get married when relationship is stronger -marriage makes relationship stronger -about 70% of marriages begin with a couple living together before the wedding -contrasting opinions on how cohabitation prior to marriage may affect chance of divorce: -living together first makes more informed decisions -may also undermine sense of commitment - -often have more liberal views, including in attitudes toward divorce -the relationship clock starts prior to marriage

divorce and recession

generally, when one partner loses a job, it may cause relationship problems and they are more likely to divorce -although divorce rates were predicted to rise during the recession, they continued to fall - high cost of divorce may have kept couples together: people could not affored to consider legal fees and other logistical concerns

health and parenting

health issues can cause extra challenges while parenting -a growing number of parents are struggling with opiod addiction -can drain time and resources for childcare -children's health can pose financial, time and emotional challenges for parents -especially those with invisible disabilitites (ADHD) -parents face challenges of protecting chldren from racism to violence

socialization

help establish the difference between men and women in the minds of children and reinforce it at all ages

feminist theory

high heels do not just accentuate the hips, they make women less powerful physically which many men find attractive

symbolic interaction

high heels help women "do gender"

the meaning of childhood

historically, children have become fewer and more previous -losing economic value as laborers and achieving an emotional value -while children may be seen as priceless, childhood is often expensive -the typical family can expect to spend up to 175,000 to 370,000 raising a child up to 17

marriage rights: same-sex marriage

in 1996, an act was passed that at the federal level, same-sex marriages would not be recognized -overturned in 2013, and obergefell vs hodges (2015) legalized same-sex marriage across the US

marriage and individualism

in an individualistic society, why do people choose to get married? -kids, tax breaks curve loneliness, etc. -in one study, men happy in their marriage, described what their marriage meant to them: -lifelong commitment -success -emotional support -security

public and private dating

in the past, dating was a public matter, but often dates took place in private -today dates often take place in public, but the decisions around dating are often much more private -dating is influenced by the market arena, with couples often spending money out in public -this has lessened the family influence in dating

cohabitation

living together as a sexual or romantic couple without being married -in 2018, 8.5 million households consisted of a different sex cohabitating couple -rare at one point -over 60% of young adults report having cohabitated before 30 -not always a clearly defined status -cohabitation can have different social scripts -many occur at different ages, different circumstances, and different lengths of time -often cohabitating is a short-term relationship status -many either marry or dissolve -cohabitation is slightly more common among those with less education -40% of cohabitants live with children -some concern about the instability of cohabitation for children -not stable or consistent home structure

before marriage

living together before marriage is the most common form of cohabitation among young adults -can be a proving ground for relationship -test it out and see how it works -also can be strategic--two people paying rent, etc. -cohabitation many have long-term effects -positive--tendency to share housework more equally -negative-- couple may get married out of relationship intertia

remarriage and blended families

many people who divorce will eventually remarry -about 40% of new marriages involve at least one spouse who has been married before -creates challenge, or opportunity to rethink family lives -traditionally, the word step -- was added to famiy terms to indicate marriage, but has become more complicated with a rise in cohabitaiton

reexamining the case for marriage

marriage vs cohabitation -similar in well-being -- closely related -marriage--tend to be healthier --cohabitation--more confident -more similar than they had in the past -family surveys: national survey longitudinal data set

Childbearing

most families have between 1 and 3 children, with 2 being the most common -in 2018, 40% of births were to unmarried women -however, many are cohabitating -many adults are waiting to have children and spending more of their adult life without them

romantic relationships

mutually acknowledged, ongoing interactions featuring heightened affection and intensity -definition is not very precise, but romantic relationships often look different, with no clear fixed beginning or end -while romantic relationships do not need to be sexual, usually included anticipated sexual interaction

how parenting styles are affected by class

observations -- couple of months spent with families -interviews with parents -upper class--filled schedules, interactions with adults lower class -- more freedom in schedules

the politics of marriage

often marriage can be impacted by the state arena, including surrounding marriage growth and marriage rights -policies for marriage growth: temporary assistance for needy families (TANF) in 1996 -aimed to encourage marriage among poor families -experts worried about people staying in unhealthy relationships and was overall not effective

endogamy

one major example of endogamy in the US is race and ethnicity, however various forms or endogamy exist -even in places and scenarios with higher racial diversity, it is not uncommon to still see some racial-ethnic endogamy -for example, college students at universities -a study of stanford students still showed a larger proportion of racial-ethnic endogamy among individuals most recent date than if it was randomized

adoptive parents

parents to a child they did not produce biologically

education

patterns show that women with lower levels of education have more children on average -could partially due to women postponing childbearing until finishing school or stopping school once becoming pregnant -once they have education, risk giving up jobs (opportunity costs) -lack of access to quality medical care may lead to greater unintended pregnancies

age

people who are older when they marry are less likely to divorce -may be because those who are older are often more emotionally mature, financially secure, and better educated

3. post divorce outcomes

post-divorce outcomes can also affect a child's experience with divorce such as: -short term emotioanl or behavioral reactions or school problems -permanent emotional changes -new roles and identities in families

fatherhood

pronounced shift in cultural views of what makes a "good father" -shifting attitudes -fathers have increased daily time spent in development activities -mothers still do more childcare, but much less one-sided than in the past -almost 1/2 of fathers reported feeling they did not spend enough time with their children

social change and blended families

remarried adults often preserve individual autonomy -children who grew up in blended families also tend to be more individualistic -blended families may also face conflict due to overlapping family boundaries -stepparents may attempt to integrate parenting strategies that differ from biological parents -managing money and relationships -intergenerational support

health and wealth

researchers believe marriage benefits stem from 3 sources: behavioral changes or responsibility, cooperation, and social status 1. responsibility -- individuals see marriage as a sign of responsibility, behave more cautiously, and are less likely to die from a variety of causes 2. cooperation -- families can save money and effort by sharing assets and abilities 3. social status -- the social status of marriage can have economic and personal benefits -married men often receive higher wages - however, opposite effect for women -those who are not married may experience stigma

the divorce revolution

rise in divorce from 1960-1980 has been referred to as the "divorce revolution" -often associated with liberalization of family law which allowed for no-fault divorces -legal divorce without accusation of wrongdoing, infidelity, abuse, or desertion -divorce being common affected individuals decisions on: -whether or not to get married -who to marry -whether or not to have children

Abortion

roughly 900,000 abortions were performed in the US in 2017 -92% took place in the first trimester -reasons range from medical reasons to time and resource constraints -abortion has been a divisive issue in the US -Roe vs Wade (1973) protected women's rights, but was overturned this past summer with Dobbs vs Jackson -political campaigns may have led to to the downward trends we see in abortion

same-sex relationships

same sex marriage has been legalized and acceptance of same-sex couples have generally increased -however, those that identify as gay or lesbian still experience stigma and discrimination -this discrimination can take a toll on psychological and physical health -social scripts followed by same-sex couples may not be as well-established or modified

instead of marriage

smaller group choose to cohabitate instead of marry -some are resistant to marriage -some couples may face obstacles that prevent marriage -some may see cohabitation as a compromise -overall, sociologists know less about this group -for people who have been divorced or widowed, cohabitation often becomes another path -increasingly common in older adults -often see cohabitation as alternative to marriage -additionally, may allow older individuals to protect their own assets

dating among students

socializing among mixed-gendered provides setting for meeting people -a study at stanford showed over 90% of students report going on at least one date -research has shown that men are more likely to have a sexual goal, while women are more likely to want a developing romantic relationship -shifting gender composition in higher ed

gender

sociological research on attraction has been primarily focused on women, including differentiation of men and women -one example of this is high heeled shoes -alter women's posture and accentuate movement of hips and abdomen, but can cause damage to women's feet and bodies generally

potential factors affecting divorce

sociologists Paul Armato divided potential factors that affect children's experience of divorce: 1. stressful aspects of the divorce process 2. protective factors to help prevent negative affects 3. post-divorce outcomes

benefits of marriage: happiness

sociologists often look at happiness with relationship and happiness overall -in 1970, over 60% report that their marriages are "very happy" -generally, men are more likely to report that they are happier than women on average, married individuals are more likely to be happy than unmarried counterparts -supportive relationships and companionship may increase average happiness for married people -however, happier people may make better marriage partners

transition to multigenerational households

some may experience transitions to households with extended family members -may be due to economic challenges -a growing number of children are experiencing living with grandparents

for the children's sake

some parents may try to prevent or delay divorce for the children's sake -spare children from the disruption, economic loss, and possibly shame -other parents want a divorce for the children's sake -keeps children from constant bickering and potentially limits contact from irresponsible or abusive spouse -divorce is more common today then it was a year ago -affecting children's lives and the institution of family more broadly

parenting

the activity of raising a child -parents try to provide 3 broad categories of skills or resources to their children: 1. socialization -- socialization prepares children for what they will encounter in social interactions 2. social bonds -- stable bonds are a foundation of learning and development 3. social networks -- parents facilitate web of friends, neighbors, mentors, and teachers that shape social environments of their children

biological parents

the adults whose bodies - including the father's sperm and the mother's egg - produce a child

halfsibling

the biological child of one's parent and another person

stepchild

the child of one's spouse or committed partner

stepsibling

the child of one's stepparent

marital dissolution

the end of a marriage through permanent separation or divorce

infertility

the failure of a couple to have a successful pregnancy despite deliberately having sex without contraception -often, this is within a time frame of 12 months -potential causes can include old age, overall health, smoking, and history of STIs -however, infertility patterns are consistent with other patterns of inequality as well -Black women are the most likely to experience infertility -women with lowest levels of education have highest rates of infertility -historically, infertility has been stigmatized and often casted shame on the wife -but today we know male and female medical conditions are equally likely to cause infertility -medical advancements have made infertility a more treatable condition -however, can be long, expensive, and physically taxing process

male provider ideal

the father as an economic provider and authority figure for his children

involved father ideal

the father as an emotional, nurturing companion who bonds with his children as well as providing for them -nearly accepted universally and many embrace this new ideal

separation

the formal or informal separation of married spouses into different households

divorce

the legal dissolution of marriage according to the laws of the state

fertilitiy

the number of children born in a society or among a particular group

total fertility rate

the number of children born to the average woman in her lifetime -total fertility rate can be useful for thinking about population overall -depends on factors such as death rates, but 2.1 tends to be replacement fertility

romantic love

the passionate devotion and attraction one person feels for another

utilitarian love

the practical, rational dedication of one person to another based on shared understanding and emotional commitment -exists side by side with romantic love -pros and cons of different relationships, what they want in a partner -the word "communication" often appears when discussing utilitarian love

homophily

the principle by which similar people have more of a given contract than dissimilar people -not only a term used for romantic relationships, but also friends, coworkers, etc. -when people select mates similar to them, it may not just be personal preference, but also practical limitations of who we come in contact with

selection effect

the problem that occurs when the cause being studied has already been determined by the outcome that is under investigation -may apply to happiness, but also health and wealth -what is causing what to happen -longitudinal studies can help with this -when we study marriage, we need to be careful to understand the causal direction

mate selection

the process by which people choose each other for sexual or romantic relationships -mate selection can impact families and society at large, including issues such as inequality, inclusion/exclusion, and family dynamics

boundary ambiguity

the situation in which family members do not know or do not agree on who is in the family and what role each person plays -can become complicated with more people and fluid living arrangment

marriage market

the social space in which people search for potential marriage partners

stepparent

the spouse or committed partner of one's biological or adoptive parent

endogamy and online dating

there has not been much research on how online dating many affect endogamy -online dating could promote greater exogamy, matching based on interests or reducing geographical constraints -however, early research shows that racial-ethnic boundaries remain an issue in online dating

1. Stressful aspects

these aspects may increase stress for children in a divorce -less parental time and energy -loss of contact with one parent -witnessing conflict -residential moves, school transitions, and economic hardships

families and children

to "start a family" -attempting to have children -different ways that people have children -donor/sperm donor -adoption -biologically -IVF

race and ethnicity

total fertility rate differ across major racial and ethnic groups -in particular, fertility rates are highest among latino individuals -partially due to descendants of immigrants who many come from countries where fertility is higher -catholic

adoption

used to be secretive, however has become more open and acceptable -less common due to decreasing stigma, availability of birth control, and fertility treatments -today, most adopted children know they live in an adoptive family and many adoptions induce an agreement to put children in touch with their biological family

evolution, social interaction and attraction

while evolutionary aspects may operate in the background (survival of the fittest), it does not always explain attraction preferences -for example, those that are stereotypically attractive are not necessarily more healthy than those who are not and at times can even be less healthy -what is considered attractive varies across time and place -when it comes to creating and maintaining families today, utilitarian aspects tend to be more important

remarriage

while the US has a high divorce rate, also has a high remarriage rate -the group with the most remarriages is people ages 55-64 -divorce stigma does not appear to hurt chances of remarriage -often those who are divorced on the marriage market, end up marrying each other -remarriage after divorce is mroe common than remarriage after widowhood

good parenting

while there is lots of advice out there for parents, sociologists have found parents affect children's success in 3 major dimensions: 1. supportiveness -- spending time with children, being accessible 2. monitoring -- creates an environment for healthy development 3. discipline -- consistent and proportional discipline can help develop a sense of security in children -corporal punishments many have negative consequences

economic status

women many have lower incomes, as well as often live with children after divorce -often courts may require fathers to pay child support -impacts the feminization of poverty, or the tendency of women to live in poverty compared to men -work experience education, and having fewer children has mades losses better than they had in the past -still, women are more than twice as likely as men to be below the poverty line in a year after divorce

Employment and Independence

women's increasing financial independence in the 1970 and 1980s may have had some effect on divorce in two ways: 1. the independence effect -- if indidviduals have the economic means to survive on their own, more likely to leave unhappy marriages 2. the income effect -- couples with higher education and who earn more are less likely to divorce -provides sense of stability and reduce stress