Sociology final

the presence and engaged coexistence of numerous distinct groups in one society

pluralism

Which group believed that different races were distinct species?

polygenists

the estimated minimum level of income needed to secure the necessities of life

poverty line

the belief that members of separate races possess . different and unequal traits

racism

one who rejects both socially acceptable means and goals by completely retreating from, or not participating in, society

retreatist

The point at which a household's income falls below the necessary level to purchase food to physically sustain its members.

Absolute poverty

a sense of aimlessness or despair that arises when we can no longer reasonably expect life to be predictable; too little social regulation; normlessness

anomie

Talcott Parsons's theory that men and women perform their sex roles as breadwinners and wives / mothers , respectively , because the nuclear family is the ideal arrangement in modern societies , fulfilling the function of reproducing workers

sex role theory .

an organized effort to change a power hierarchy on the part of a less - powerful group in a society

collective resistance

the view that racial inequality is perpetuated by a supposedly color - blind stance that ends up reinforcing historical and contemporary inequities , disparate impact , and institutional bias by " ignoring " them in favor of a technically neutral approach .

color - blind racism .

According to Robert Merton, which of the following describes a person who accepts both the goals defined by society and the means to achieve them?

conformist

individual who accepts both the goals and the strategies that are considered socially acceptable to achieve those goals

conformist

the idea that people can occupy locations in the class structure that fall between the two " pure " classes a system

contradictory class locations

a particular type of white-collar crime committed by the officers (CEOs and other executives) of a corporation

corporate crime

Violation of laws enacted by society is also known as

crime

occurs when a person's sex or gender is the basis for judgment , discrimination , or other differential treatment against that person

sexism

A stratification system with a governing elite—that is, the few leaders who broadly hold the power in a society—is called a(n) ________ system.

elite-mass dichotomy

the idea that everyone should have an equal starting point

equality of condition

A capitalist society with a continuing history of inequality in wealth, income, and power can still have

equality of opportunity

the idea that everyone has an equal chance to achieve wealth , social prestige , and power because the rules of the game , so to speak , are the same for everyone

equality of opportunity

the idea that each player must end up with the same amount regardless of the fairness of the " game . "

equality of outcome

arguments explaining social phenomena in terms of natural , biological , or evolutionary inevitabilities .

essentialist

a politically based system of stratification characterized by limited social mobility

estate system

one's ethnic quality or affiliation . It is voluntary , self defined , nonhierarchal , fluid and multiple , and based . on cultural differences , not physical ones per se .

ethnicity

the belief that one's own culture or group is superior to others , and the tendency to view all other cultures from the perspective of one's own

ethnocentrism

literally meaning " well born ; " a pseudoscience that postulates that controlling the fertility of populations could influence inheritable traits passed on from generation to generation .

eugenics

mobility resulting from the swapping of jobs

exchange mobility

suicide that occurs as a result of too much social regulation

fatalistic suicide

a social movement to get people to understand that gender is an organizing principle in society and to address gender - based inequalities that intersect with other forms of social identity

feminism

A crime such as burglary is also known as which type of deviance?

formal

mechanisms of social control by which rules or laws prohibit deviant criminal behavior

formal social sanctions

the notion that when more than one person is responsible for getting something done , the incentive is for each individual to shirk responsibility and hope others will pull the extra weight

free rider problem

America's first naturalization law, passed in 1790, granted citizenship to

free white persons

a social position , behaviors , and set of attributes that are associated with sex identities

gender

the mass killing of a group of people based on racial , ethnic , or religious traits

genocide

Thomas Malthus believed that the human population grows ________, but the ability to produce food increases ________.

geometrically; arithmetically

an invisible limit on women's climb up the occupational ladder

glass ceiling

When token men enter feminized jobs, they enjoy a quicker rise to leadership positions. This is referred to as the

glass escalator

the accelerated promotion of men to the top of a work organization , especially in feminized jobs

glass escalator

the condition in which men are dominant and privileged , and this dominance and privilege is . invisible

hegemonic masculinity

the idea that heterosexuality is the default or normal sexual orientation from which other sexualities deviate

heteronormativity

the social identity of a person who has sexual attraction to and / or relations with people of the same sex

homosexual

money received by a person for work or from returns on investments

income

Identify the listed action that would reduce crime, according to differential opportunity theory.

increased returns on legitimate work

the usually unexpressed but widely known rules of group membership; the unspoken rules of social life

informal social sanctions

social deviant who accepts socially acceptable goals but rejects socially acceptable means to achieve them

innovator

institutions and social dynamics that may seem race neutral but actually disadvantage minority groups .

institutional racism

Which group believed that humans were one species, united under God?

monogenists

Clifford Geertz's term to explain the strength of ethnic ties because they are fixed and deeply felt or primordial ties to one's homeland culture

primordialism

Jean-Jacques Rousseau believed that the source of all social ills was

private property

the working class

proletariat

a group of people who share a set of characteristics typically , but not always , physical ones - and are said . to share a common bloodline

race

the formation of a new racial identity by drawing ideological boundaries of difference around a formerly unnoticed group of people

racialization

individual who rejects both traditional goals and traditional means and wants to alter or destroy the social institutions from which he or she is alienated

rebel

when an individual who has been involved with the criminal justice system reverts to criminal behavior

recidivism

A measurement of poverty based on a percentage of the median income in a given location

relative poverty

individual who rejects socially defined goals but not the means.

ritualist

nineteenth - century theories of race that characterize a period of feverish investigation into the origins , explanations , and classifications of race

scientific racism

subsequent acts of rule breaking that occur after primary deviance and as a result of your new deviant label and people's expectations of you

secondary deviance

An example of horizontal social mobility is a(n)

secretary changing firms but retaining his or her occupational status.

The 1896 Supreme Court decision Plessy v. Ferguson upheld

segregation

the legal or social practice of separating people on the basis of their race or ethnicity

segregation

the perceived biological differences that distinguish males from females

sex

Reward structures that lead to suboptimal outcomes by stimulating counterproductive behavior

Perverse incentives

a term for the economic elite

upper class .

a family's or individual's net worth ( i.e. , total assets minus total debts ) .

wealth

offense committed by a professional (or professionals) against a corporation, agency, or other institution

white collar crime

Picking your nose in public is an example of which type of deviance?

informal

social cohesion based on sameness

Mechanical or segmental solidarity

neither masculine nor feminine

androgynous

the capitalist class

bourgeoisie

Most Arabs in the United States are not Muslim, and about 25 percent of U.S. Arabs are

Christians

The argument that poor people adopt certain practices that differ from those of middle-class, "mainstream" society in order to adapt and survive in difficult economic circumstances.

Culture of poverty

a circular building composed of an inner ring and an outer ring designed to serve as a prison in which the guards, housed in the inner ring, can observe the prisoners without the detainees knowing whether they are being watched

Panopticon

Thinkers of the Scottish Enlightenment, such as Adam Ferguson and John Miller, believed that private property was a beneficial institution. What was their reasoning?

People are more productive when they are able to keep what they produce.

What group sells its labor to the bourgeoisie to receive wages?

Proletariat

In labeling theory, what is the difference between primary and secondary deviance?

Secondary deviance is an eventual effect of primary deviance, where deviance begins.

The Supreme Court's landmark 1954 decision in Brown v. Board of Education struck down what doctrine?

Separate but equal

Identify the role of social media in the #BlackLivesMatter movement.

Social media brings attention to police violence.

In one study of television portrayals of Arabs, researchers found basic myths that continue to surround this group, such as

They are uncivilized and barbaric.

Which of the following would be considered a positive trait or characteristic for a man within today's hegemonic masculinity?

a love of sports

Which of the following is an example of the ideology of equality of condition put into practice?

affirmative action

suicide that occurs when one experiences too much social integration

altruistic suicide

suicide that occurs as a result of insufficient social regulation

anomic suicide

an individual who is sexually attracted to both genders / sexes

bisexual

The one-drop rule asserts that just "one drop" of black blood makes a person

black

The modern capitalist society is an example of which type of society?

bourgeois

a society of commerce ( modern capitalist society , for example ) in which the maximization of profit is the primary business incentive

bourgeois society

theory explaining how social context and social cues impact whether individuals act deviantly; specifically, whether local, informal social norms allow deviant acts.

broken windows theory of deviance

How does the NCAA determine the sex of athletes?

by hormone levels

a religion-based system of stratification characterized by no social mobility

caste system

describes people whose gender corresponds to their birth sex

cisgender

an economically based hierarchical system characterized by cohesive , oppositional groups and somewhat loose social mobility

class system

philosophy of criminal justice arising from the notion that crime results from a rational calculation of its costs and benefits

deterrence theory

a two-directional relationship following a pattern in which an original statement or thesis is countered with an antithesis, leading to a conclusion that unites the strengths of the original position and the counterarguments

dialectic

a notion of history that privileges conflict over economic , material resources as the central struggle and driver of change in society

dialectic materialism

harmful or negative acts ( not mere thoughts ) against people deemed inferior on the basis of their racial category , without regard to their individual merit .

discrimination

Prejudice is to discrimination as thinking is to

doing

Hegel felt that the relationship between slave and master was dialectic. This meant that

each was dependent on the other

C. Wright Mills argues that there are three major institutions in the United States today that have the power to make decisions for the masses. What are they?

economy, politics, and the military

suicide that occurs when one is not well integrated into a social group

egoistic suicide

What were the types of suicide described by Emile Durkheim?

egoistic, altruistic, anomic, fatalistic

the idea it is critical to understand the interplay between social identities such as race , class , gender , ability status , and sexual orientation , even though many social systems and institutions ( such as the law ) try to treat each category on its own

intersectionality

Although sexual harassment in the workplace can vary from jokes to sexual barter to sexual assault, a key reason sexual harassment contributes to gender inequality is that

it is intended to make people feel uncomfortable and unwelcome.

the belief that individuals subconsciously notice how others see or label them, and their reactions to those labels over time form the basis of their self-identity

labeling theory

intersecting domains of oppression that create a social space of domination and , by extension , a unique position within that space based on someone's intersectional identity along the multiple dimensions of gender , age , race , class , sexuality , location , and so on

matrix of domination

Which of Emile Durkheim's types of social solidarity characterized premodern life?

mechanical

a society where status and mobility are based on individual attributes ability , and achievement

meritocracy

a term commonly used to describe those individuals with nonmanual jobs that pay significantly more than the poverty line - though this is a highly debated and expansive category , particularly in the United States , where broad swaths of the population consider themselves middle class

middle class

the technical term for interracial marriage ; literally meaning " a mixing of kinds " ; it is politically and historically charged - sociologists generally prefer exogamy or outmarriage

miscegenation

the movement to protect and preserve indigenous land or culture from the allegedly dangerous and polluting effects of new immigrants

nativism

Social deviance is a breach of ________; crime is a breach of ________.

norms; law

Barack Obama is widely understood to be the first African American elected as President of the United States, even though he has a white mother. This demonstrates the concept of ________ in the United States.

one drop rule

the belief that " one drop " of black blood makes a person black , a concept that evolved from US laws forbidding miscegenation

one-drop rule

the philosophical and religious notion that all people are created equal

ontological equality

Which of Emile Durkheim's types of social solidarity characterizes modern life?

organic

social cohesion based on difference and interdependence of the parts

organic solidarity

A paradigm in which low income, unstable employment, a lack of cultural resources, and a feeling of inferiority from social class comparisons exacerbate household stress levels; this stress, in turn, leads to detrimental parenting practices such as yelling and hitting, which are not conducive to healthy child development

parenting stress hypothesis

a nearly universal system involving the subordination of femininity to masculinity

patriarchy

thoughts and feelings about an ethnic or racial group , which lead to preconceived notions and judgments ( often negative ) about the group

prejudice

the first act of rule breaking that may incur a label of "deviant" and thus influence how people think about and act toward you

primary deviance

an illegal form of discrimination revolving around sexuality that can involve everything from inappropriate jokes to sexual " barter " ( where victims feel the need to comply with sexual requests for fear of losing their job ) to outright sexual assault

sexual harassment

desire , sexual preference , and sexual identity and behavior

sexuality

While the notion of sex has typically referred to biological characteristics, the concept of gender refers to ________ characteristics.

social

the application of Darwinian ideas to society - namely , the evolutionary " survival of the fittest . "

social Darwinism

an individual's position in a stratified social order .

social class or socioeconomic status

social bonds; how well people relate to each other and get along on a day-to-day basis

social cohesion

mechanisms that create normative compliance in individuals

social control

any transgression of socially established norms

social deviance

a condition in which no differences in wealth, power, prestige, or status based on nonnatural conventions exist.

social equality

how well you are integrated into your social group or community

social integration

the movement between different positions within a system of social stratification in any given society .

social mobility

the number of rules guiding your daily life and, more specifically, what you can reasonably expect from the world on a day-to-day basis

social regulation

approach that ranks individuals by socioeconomic status , including income and educational attainment , and seeks to specify the attributes characteristic of people who end up in more desirable occupations .

status attainment model

a system of stratification based on social prestige .

status hierarchy system 0

a negative social label that not only changes others' behavior toward a person but also alters that person's own self-concept and social identity

stigma

Robert Parks's 1920s universal and linear model for how immigrants assimilate : they first arrive , then settle in , and achieve full assimilation in a newly homogenous country

straight - line assimilation

Robert Merton's theory that deviance occurs when a society does not give all of its members equal ability to achieve socially acceptable goals

strain theory

When groups are arranged hierarchically with different levels of power, social prestige, status, or economic resources, this is called

stratification

When sociologists study how race and ethnicity affect income, they are studying

stratification

the hierarchical organization of a society into groups with differing levels of power, social prestige, or status and economic resources

stratification

Illegal drug dealing is an example of which of the following types of crime, as defined by sociologists?

street crime

crime committed in public and often associated with violence, gangs, and poverty

street crime

a theory in which society's many parts , institutions , norms , traditions , and so on ; mesh to produce stable , working whole that evolved over time . Best embodied by Talcott Parsons .

structural functionalism

a theory in which society's many parts institutions , norms , traditions , and so on , mesh to produce a stable working whole that evolved over time . Best embodied by Talcott Parsons

structural functionalism

mobility that is inevitable from changes in the economy

structural mobility

a subordinate , oppressed group of people

subaltern

Elizabeth Warren, a U.S. senator, claimed Native American heritage, a claim that was challenged by her political opponents. Race scholars note white people, like Warren, can choose to identify or not identify with certain ethnic groups. This example demonstrates the concept of

symbolic ethnicity

Steve is a white American whose family has lived in the United States for 200 years. During the Olympics, Steve cheers for Britain in swimming, because, he says, "I'm British!" During soccer, he cheers for Sweden, saying, "I have some Swedish in me, too!" Steve is displaying

symbolic ethnicity

a nationality , not in the sense of carrying the rights and duties of citizenship but of identifying with a past or future nationality . For later generations of white ethnics , something not constraining but easily expressed , with no risks of stigma and all the pleasures of feeling like an individual

symbolic ethnicity

Parsons's sex role theory sees a gendered division of labor as functional for a stable society. In framing gender expectations in this way, Parsons and other structural functionalists

tend to justify the existing order of gender practices in social institutions.

In our society, many people take for granted that sex has only two categories and tend to ignore facts that suggest sex itself is socially constructed. Which of the following is an outcome of this sexual dichotomization?

the exclusion of those who don't fit neatly into one category or the other

Labeling theory focuses on

the social process through which people become deviants.

Gayle Rubin argues that there is a sex/gender system. This system is characterized by

the transformation of biological sex into asymmetric gender statuses.

an institution in which one is totally immersed and that controls all the basics of day-to-day life; no barriers exist between the usual spheres of daily life, and all activity occurs in the same place and under the same single authority

total institution

describes people whose gender does not correspond to their birth sex

transgender

The notion, building on the culture of poverty argument, that the poor not only are different from mainstream society in their inability to take advantage of what society has to offer but also are increasingly deviant and even dangerous to the rest of us

underclass